![Acharya KundaKunda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Acharya_KundaKunda.jpg)
''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major
schools of Jainism, the other being ''
Śvētāmbara
The Śvētāmbara (; ''śvētapaṭa''; also spelled ''Shwethambara'', ''Svetambar'', ''Shvetambara'' or ''Swetambar'') is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the ''Digambara''. Śvētāmbara means "white-clad", and refers ...
'' (white-clad). The
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes.
Digambara and Śvētāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and the texts they consider as important.
Digambara monk
Digambara Sādhu (also ''muni'', ''sādhu'') is a Sādhu in the Digambar tradition of Jainism, and as such an occupant of the highest limb of the four-fold ''sangha''. They are also called ''Nirgranth'' which means "one without any bonds". Di ...
s cherish the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material goods. Monks carry a community-owned ''picchi'', which is a broom made of fallen
peacock
Peafowl is a common name for three bird species in the genera ''Pavo (genus), Pavo'' and ''Afropavo'' within the tribe Pavonini of the family Phasianidae, the pheasants and their allies. Male peafowl are referred to as peacocks, and female pea ...
feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before they sit.
The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving sacred text being the mid-second century ''
Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama
The (Sanskrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the foremost and oldest Digambara Jain sacred text.
According to Digambara tradition, the original canonical scriptures of the Jains were totally lost within a few centuries of ''Nirvana'' of Ma ...
'' "Scripture in Six Parts" of
Dharasena
''Acharya'' Dharasena was a ''Digambara monk'' of first century CE.
Biography
''Āchārya'' Dharasena, in first century CE, guided two ''Āchāryas'', ''Āchārya'' Pushpadant and ''Āchārya'' Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in t ...
(the
Moodabidri
Moodabidri ( kn, ಮೂಡುಬಿದಿರೆ ''Mūḍubidire''; also called Mudbidri, Moodbidre and Bedra), is a town and taluk in Dakshina Kannada district. It lies 34 km northeast of the district headquarters, Mangalore, in Karna ...
manuscripts). One of the most important scholar-monks of the Digambara tradition was
Kundakunda.
Digambara Jain communities are currently found mainly in most parts of North India in states like
Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
,
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
,
Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
,
Bihar
Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Be ...
,
Jharkhand
Jharkhand (; ; ) is a state in eastern India. The state shares its border with the states of West Bengal to the east, Chhattisgarh to the west, Uttar Pradesh to the northwest, Bihar to the north and Odisha to the south. It has an area of . It ...
,
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
, parts of south
Maharashtra
Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a states and union territories of India, state in the western India, western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the List of states and union te ...
and
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
.
According to
Jeffery D. Long
Jeffery D. Long (born 1969) is a religious studies scholar who works on the religions and philosophies of India, particularly Hinduism and Jainism. He is a professor of religion and Asian studies at Elizabethtown College.
Education and caree ...
, a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, less than one fifth of all Jains in India have a Digambara heritage.
Nomenclature
According to
Heinrich Zimmer
Heinrich Robert Zimmer (6 December 1890 – 20 March 1943) was a German Indologist and linguist, as well as a historian of South Asian art, most known for his works, ''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization'' and ''Philosophies of India ...
, the word ''Digambara'' is a combination of two
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
words: ''dik'' (दिक्) (space, sky) and ''ambara'' (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space.
Origin in traditional accounts
The Digambaras and Svetambaras disagree on how the Digambara subtradition started in Jainism. According to Digambaras, they are the original followers of Mahavira and Svetambaras branched off later in the time of Bhadrabahu when their forecasted twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India. One group of Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan, while the second group headed south towards Karnataka. The former became Svetambaras and retained their "heretic" beliefs and practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say the Digambaras. In contrast, according to Svetambaras, they are the original followers, and Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (about 1st century CE) because of an arrogant man named Sivabhuti who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home. He is accused of starting the Digambara Jain tradition with what Svetambara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by the Svetambara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes. Neither of these explanations can be found in early Jain or non-Jain texts. The earliest version of this Digambara story appears in the 10th century CE, while the earliest version of the Svetambara story appears in the 5th century CE.
