Taoist meditation (, ), known in Chinese as "Xiu Dao", refers to the traditional
meditative
Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...
practices associated with the Chinese philosophy and religion of
Taoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...
, including concentration, mindfulness, contemplation, and visualization. The earliest Chinese references to meditation date from the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
(475–221 BCE).
Traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
and
Chinese martial arts
Chinese martial arts, often called by the umbrella terms Kung fu (term), kung fu (; ), kuoshu () or wushu (sport), wushu (), are Styles of Chinese martial arts, multiple fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in Greater China. Th ...
have adapted certain Daoist meditative techniques. Some examples are
Daoyin
Daoyin is a series of cognitive body and mind unity exercises practiced as a form of Taoist neigong, meditation and mindfulness to cultivate '' jing'' (essence) and direct and refine '' qi'', the internal energy of the body according to Traditio ...
"guide and pull" breathing exercises,
Neidan
Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that Taoist initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death. Also known as Jindan ...
"internal alchemy" techniques,
Neigong
Neigong, also spelled ''nei kung'', ''neigung'', or ''nae gong'', refers to any of a set of Chinese breathing, meditation, somatics practices, and spiritual practice disciplines associated with Daoism and especially the Chinese martial arts. Neig ...
"internal skill" practices,
Qigong
''Qigong'' (), ''qi gong'', ''chi kung'', ''chi 'ung'', or ''chi gung'' () is a system of coordinated body-posture and movement, breathing, and meditation
used for the purposes of health, spirituality, and martial-arts training. With roots in ...
breathing exercises,
Zhan zhuang
Zhàn zhuāng (站樁/站桩, ) is a training method often practiced by students of neijia (internal kung fu), such as , Xing Yi Quan, Bagua Zhang and Taiji Quan. ''Zhàn zhuāng'' is sometimes translated ''Standing-on-stake'', ''Standing Qigon ...
"standing like a post" techniques. The opposite direction of adoption has also taken place, when the martial art of
Taijiquan
Tai chi (), short for Tai chi ch'üan ( zh, s=太极拳, t=太極拳, first=t, p=Tàijíquán, labels=no), sometimes called "shadowboxing", is an internal Chinese martial art practiced for defense training, health benefits and meditation. Ta ...
, "great ultimate fist", became one of the practices of modern Daoist monks, while historically it was not among traditional techniques.
Terminology
The
Chinese language
Chinese (, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the wor ...
has several keywords for Daoist meditation practices, some of which are difficult to translate accurately into English.
Types of meditation
Livia Kohn distinguishes three basic types of Daoist meditation: "concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".
''Ding'' literally means "decide; settle; stabilize; definite; firm; solid" and early scholars such as
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
used it to translate
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
''
samadhi
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
'' "deep meditative contemplation" in Chinese
Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
. In this sense, Kohn renders ''ding'' as "intent contemplation" or "perfect absorption". The ''
Zuowanglun
The ''Zuowanglun'' or ''Zuowang lun'' is a Taoist meditative text that was written by the Shangqing School patriarch Sima Chengzhen (647–735). Taoism incorporated many Buddhist practices during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), and the ''Zuowan ...
'' has a section called ''Taiding'' "intense concentration"
''Guan'' basically means "look at (carefully); watch; observe; view; scrutinize" (and names the ''
Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
''
Hexagram 20 ''Guan'' "Viewing"). ''Guan'' became the Daoist technical term for "monastery; abbey", exemplified by
Louguan "Tiered Abbey" temple, designating "Observation Tower", which was a major Daoist center from the 5th through 7th centuries (see
Louguantai
The Louguantai Temple (Chinese: 楼观台寺), in Tayu village (), Zhouzhi county, Shaanxi province, about 70 km west of Xian, is the place where tradition says that Lao Tze composed the Tao Te Ching.Leslie CamhiRuins of an Old Christian Chur ...
). Kohn says the word ''guan'', "intimates the role of Daoist sacred sites as places of contact with celestial beings and observation of the stars".