History
In 1943,
Heinrich Zimmer
Heinrich Robert Zimmer (6 December 1890 – 20 March 1943) was a German Indologist and linguist, as well as a historian of South Asian art, most known for his works, ''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization'' and ''Philosophies of India ...
proposed that the Greek records of 4th-century BCE mention
gymnosophists
Gymnosophists ( grc, γυμνοσοφισταί, ''gymnosophistaí'', i.e. "naked philosophers" or "naked wise men" (from Greek γυμνός ''gymnós'' "naked" and σοφία ''sophía'' "wisdom")) is the name given by the Greeks to certain anc ...
(naked philosophers) which may have links to the tradition of "nude ascetics" claimed by the ''Digambaras''. In 2011,
Patrick Olivelle
Patrick Olivelle is an Indologist. A philologist and scholar of Sanskrit Literature whose work has focused on asceticism, renunciation and the dharma, Olivelle has been Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions in the Department of Asian Studi ...
stated that the context in which the Greek records mention gymnosophists include ritual suicide by cremation traceable to ancient
Brahmanism
The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
, rather than the traditional Jain ritual of embracing death by starvation and taking samadhi by voluntarily sacrificing everything including food and water (''sallekhana''). Dundas talks about the archeological evidences which indicate that Jain monks moved from the practice of total nudity towards wearing clothes in later period. Tirthankara statues found in Mathura and dated to 2nd-century CE or after are naked. The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated in 5th century CE. ''Digamabara'' statues of tirthankara belonging to Gupta period has half-closed eyes.
In 17th-century, ''adhyatma'' movement in
Agra
Agra (, ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, about south-east of the national capital New Delhi and 330 km west of the state capital Lucknow. With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra is ...
led to rise of ''terapanthi'' and ''bisapanthi'' sub-sects based on the differences over acceptance of authority of ''
bhattaraka
A Bhaṭṭāraka ( pka, भट्टारक "holy one") heads traditional Digambara Jain institutions. He is responsible for training scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing endowments, presiding over installation ceremonies and running ...
s''. King
Jai Singh II
Jai Singh II (3 November 1681 – 21 September 1743) popularly known as Sawai Jai Singh was the 29th Kachwaha Rajput ruler of the Kingdom of Amber, who later founded the fortified city of Jaipur and made it his capital. He was born at Amber, th ...
(1688-1743) of
Amer kingdom
Jaipur State was a princely state in India during East India Company rule and thereafter under the British Raj. It signed a treaty creating a subsidiary alliance with the Company in 1818, after the Third Anglo-Maratha War. It acceded ...
built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital of
Jaipur
Jaipur (; Hindi Language, Hindi: ''Jayapura''), formerly Jeypore, is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and largest city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Rajasthan. , the city had a pop ...
. ''Terapanthis'', led by scholars like
Pandit Todarmal
Pandit Todarmal (1719–1766) was an eminent Indian Jain scholar and writer.History of the Jaipur City By Ashim Kumar Roy He led the creation of ''terapanthi'' community among the ''Digambara'' Jains by rejecting the authority of ''bhattaraka
...
and
Banarasidas
Banarasidas (15861643) was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. He is known for his poetic autobiography - ''Ardhakathānaka'', (The Half Story), composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around M ...
, rejected the authority of ''bhattarakas''.
Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.
Lineage
![Djtradition marhiaji](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Djtradition_marhiaji.jpg)
According to ''Digambara'' texts, after liberation of
Mahavira
Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6t ...
, three ''Anubaddha Kevalīs'' attained ''
Kevalajñāna'' (omniscience) sequentially –
Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
''
Gaņadhara'', ''Acharya''
Sudharma
''Sudharma'' ( sa, सुधर्मा) is the daily newspaper printed in Sanskrit in India. The paper is published from the city of Mysore in the Indian state of Karnataka. Established in 1970, the paper is mainly distributed via mail, a met ...
Swami, and
Jambusvami in next 62 years. During the next hundred years, five ''Āchāryas'' had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called ''Śruta Kevalīs'', the last of them being ''Āchārya'' Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders is known as ''
Pattavali
A Pattavali (From Sanskrit patta: seat, avali: chain), Sthaviravali or Theravali, is a record of a spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders. They are thus spiritual genealogies. It is generally presumed that two successive names are teach ...
''. Digambara tradition consider
Dharasena
''Acharya'' Dharasena was a ''Digambara monk'' of first century CE.
Biography
''Āchārya'' Dharasena, in first century CE, guided two ''Āchāryas'', ''Āchārya'' Pushpadant and ''Āchārya'' Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in t ...
to be the 33rd teacher in succession of Gautama, 683 years after the ''
nirvana
( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lampRichard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.' ...
'' of Mahavira.
In the Digambara tradition, the following lineage of teachers are revered:
Mahavira
Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6t ...
,
Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
,
Kundakunda,
Bhadrabahu
Ācārya Bhadrabāhu (c. 367 - c. 298 BC) was, according to the ''Digambara'' sect of Jainism, the last '' Shruta Kevalin'' (all knowing by hearsay, that is indirectly) in Jainism . He was the last ''acharya'' of the undivided Jain ''sangha''. ...
,
Umaswami
Umaswati, also spelled as Umasvati and known as Umaswami, was an Indian scholar, possibly between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE, known for his foundational writings on Jainism. He authored the Jain text ''Tattvartha Sutra'' (literally '"All Tha ...
,
Samantabhadra Samantabhadra (Lit. "All Good", or "Always Auspicious") may refer to:
* Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva), a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with practice and meditation
* ''Samantabhadra'' (Tibetan: ''Kuntu Zangpo''), the name of a Buddha, ...
,
Siddhasena Divakara
Siddhasēna Divākara ( pka, सिद्धसेन दिवाकर) was a ''jain monk'' in the fifth century CE who wrote works on Jain philosophy and epistemology. He was like the illuminator of the Jain order and therefore came to be kno ...
,
Pujyapada
Acharya Pujyapada or Pūjyapāda (464–524 CE) was a renowned grammarian and ''acharya'' (philosopher monk) belonging to the Digambara tradition of Jains. It was believed that he was worshiped by demigods on the account of his vast scholarship ...
,
Manatunga
Acharya Manatunga (c. seventh century CE) was the composer of famous Jain prayer, ''Bhaktamara Stotra''. ''Acharya Manatunga'' is said to have composed the ''Bhaktamara Stotra'' when he was ordered to be kept in prison for not obeying the order ...
,
Virasena
Acharya Virasena (792-853 CE), also known as Veerasena, was a Digambara monk and belonged to the lineage of Acharya Kundakunda. He was an Indian mathematician and Jain philosopher and scholar. He was also known as a famous orator and an accomp ...
,
Jinasena
Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.[Nemichandra
Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravarty (fl. 10th century) was the author of ''Dravyasamgraha'', '' Gommatsāra'' (''Jivakanda'' and ''Karmakanda''), ''Trilokasara'', ''Labdhisara'' and ''Kshapanasara''. He was among the most distinguished of the Jai ...]
. Kundakunda is considered the most significant scholar monk of the Digambara tradition of Jainism. He authored
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
texts such as the ''
Samayasāra
''Samayasāra'' (''The Nature of the Self'') is a famous Jain text composed by ''Acharya Kundakunda'' in 439 verses. Its ten chapters discuss the nature of '' Jīva'' (pure self/soul), its attachment to Karma and Moksha (liberation). ''Samaya ...
'' and the ''
Pravacanasāra''. Other prominent ''
Acharya
In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' (Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a tit ...
s'' of this tradition were,
Virasena
Acharya Virasena (792-853 CE), also known as Veerasena, was a Digambara monk and belonged to the lineage of Acharya Kundakunda. He was an Indian mathematician and Jain philosopher and scholar. He was also known as a famous orator and an accomp ...
(author of a commentary on the ''
Dhavala
The (Sanskrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the foremost and oldest Digambara Jain sacred text.
According to Digambara tradition, the original canonical scriptures of the Jains were totally lost within a few centuries of ''Nirvana'' of Ma ...
''),
Samantabhadra Samantabhadra (Lit. "All Good", or "Always Auspicious") may refer to:
* Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva), a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with practice and meditation
* ''Samantabhadra'' (Tibetan: ''Kuntu Zangpo''), the name of a Buddha, ...
and
Siddhasena Divakara
Siddhasēna Divākara ( pka, सिद्धसेन दिवाकर) was a ''jain monk'' in the fifth century CE who wrote works on Jain philosophy and epistemology. He was like the illuminator of the Jain order and therefore came to be kno ...
. The ''
Satkhandagama
The (Sanskrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the foremost and oldest Digambara Jain sacred text.
According to Digambara tradition, the original canonical scriptures of the Jains were totally lost within a few centuries of ''Nirvana'' of Mah ...