Tang Dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
(618–907) Daoist masters developed ''guan'' "observation" meditation from Tiantai Buddhist ''zhiguan'' "cessation and insight" meditation, corresponding to
śamatha-vipaśyanā – the two basic types of Buddhist meditation are ''
samatha
''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
'' "calm abiding; stabilizing meditation" and ''
vipassanā
''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
'' "clear observation; analysis". Kohn explains, "The two words indicate the two basic forms of Buddhist meditation: ''zhi'' is a concentrative exercise that achieves one-pointedness of mind or "cessation" of all thoughts and mental activities, while ''guan'' is a practice of open acceptance of sensory data, interpreted according to Buddhist doctrine as a form of "insight" or "wisdom". ''Guan'' meditators would seek to merge individual consciousness into emptiness and attain unity with the Dao.
''Cun'' usually means "exist; be present; live; survive; remain", but has a sense of "to cause to exist; to make present" in the Daoist meditation technique, which both the
Shangqing School
The Shangqing School (Chinese:上清派), also known as Supreme Clarity or Highest Clarity is a Taoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty. Shangqing can be translated as either 'Supreme Clarity' or 'Highest Clari ...
and
Lingbao School
The Lingbao School (), also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School of Numinous Treasure, was an important Taoist School that emerged in China in between the Jin dynasty and the Liu Song dynasty in the early fifth century CE. It la ...
s popularized.
It thus means that the meditator, by an act of conscious concentration and focused intention, causes certain energies to be present in certain parts of the body or makes specific deities or scriptures appear before his or her mental eye. For this reason, the word is most commonly rendered "to visualize" or, as a noun, "visualization." Since, however, the basic meaning of ''cun'' is not just to see or be aware of but to be actually present, the translation "to actualize" or" actualization" may at times be correct if somewhat alien to the Western reader.
Other key words
Within the above three types of Daoist meditation, some important practices are:
*''
Zuowang
''Zuowang'' () is a classic Daoist meditation technique, described as "a state of deep trance or intense absorption, during which no trace of ego-identity is felt and only the underlying cosmic current of the Dao is perceived as real." According ...
'' "sitting forgetting" was first recorded in the (c. 3rd century BCE) ''
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to:
* ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism
**Zhuang Zhou
Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
''.
*''Shouyi'' "guarding the one; maintaining oneness" involves ''ding'' "concentrative meditation" on a single point or god within the body, and is associated with Daoist alchemical and longevity techniques. The author, Dr. and Master
Zhi Gang Sha
Zhi Gang Sha (; born 1956) is a spiritual leader.
Life and ideas
Sha is a strong promoter of forms of spirituality. He has published 20 books, including ten ''New York Times'' bestselling books, including ''Soul Healing Miracles: Ancient and New ...
says ''shouyi'' means meditational focus on the ''jindan'' a "golden light ball" in his own words.
*''Neiguan'' "inner observation; inner vision" is visualizing inside one's body and mind, including ''
zangfu
The zàng-fǔ () organs are functional entities stipulated by traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). They constitute the centrepiece of TCM's general concept of how the human body works. The term ''zàng'' () refers to the organs considered to be yi ...
'' organs, inner deities, ''
qi'' movements, and thought processes.
*''Yuanyou'' "far-off journey; ecstatic excursion", best known as the ''
Chuci
The ''Chu ci'', variously translated as ''Verses of Chu,'' ''Songs of Chu'', or ''Elegies of Chu'', is an ancient anthology of Chinese poetry including works traditionally attributed mainly to Qu Yuan and Song Yu from the Warring States period ...
'' poem title
Yuan You
"Yuanyou" or Far-off Journey (; Pinyin: Yuǎnyóu; en, Far Roaming) is a short work anthologized in the Chuci (楚辭 ''Songs of Chu'', sometimes called ''The Songs of the South''). "Yuanyou" is a poetic conceit involving a shamanic/Daoist flight ...
, was meditative travel to distant countries, sacred mountains, the sun and moon, and encounters with gods and ''
xian
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
'' transcendents.
*''Zuobo'' "sitting around the bowl (
water clock
A water clock or clepsydra (; ; ) is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured.
Water clocks are one of the oldest time-m ...
)" was a
Quanzhen School
The Quanzhen School (全真: ''Quánzhēn''), also known as Completion of Authenticity, Complete Reality, and Complete Perfection is currently one of the two dominant denominations of Taoism in mainland China. It originated in Northern China i ...
communal meditation that was linked to Buddhist ''
zuochan'' (Japanese ''
zazen
''Zazen'' (literally " seated meditation"; ja, 座禅; , pronounced ) is a meditative discipline that is typically the primary practice of the Zen Buddhist tradition.