'' and ''
Kasayapahuda
''Kasayapahuda'' () (also ''Kasayaprabhrta'') is one of the oldest canonical text of the ''Digambara'' Jains. Another oldest canonical text, the ''Shatkhandagama'' was written about the same time. Both these texts are held in high esteem by t ...
'' have major significance in the ''Digambara'' tradition.
There have been several Digambara monastic lineages that all trace their descent to Mahavira. The historical linages included ''
Mula Sangha
''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major Jain schools and branches, schools of Jainism, the other being ''Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practi ...
'' (further vivided into ''Nandi'', ''Sena'', ''Simha'' and ''Deva'' Sanghas) and now largely extinct
Kashtha Sangha
Kashtha Sangha (काष्ठा संघ) was a Digambar Jain monastic order once dominant in several regions of North and Western India. It is considered to be a branch of Mula Sangh itself. It is said to have originated from a town named K ...
(which included ''Mathura'' sangha, ""Lat-Vagad" etc.), Dravida Sangh. The text Darshana-Sara of Devasena discusses the supposed differences among the orders. The ''Mula sangha'' orders include ''Deshiya Gana'' (Bhattarakas of Shravanabelgola etc.) and ''
Balatkara Gana
Balatkara Gana is an ancient Jain monastic order. It is a section of the Mula Sangh. It is often termed ''Balatkara Gana Sarasvati Gachchha''. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was present in a number of places in India. However all ...
'' (Bhattarakas of
Humcha
Humcha / Hombuja is a small village near Ripponpet, Hosanagara taluk in Shimoga district in the Indian state of Karnataka. Humbaja Atishaya Jain Teerth Kshetra is famous for being home to an ancient temple of Padmavati (Jainism), Goddess Padma ...
, and numerous linages of North/Central India) traditions.
[Vidaydgar Johrapurkar, Bhaṭṭāraka Sampradaya, Solapur, 1958] The ''
Bhattaraka
A Bhaṭṭāraka ( pka, भट्टारक "holy one") heads traditional Digambara Jain institutions. He is responsible for training scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing endowments, presiding over installation ceremonies and running ...
s'' of
Shravanabelagola
Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage des ...
and
Mudbidri
Moodabidri ( kn, ಮೂಡುಬಿದಿರೆ ''Mūḍubidire''; also called Mudbidri, Moodbidre and Bedra), is a town and taluk in Dakshina Kannada district. It lies 34 km northeast of the district headquarters, Mangalore, in Karna ...
belong to ''Deshiya Gana'' and the ''Bhattaraka'' of
Humbaj
Humcha / Hombuja is a small village near Ripponpet, Hosanagara taluk in Shimoga district in the Indian state of Karnataka. Humbaja Atishaya Jain Teerth Kshetra is famous for being home to an ancient temple of Goddess Padmavati, and to the Hu ...
belongs to the ''Balatkara Gana''.
Scripture and literature
The ''Digambara'' sect of Jainism rejects the texts and canonical literature of the ''
Svetambara'' sect. They believe that the words of Mahavira neither survive nor could be recorded. The original teachings went through a rapid period of decline, state the Digambaras, and Svetambara claims of preserving the sacred knowledge and ancient ''angas'' is false.
According to the ''Digambaras'', their 33rd ''achārya'' was
Dharasena
''Acharya'' Dharasena was a ''Digambara monk'' of first century CE.
Biography
''Āchārya'' Dharasena, in first century CE, guided two ''Āchāryas'', ''Āchārya'' Pushpadant and ''Āchārya'' Bhutabali, to put the teachings of Mahavira in t ...
who knew one ''anga'', and he taught these to
Pushpadanta
In Jainism, Pushpadanta ( sa, पुष्पदन्त), also known as Suvidhinatha, was the ninth Tirthankara of the present age ('' Avasarpini''). According to Jain belief, he became a siddha and an arihant, a liberated soul that has des ...
and
Bhutabali
Acharya Bhutabali (7th century CE) was a Digambara monk. He along with Acharya Pushpadanta composed the most sacred Jain text,'' Satkhandagama.''.
Legacy
''Shrut Panchami'' (scripture fifth) is celebrated by Jains in may every year commemorati ...
, 683 years after the ''
moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...