However, the term is a general one not unique to Zen, and thus technicall ...
'') "sitting meditation"
Warring States period
The earliest Chinese references to meditation date from the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
(475–221 BCE), when the philosophical
Hundred Schools of Thought
The Hundred Schools of Thought () were philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century BC to 221 BC during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period of ancient China.
An era of substantial discrimination in China, ...
flourished.
''Guanzi and Neiye''
Four chapters of the ''
Guanzi'' have descriptions of meditation practices: ''Xinshu'' "Mind techniques" (chapters 36 and 37), ''Baixin'' "Purifying the mind" (38), and ''
Neiye
The c. 350 BCE ''Neiye'' 內業 or ''Inward Training'' is the oldest Chinese received text describing Daoist breath meditation techniques and '' qi'' circulation. After the '' Guanzi'', a political and philosophical compendium, included the '' ...
'' "Inward training" (49). Modern scholars believe the ''Neiye'' text was written in the 4th century BCE, and the others were derived from it.
A. C. Graham
Angus Charles Graham, FBA (8 July 1919 – 26 March 1991) was a Welsh scholar and sinologist who was professor of classical Chinese at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
He was born in Penarth, Glamorgan, Wales t ...
regards the ''Neiye'' as "possibly the oldest 'mystical' text in China"; Harold Roth describes it as "a manual on the theory and practice of meditation that contains the earliest references to breath control and the earliest discussion of the physiological basis of self-cultivation in the Chinese tradition". Owing to the consensus that proto-Daoist
Huang-Lao philosophers at the
Jixia Academy
The Jixia Academy or Academy of the Gate of Chi Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilisation in China', Vol. 1, pp. 95 f. Cambridge University Press, 1956. , 9780521057998. Accessed 2 Nov 2012. was a scholarly academy during the Warring States period ...
in
Qi composed the core ''Guanzi'', ''Neiye'' meditation techniques are technically "Daoistic" rather than "Daoist".
''Neiye'' Verse 8 associates ''dingxin'' "stabilizing the mind" with acute hearing and clear vision, and generating ''
jing'' "vital essence". However, thought, says Roth, is considered "an impediment to attaining the well-ordered mind, particularly when it becomes excessive".
If you can be aligned and be tranquil,
Only then can you be stable.
With a stable mind at your core,
With the eyes and ears acute and clear,
And with the four limbs firm and fixed,
You can thereby make a lodging place for the vital essence.
The vital essence: it is the essence of the vital energy.
When the vital energy is guided, it [the vital essence] is generated,
But when it is generated, there is thought,
When there is thought, there is knowledge,
But when there is knowledge, then you must stop.
Whenever the forms of the mind have excessive knowledge,
You lose your vitality.
''Neiye'' Verse 18 contains the earliest Chinese reference to practicing breath-control meditation. Breathing is said to "coil and uncoil" or "contract and expand"', "with coiling/contracting referring to exhalation and uncoiling/expanding to inhalation".
For all [to practice] this Way:
You must coil, you must contract,
You must uncoil, you must expand,
You must be firm, you must be regular [in this practice].
Hold fast to this excellent [practice]; do not let go of it.
Chase away the excessive; abandon the trivial.
And when you reach its ultimate limit
You will return to the Way and its inner power. (18)
''Neiye'' Verse 24 summarizes "inner cultivation" meditation in terms of ''shouyi'' 守一 "maintaining the one" and ''yunqi'' "revolving the ''qi''". Roth says this earliest extant ''shouyi'' reference "appears to be a meditative technique in which the adept concentrates on nothing but the Way, or some representation of it. It is to be undertaken when you are sitting in a calm and unmoving position, and it enables you to set aside the disturbances of perceptions, thoughts, emotions, and desires that normally fill your conscious mind."
When you enlarge your mind and let go of it,
When you relax your vital breath and expand it,
When your body is calm and unmoving:
And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances.
You will see profit and not be enticed by it,
You will see harm and not be frightened by it.
Relaxed and unwound, yet acutely sensitive,
In solitude you delight in your own person.
This is called "revolving the vital breath":
Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly. (24)
''Tao Te Ching''
Several passages in the classic ''
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
'' are interpreted as referring to meditation. For instance, "Attain utmost emptiness, Maintain utter stillness" (16) emphasizes ''xu'' "empty; void" and ''jing'' "still; quiet", both of which are central meditative concepts. Randal P. Peerenboom describes Laozi's contemplative process as "
apophatic meditation", the "emptying of all images (thoughts, feelings, and so on) rather than concentration on or filling the mind with images", comparable with Buddhist ''
nirodha-samapatti
In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind (''bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, "burn up" the ...
'' "cessation of feelings and perceptions" meditation.
Verse 10 gives what Roth calls "probably the most important evidence for breathing meditation" in the ''Tao Te Ching''.
While you
Cultivate the soul and embrace unity,
can you keep them from separating?
Focus your vital breath until it is supremely soft,
can you be like a baby?
Cleanse the mirror of mysteries,
can you make it free of blemish?
Love the people and enliven the state,
can you do so without cunning?
Open and close the gate of heaven,
can you play the part of the female?
Reach out with clarity in all directions,
can you refrain from action?
It gives birth to them and nurtures them,
It gives birth to them but does not possess them,
It rears them but does not control them.
This is called “mysterious integrity.”
Three of these ''Tao Te Ching'' phrases resonate with ''Neiye'' meditation vocabulary. ''Baoyi'' 一"embrace unity" compares with ''shouyi'' "maintain the One" (24 above). ''Zhuanqi'' "focus your vital breath" is ''zhuanqi'' "concentrating your vital breath" (19). ''Dichu xuanjian'' "cleanse the mirror of mysteries" and ''jingchu qi she'' "diligently clean out its lodging place" (13) have the same verb ''chu'' "eliminate; remove".
The ''Taodejing'' exists in two received versions, named after the commentaries. The "Heshang Gong version" (see below) explains textual references to Daoist meditation, but the "Wang Bi version" explains them away.
Wang Bi
Wang Bi (226–249), courtesy name Fusi, was a Chinese philosopher and politician, expertise in Yijing and Xuanxue
Life
Wang Bi served as a minor bureaucrat in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He was married with a dau ...
(226–249) was a scholar of ''
Xuanxue
Xuanxue (), sometimes called Neo-Daoism (Neo-Taoism), is a metaphysical post-classical Chinese philosophy from the Six Dynasties (222-589), bringing together Taoist and Confucian beliefs through revision and discussion. The movement found its scri ...
'' "mysterious studies; neo-Daoism", which adapted Confucianism to explain Daoism, and his version eventually became the standard ''Tao Te Ching'' interpretation.
Richard Wilhelm said Wang Bi's commentary changed the ''Tao Te Ching'' "from a compendiary of magical meditation to a collection of free philosophical ''aperçus''".
''Zhuangzi''
The (c. 4th–3rd centuries BCE) Daoist ''
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to:
* ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism
**Zhuang Zhou
Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
'' refers to meditation in more specific terms than the ''Tao Te Ching''. Two well-known examples of mental disciplines are
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
and his favorite disciple
Yan Hui
Yan Hui (–481 BC) was a Chinese philosopher. He was the favorite disciple of Confucius and one of the most revered figures of Confucianism. He is venerated in Confucian temples as one of the Four Sages.
Names
Yan Hui is also known by his cou ...
discussing ''xinzhai'' "heart-mind fasting" and ''
zuowang
''Zuowang'' () is a classic Daoist meditation technique, described as "a state of deep trance or intense absorption, during which no trace of ego-identity is felt and only the underlying cosmic current of the Dao is perceived as real." According ...
'' "sitting forgetting". In the first dialogue, Confucius explains ''xinzhai''.
"I venture to ask what 'fasting of the mind' is," said Hui.
"Maintaining the unity of your will," said Confucius, "listen not with your ears but with your mind. Listen not with your mind but with your primal breath. The ears are limited to listening, the mind is limited to tallying. The primal breath, however, awaits things emptily. It is only through the Way that one can gather emptiness, and emptiness is the fasting of the mind." (4)
In the second, Yan Hui explains ''zuowang'' meditation.
Yen Hui saw Confucius again on another day and said, "I'm making progress."
"What do you mean?"
"I sit and forget."
"What do you mean, 'sit and forget'?" Confucius asked with surprise.
"I slough off my limbs and trunk," said Yen Hui, "dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare. This is what I mean by 'sit and forget'."