'' of Mahavira. That ''anga'' was also lost with the death of those two. Dharasena's teachings that have survived are ''
Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama
The (Sanskrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the foremost and oldest Digambara Jain sacred text.
According to Digambara tradition, the original canonical scriptures of the Jains were totally lost within a few centuries of ''Nirvana'' of Ma ...
'' (Scripture of Six Parts) and ''Kasayapahuda'' (Treatise on the Passions), which were written on palm leaves near a cave in Mount Girnar (Gujarat) and a copy of which with a 12th-century commentary came to Tulu Nadu (south Karnataka). This has survived as the Mudbidri manuscripts, which were used by regional Jains not for reading and study, but as an object of devotional worship for centuries. In the 19th century, the fragile and decaying manuscript was copied and portions of it leaked to scholars between 1896 and 1922 despite objections of Digambara monks. It is considered to be the oldest known ''Digambara'' text ultimately traceable to the 2nd-century.
These two oldest known Digambara tradition texts – ''Satkhandagama'' and ''Kasayapahuda'' – are predominantly a treatise about the soul and
Karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
theory, written in Prakrit language. Philologically, the text belongs to about the 2nd-century, and has nothing that suggests it is of "immemorial antiquity". In details, the text is quite similar in its teachings to those found in ''Prajnapana'' – the 4th ''upanga'' – of Svetambaras. Between the two, the poetic meter of ''Satkhandagama'' suggests it was composed after the Svetambara text.
Digambaras, unlike Svetambaras, do not have a canon. They do have a quasi-canonical literature grouped into four literary categories called ''anuyoga'' (exposition) since the time of the Digambara scholar Rakshita. The ''prathmanuyoga'' (first exposition) contains the universal history, the ''karananuyoga'' (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology, the ''charananuyoga'' (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and lay people, while the ''dravyanuyoga'' (entity exposition) contains metaphysical discussions. In the Digambara tradition, it is not the oldest texts that have survived in its temples and monasteries that attract the most study or reverence, rather it is the late 9th-century ''Mahapurana'' (universal history) of Jinasena that is the most revered and cherished. The ''Mahapurana'' includes not only religious history, but also the sociological history of the Jaina people – including the Jain caste system and its origins as formulated by
Rishabhanatha
Rishabhanatha, also ( sa, ऋषभदेव), Rishabhadeva, or Ikshvaku is the first (Supreme preacher) of Jainism and establisher of Ikshvaku dynasty. He was the first of twenty-four teachers in the present half-cycle of time in Jain c ...
– from the Digambara Jaina perspective. The ''Digamabara'' tradition maintains a long list of revered teachers, and this list includes Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Somadeva and Asadhara.
Practices
Monasticism
The lifestyle and behavioral conduct of a ''Digambara'' monk is guided by a code called ''mulacara'' (''mulachara''). This includes 28 ''mūla guņas'' (primary attributes) for the monk. The oldest text containing these norms is the 2nd-century ''
Mulachara
__NOTOC__
Mulachara () (Fundamental Conduct) is a Jain text composed by Acharya Vattakera of the Digambara tradition, around 150 CE. Mulachara discusses ''anagara-dharma'' – the conduct of a Digambara monk.Mulachara Ka Samikshatmaka Adhyaya ...
'' attributed to Vattekara, that probably originated in the Mathura region.
These are: 5 ''mahāvratas'' (great vows); 5 ''samitis'' (restraints); 5 ''indriya nirodha'' (control of the five senses); 6 ''āvaśyakas'' (essential observations); and 7 ''niyamas'' (rules).
''Digambara'' monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to be ''parigraha'' (possession), which ultimately leads to attachment. The monks carry ''picchi'', a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects to avoid causing injury and ''Kamandalu'' (the gourd for carrying pure, sterilized water). The head of all monastics is called ''
Āchārya
In Indian religions and society, an ''acharya'' (Sanskrit: आचार्य, IAST: ; Pali: ''ācariya'') is a preceptor and expert instructor in matters such as religion, or any other subject. An acharya is a highly learned person with a t ...
'', while the saintly preceptor of saints is the ''upādhyāya''. The ''Āchārya'' has 36 primary attributes (''mūla guņa'') in addition to the 28 mentioned above.
The monks perform ''kayotsarga'' daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, and toes directed forward.
Nuns
Female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as ''
aryika
''Aryika'', also known as ''Sadhvi'', is a female mendicant (nun) in Jainism.
History
In the traditional Digambara tradition, a male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly throu ...
s''. Digambara nuns, unlike the monks in their tradition, wear clothes. Given their beliefs such as non-attachment and non-possession, the Digambara tradition has held that women cannot achieve salvation (moksha) as men can, and the best a nun can achieve is to be reborn as a man in the next rebirth.
The monks are held to be of higher status than nuns in Digambara monasteries, states Jeffery Long.
From the Digambara monk's perspective, both Digambara nuns and Svetambara monastic community are simply more pious Jain layperson, who do not or are unable to fully practice the Jain monastic vows.
Digambara nuns are relatively rare in comparison to the nuns found in Svetambara traditions. According to a 1970s and 1980s survey of Jain subtraditions, there were about 125 Digambara monks in India and 50 Digambara nuns.
This compared to 3,400 nuns and 1,200 monks in the Svetambara tradition.
Digambar akhara
The Digambar Akhara, which along with other
akhara
Akhara or Akhada (Sanskrit and Hindi: अखाड़ा, shortened to ''khara'' Hindi: खाड़ा) is an Indian word for a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of Indian martial artists o ...
s, also participates in various inter-sectarian (''
sampradaya
''Sampradaya'' ( sa, सम्प्रदाय; ), in Indian origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'. To ensure continuity and ...
'') religious activities including
Kumbh Mela
Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela () is a major pilgrimage and festival in Hinduism. It is celebrated in a cycle of approximately 12 years, to celebrate every revolution Brihaspati (Jupiter) completes, at four river-bank pilgrimage sites: Allahabad ( ...
s, is completely unrelated to Digambar Jain tradition, even though they also practice nudity.
[ outh Asian Religions on Display: Religious Processions in South Asia and in the Diaspora, Knut A. Jacobsen, ISBN hardback 978-0-415-4373-3, ISBN ebook ISBN hardback 978-0-203-93059-5/ref>
]
Worship
The ''Digambara'' Jains worship completely nude idols of ''tirthankaras'' (omniscient beings) and ''siddha
''Siddha'' (Sanskrit: '; "perfected one") is a term that is used widely in Indian religions and culture. It means "one who is accomplished." It refers to perfected masters who have achieved a high degree of physical as well as spiritual ...
'' (liberated souls). The ''tirthankara'' is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the ''Kayotsarga'' posture.
Kizhavalavu (Kilavalavu) -Jain Sculptures.JPG, Kizhavalavu (Keelavalavu
Keezhavazhavu (also known as Kilavalavu and Keelavalavu and Kizhavalavu) is a village in Madurai district of Tamil Nadu, India. It is located from Madurai. It is known for two hillocks called ''Panchapandavar Malai'' or ''Panchapandavar Padukka ...
) Sculptures
Gommateshvara Bahubali.jpg, The high Gommateshwara statue
The Gommateshwara statue is a high monolithic statue on Vindhyagiri Hill in the town of Shravanbelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka. Carved of a single block of granite, it is one of the tallest monolithic statues in the world second on ...
, Shravanabelagola
Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage des ...
Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg, ''Tirthankara'' statues at Siddhachal Caves
Siddhachal Caves are Jain cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside the Urvashi valley of the Gwalior Fort in northern Madhya Pradesh, India. There are the most visited among the five groups of Jain rock carvings on the Gwalior F ...
inside Gwalior Fort
The Gwalior Fort commonly known as the ''Gwāliiyar Qila'', is a hill fort near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. The fort has existed at least since the 10th century, and the inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort campus ind ...
, Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
Jain statue of Parshvanath, Naugaza temple, Alwar district, Rajasthan, India.jpg, ''Tirthankara'' Parshvanatha
''Parshvanatha'' (), also known as ''Parshva'' () and ''Parasnath'', was the 23rd of 24 ''Tirthankaras'' (supreme preacher of dharma) of Jainism. He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of ''Kalīkālkalpataru (Kalpavriksha in this "Kal ...
statue, Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
Sub-sects
Modern ''Digambara'' community is divided into various sub-sects viz. '' Terapanthi'', ''Bispanthi'', ''Taranpanthi
The Taran Panth, also known as Taran Svami Panth, Taran Samaj or Taranapanthi, is a sect of Digambara Jainism founded by Taran Svami in Bundelkhand in central India in c. 1505 CE.