"If you are identical," said Confucius, "then you have no preferences. If you are transformed, then you have no more constants. It's you who is really the worthy one! Please permit me to follow after you." (9)
Roth interprets this "slough off my limbs and trunk" () phrase to mean, "lose visceral awareness of the emotions and desires, which for the early Daoists, have 'physiological' bases in the various organs". Peerenboom further describes ''zuowang'' as "aphophatic or cessation meditation."
One does away with sense perceptions, with all forms of cognition (thoughts, knowledge, conceptions, idea, images), with all valuations (preferences, norms, mores). Cognate to and a variant of ''wang'' (—to forget) is ''wang'' (—to destroy, perish, disappear, not exist). In the apophatic meditative process, all distinctions and ways of distinguishing are "forgotten" in the sense of eliminated: they cease to exist.
Another ''Zhuangzi'' chapter describes breathing meditation that results in a body "like withered wood" and a mind "like dead ashes".
Sir Motley of Southurb sat leaning against his low table. He looked up to heaven and exhaled slowly. Disembodied, he seemed bereft of soul. Sir Wanderer of Countenance Complete, who stood in attendance before him, asked, "How can we explain this? Can the body really be made to become like withered wood? Can the mind really be made to become like dead ashes? The one who is leaning against the table now is not the one who was formerly leaning against the table." "Indeed," said Sir Motley, "your question is a good one, Yen. Just now, I lost myself. Can you understand this? You may have heard the pipes of man, but not the pipes of earth. You may have heard the pipes of earth, but not the pipes of heaven." (2)
Victor Mair presents ''Zhuangzi'' evidence for "close affinities between the Daoist sages and the ancient Indian holy men. Yogic breath control and ''asanas'' (postures) were common to both traditions." First, this reference to "breathing from the heels", which is a modern explanation of the ''
sirsasana
Shirshasana (Sanskrit: शीर्षासन, IAST: śīrṣāsana) Salamba Shirshasana, or Yoga Headstand is an inverted asana in modern yoga as exercise; it was described as both an asana and a mudra in classical hatha yoga, under differ ...
'' "supported headstand".
The true man [i.e., ''zhenren
Zhenren () is a Chinese term that first appeared in the ''Zhuangzi'' meaning "Taoist spiritual master", roughly translatable as "Perfected Person". Religious Taoism mythologized ''zhenren'' to rank above ''xian'' "transcendent; immortal" in the ce ...
''] of old did not dream when he slept and did not worry when he was awake. His food was not savory, his breathing was deep. The breathing of the true man is from his heels, the breathing of the common man is from his throat. The words of those who unwillingly yield catch in their throats as though they were retching. Those whose desires are deep-seated will have shallow natural reserves. (6)
Second, this "bear strides and bird stretches" reference to ''
xian
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
'' practices of yogic postures and breath exercises.
Retiring to bogs and marshes, dwelling in the vacant wilderness, fishing and living leisurely—all this is merely indicative of nonaction. But it is favored by the scholars of rivers and lakes, men who flee from the world and wish to be idle. Blowing and breathing, exhaling and inhaling, expelling the old and taking in the new, bear strides and bird stretches—all this is merely indicative of the desire for longevity. But it is favored by scholars who channel the vital breath and flex the muscles and joints, men who nourish the physical form so as to emulate the hoary age of Progenitor P'eng [i.e., Peng Zu
Peng Zu (彭祖, "Ancestor Peng") is a legendary long-lived figure in China. He supposedly lived over 834 years in the Shang dynasty. Some legends say that one year was 60 days in ancient China; that made him more than 130 years old. Others say h ...
]. (15)
Mair previously noted the (c. 168 BCE)
Mawangdui Silk Texts The Mawangdui Silk Texts () are Chinese philosophical and medical works written on silk which were discovered at the Mawangdui site in Changsha, Hunan, in 1973. They include some of the earliest attested manuscripts of existing texts (such as the '' ...
, famous for two ''Tao Te Ching'' manuscripts, include a painted text that illustrates gymnastic exercises–including the "odd expression 'bear strides'".
''Xingqi'' jade inscription
Some writing on a Warring States era jade artifact could be an earlier record of breath meditation than the ''Neiye'', ''Tao Te Ching'', or ''Zhuangzi''. This rhymed inscription entitled ''xingqi'' "circulating ''qi''" was inscribed on a
dodecagonal
In geometry, a dodecagon or 12-gon is any twelve-sided polygon.