Taran Svami
Taran Svami was a Jain religious teacher and foun ...
'' (or ''Samayiapanthi''), ''Gumanapanthi'', ''Totapanthi'' and '' Kanjipanthi''. Both the ''terapanthis'' and ''bisapanthis'' worship with ''ashta-dravya'' which includes ''jal'' (water), ''chandan'' (sandal), ''akshata'' (sacred rice), ''pushp'' (yellow rice), ''deep'' (yellow dry coconut), ''dhup'' (''kapoor'' or cloves) and ''phal'' (almonds). ''Bisapanthi'' religious practices include ''aarti
''Arti'' (Sanskrit: Ārātrika, Hindi: Ārtī) is a Hindu ritual employed in worship, often part of '' puja'', in which light (usually from a flame) is offered to one or more deities. ''Arti(s)'' also refers to the songs sung in praise of the d ...
'' and offerings of flowers, fruits and ''prasad
200px, Prasad thaal offered to Swaminarayan temple in Ahmedabad ">Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Ahmedabad">Swaminarayan temple in Ahmedabad
Prasada (, Sanskrit: प्रसाद, ), Prasadam or Prasad is a religious offering in Hinduism. Most o ...
'' whereas ''terapanthis'' don't use them. ''Bispanthis'' worship minor gods and goddesses like ''Yaksha
The yakshas ( sa, यक्ष ; pi, yakkha, i=yes) are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness. They appear in ...
'' and ''Yakshini
''Yakshinis'' or ''yakshis'' (यक्षिणी sa, yakṣiṇī or ''yakṣī''; pi, yakkhiṇī or ''yakkhī'') are a class of female nature spirits in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious mythologies that are different from devas and ...
'' like Bhairava
Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव ) or Kala Bhairava is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity worshiped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar, of Shiva associated with annihilation. In Trika system ''Bhairava ...
and Kshetrapala whereas ''terapanthis'' do not. ''Bisapanthis'' accept ''bhattarakas'' as their religious leaders but ''terapanthis'' do not. ''Terapanthis'' occur in large numbers in Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
, Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
and Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (, ; meaning 'central province') is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal, and the largest city is Indore, with Jabalpur, Ujjain, Gwalior, Sagar, and Rewa being the other major cities. Madhya Pradesh is the seco ...
. Bidapanthis are concentrated in Rajasthan, Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
, Maharastra and South India.
Differences with Śvētāmbara sect
According to ''Digambara'' texts, after attaining '' Kevala Jnana'' (omniscience), '' arihant'' (omniscient beings) are free from human needs like hunger, thirst, and sleep. In contrast, Śvētāmbara texts preach that it is not so. According to the ''Digambara'' tradition, a soul can attain ''moksha'' (liberation) only from the male body with complete nudity being a necessity, while Śvētāmbaras believe that it is possible to attain liberation from a female body, and that renunciation of clothes is not at all necessary.
See also
*Nudity in religion
Nudity in religion deals with the differing attitudes to nudity and modesty among world religions.
Ancient Greek religion
Hesiod, the writer of the poem ''Theogony'', which describes the origins and genealogies of the Greek gods in Ancient Greek ...
*God in Jainism
In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul. This quality, however, is subdued by the soul's association with karmic matter. All souls who have achieved the natural state of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge ('' keva ...
*Kshullak
A kshullak (or kshullaka, lit. small or junior) is a junior Digambar Jain monk. A kshullak wears two garments as opposed to a full monk who wears no clothes.Jinendra Varni, Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa, V.2, pages, 188-189 Specifically a Kshullaka i ...
*Jain philosophy
Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophy, Indian philosophical system found in Jainism. One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its Mind–body dualism, dualistic metaphysics, which holds that there are two distinct categor ...
*Timeline of Jainism
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes '' ahimsa'' (non-violence) towards all living beings to the greatest possible extent. The three main teachings of Jainism are ''ahimsa'', '' anekantavad ...
*Digambar Jain Mahasabha
Digambar Jain Mahasabha or Shri Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha is the oldest organisation of lay Jains in India.
History
The Digambar Jain Mahasabha was founded in 1894 in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. It is considered a traditionalist or ...
Notes
Sources
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External links
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{{Authority control
Nudity in religion
Schools of Jainism