Regular dodecagon
A regular dodecagon is a figure with sides of the same length and internal angles of the same size. It has twelve lines of reflective symmetry and rotational sym ...
block of jade, tentatively identified as a pendant or a knob for a staff. While the dating is uncertain, estimates range from approximately 380 BCE (
Guo Moruo
Guo Moruo (; November 16, 1892 – June 12, 1978), courtesy name Dingtang (), was a Chinese author, poet, historian, archaeologist, and government official.
Biography
Family history
Guo Moruo, originally named Guo Kaizhen, was born on November ...
) to earlier than 400 BCE (
Joseph Needham
Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, in ...
). In any case, Roth says, "both agree that this is the earliest extant evidence for the practice of guided breathing in China".
The inscription says:
To circulate the Vital Breath:
Breathe deeply, then it will collect.
When it is collected, it will expand.
When it expands, it will descend.
When it descends, it will become stable.
When it is stable, it will be regular.
When it is regular, it will sprout.
When it sprouts, it will grow.
When it grows, it will recede.
When it recedes, it will become heavenly.
The dynamism of Heaven is revealed in the ascending;
The dynamism of Earth is revealed in the descending.
Follow this and you will live; oppose it and you will die.
Practicing this series of exhalation and inhalation patterns, one becomes directly aware of the "dynamisms of Heaven and Earth" through ascending and descending breath. ''Tianji'' , translated "dynamism of Heaven", also occurs in the ''Zhuangzi'' (6), as "natural reserves" in "Those whose desires are deep-seated will have shallow natural reserves".Roth notes the final line's contrasting verbs, ''xun'' "follow; accord with" and ''ni'' "oppose; resist", were similarly used in the (168 BCE) ''
Huangdi Sijing''
Yin-yang
Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the cycles of yin and ya ...
silk manuscripts.
Han Dynasty
As Daoism was flourishing during the
Han Dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
(206 BCE–220 CE), meditation practitioners continued early techniques and developed new ones.
''Huainanzi''
The (139 BCE) ''
Huainanzi
The ''Huainanzi'' is an ancient Chinese text that consists of a collection of essays that resulted from a series of scholarly debates held at the court of Liu An, Prince of Huainan, sometime before 139. The ''Huainanzi'' blends Daoist, Confuci ...
'', which is an eclectic compilation attributed to
Liu An
Liú Ān (, c. 179–122 BC) was a Han dynasty Chinese prince, ruling the Huainan Kingdom, and an advisor to his nephew, Emperor Wu of Han (武帝). He is best known for editing the (139 BC) ''Huainanzi'' compendium of Daoist, Confucianist, and ...
, frequently describes meditation, especially as a means for rulers to achieve effective government.
Internal evidence reveals that the ''Huainanzi'' authors were familiar with the ''Guanzi'' methods of meditation. The text uses ''xinshu'' "mind techniques" both as a general term for "inner cultivation" meditation practices and as a specific name for the ''Guanzi'' chapters.
The essentials of the world: do not lie in the Other but instead lie in the self; do not lie in other people but instead lie in your own person. When you fully realize it [the Way] in your own person, then all the myriad things will be arrayed before you. When you thoroughly penetrate the teachings of the Techniques of the Mind, then you will be able to put lusts and desires, likes and dislikes, outside yourself.
Several ''Huainanzi'' passages associate breath control meditation with longevity and immortality. For example, two famous ''
xian
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
'' "immortals":
Now Wang Qiao and Chi Songzi exhaled and inhaled, spitting out the old and internalizing the new. They cast off form and abandoned wisdom; they embraced simplicity and returned to genuineness; in roaming with the mysterious and subtle above, they penetrated to the clouds and Heaven. Now if one wants to study their Way and does not attain their nurturing of the ''qi'' and their lodging of the spirit but only imitates their every exhale and inhale, their contracting and expanding, it is clear that one will not be able to mount the clouds and ascend on the vapors.
''Heshang gong'' commentary
The (c. 2nd century CE) ''Tao Te Ching'' commentary attributed to
Heshang Gong
Heshang Gong (also Ho-Shang Kung) is the reputed author of one of the earliest commentaries on the ''Tao Te Ching'' of Laozi to survive to modern times, which is dated to the latter part of the Han dynasty.Alan K. L. Chan, "Two Visions of the Way ...
(lit. "Riverbank Elder") provides what Kohn calls the "first evidence for Daoist meditation" and "proposes a concentrative focus on the breath for harmonization with the Dao".
Eduard Erkes says the purpose of the Heshang Gong commentary was not only to explicate the ''Tao Te Ching'', but chiefly to enable "the reader to make practical use of the book and in teaching him to use it as a guide to meditation and to a life becoming a Daoist skilled in meditative training".
Two examples from ''Tao Te Ching'' 10 (see above) are the Daoist meditation terms ''xuanlan'' (lit. "dark/mysterious display") "observe with a tranquil mind" and ''tianmen'' (lit. "gate of heaven") "middle of the forehead". ''Xuanlan'' occurs in the line that Mair renders "Cleanse the mirror of mysteries". Erkes translates "By purifying and cleansing one gets the dark look", because the commentary says, "One must purify one's mind and let it become clear. If the mind stays in dark places, the look knows all its doings. Therefore it is called the dark look." Erkes explains ''xuanlan'' as "the Daoist term for the position of the eyes during meditation, when they are half-closed and fixed on the point of the nose." ''Tianmen'' occurs in the line "Open and close the gate of heaven". The Heshang commentary says, "The gate of heaven is called the purple secret palace of the north-pole. To open and shut means to end and to begin with the five junctures. In the practice of asceticism, the gate of heaven means the nostrils. To open means to breathe hard; to shut means to inhale and exhale."
''Taiping jing''
The (c. 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE) ''
Taiping Jing
''Taipingjing'' ("Scriptures of the Great Peace") is the name of several different Taoist texts. At least two works were known by this title:
:*, 12 Chapters, contents unknown, author: Gan Zhongke
:*, 170 Chapters, only 57 of which survive v ...
'' "Scripture of Great Peace" emphasized ''shouyi'' "guarding the One" meditation, in which one visualizes different cosmic colors corresponding with different parts of one's body.
In a state of complete concentration, when the light first arises, make sure to hold on to it and never let it go. First of all, it will be red, after a long time it will change to be white, later again it will be green, and then it will pervade all of you completely. When you further persist in guarding the One, there will be nothing within that would not be brilliantly illuminated, and the hundred diseases will be driven out.
Besides "guarding the One" where a meditator is assisted by the god of Heaven, the ''Taiping jing'' also mentions "guarding the Two" with help from the god of Earth, "guarding the Three" with help from spirits of the dead, and "guarding the Four" or "Five" in which one is helped by the myriad beings.
The ''Taiping jing shengjun bizhi'' "Secret Directions of the Holy Lord on the Scripture of Great Peace" is a Tang-period collection of ''Taiping jing'' fragments concerning meditation. It provides some detailed information, for instance, interpretations of the colors visualized.
In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light as bright the rising sun. This is a brilliance as strong as that of the sun at noon. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely green. When this green is pure, it is the light of lesser yang. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely red, just like fire. This is a sign of transcendence. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely yellow. When this develops a greenish tinge, it is the light of central harmony. This is a potent remedy of the Tao. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely white. When this is as clear as flowing water, it is the light of lesser yin. In guarding the light of the One, you may see a light entirely black. When this shimmers like deep water, it is the light of greater yin.
In the year 142,
Zhang Daoling
Zhang Ling (; traditionally 34–156), courtesy name Fuhan (), was a Chinese religious leader who lived during the Eastern Han Dynasty credited with founding the Way of the Celestial Masters sect of Taoism, which is also known as the Way of the F ...
founded the
Tianshi
The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic stat ...
"Celestial Masters" movement, which was the first organized form of Taoist religion. Zhang and his followers practiced ''Taiping jing'' meditation and visualization techniques. After the
Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
The Way of the Five Pecks of Rice () or the Way of the Celestial Master, commonly abbreviated to simply The Celestial Masters, was a Chinese Taoist movement founded by the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. At its height, the movem ...
rebellion against the Han Dynasty, Zhang established a theocratic state in 215, which led to the downfall of the Han.
Six Dynasties
The historical term "
Six Dynasties
Six Dynasties (; 220–589 or 222–589) is a collective term for six Han-ruled Chinese dynasties that existed from the early 3rd century AD to the late 6th century AD. The Six Dynasties period overlapped with the era of the Sixteen Kingdoms, ...
" collectively refers to the
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...
(220–280 CE),
Jin Dynasty (266–420)
The Jin dynasty (; ) or the Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the (司馬晉) or the (兩晉), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Sima Yan (Emperor Wu), eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had pr ...
, and
Southern and Northern Dynasties
The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...
(420–589). During this period of disunity after the fall of the Han, Chinese Buddhism became popular and new schools of religious Daoism emerged.
Early visualization meditation
Daoism's "first formal visualization texts appear" in the 3rd century.
The ''Huangting jing'' "Scripture of the Yellow Court" is probably the earliest text describing inner gods and spirits located in the human body. Meditative practices described in the ''Huangting jing'' include visualization of bodily organs and their gods, visualization of the sun and moon, and absorption of ''neijing'' "inner light".
The ''Laozi zhongjing'' "Central Scripture of Laozi" similarly describes visualizing and activating gods within the body, along with breathing exercises for meditation and longevity techniques. The adept envisions the yellow and red essences of the sun and moon, which activates
Laozi
Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state
...
and ''Yunü'' "Jade Woman" within the abdomen, producing the ''
shengtai
(, "sacred embryo" or "embryo of sagehood") is a Chinese syncretic metaphor for achieving Buddhist liberation or Daoist transcendence. The circa fifth century CE Chinese Buddhist '' Humane King Sutra'' first recorded ("sagely womb") describin ...
'' "sacred embryo".
The ''
Cantong qi
The ''Cantong qi'' is deemed to be the earliest book on Taoist alchemy in China. The title has been variously translated as ''Kinship of the Three'', ''Akinness of the Three'', ''Triplex Unity'', ''The Seal of the Unity of the Three'', and in se ...
'' "Kinship of the Three", attributed to
Wei Boyang
Wei Boyang () was a notable Chinese writer and Taoist alchemist of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He is the author of '' The Kinship of the Three'', and is noted as the first person to have documented the chemical composition of gunpowder in 142 AD.Pe ...
(fl. 2nd century), criticizes Daoist methods of meditation on inner deities.
''Baopuzi''
The Jin Dynasty scholar
Ge Hong
Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
's (c. 320) ''Baopuzi'' "Master who Embraces Simplicity", which is an invaluable source for early Daoism, describes ''shouyi'' "guarding the One" meditation as a source for magical powers from the ''zhenyi'' "True One".
Realizing the True One, the original unity and primordial oneness of all, meant placing oneself at the center of the universe, identifying one's physical organs with constellations in the stars. The practice led to control over all the forces of nature and beyond, especially over demons and evil forces.
Ge Hong says his teacher Zheng Yin taught that:
If a man can preserve Unity, Unity will also preserve him. In this way the bare blade finds no place in his body to inserts its edge; harmful things find no place in him that will admit entrance to their evil. Therefore, in defeat it is possible to be victorious; in positions of peril, to feel only security. Whether in the shrine of a ghost, in the mountains or forests, in a place suffering the plague, within a tomb, in bush inhabited by tigers and wolves, or in the habitation of snakes, all evils will go far away as long as one remains diligent in the preservation of Unity. (18)
The ''Baopuzi'' also compares ''shouyi'' meditation with a complex ''mingjing'' "bright mirror"
multilocation visualization process through which an individual can mystically appear in several places at once.
My teacher used to say that to preserve Unity was to practice jointly Bright Mirror, and that on becoming successful in the mirror procedure a man would be able to multiply his body to several dozen all with the same dress and facial expression. (18)
Shangqing meditation
The Daoist school of
Shangqing "Highest Clarity" traces its origins to
Wei Huacun
Wei Huacun (252–334), courtesy name Xianan (賢安), was a founder of the Shangqing School of Taoism.
Overview
Wei was born in 252 in Jining, Shandong in the former county of Rencheng (任城). Her father, Wei Shu (魏舒), was a government ...
(252–334), who was a Tianshi adept proficient in meditation techniques. Shangqing adopted the ''Huangting jing'' as scripture, and the
hagiography
A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian hagiographies migh ...
of Wei Huacun claims a ''xian'' "immortal" transmitted it (and thirty other texts) to her in 288. Additional divine texts were supposedly transmitted to
Yang Xi from 364 to 370, constituting the Shangqing scriptures.
The practices they describe include not only concentration on the ''bajing'' (Eight Effulgences) and visualization of gods in the body, but also active interaction with the gods, ecstatic excursions to the stars and the heavens of the immortals (''yuanyou'' ), and the activation of inner energies in a protoform of inner alchemy (''neidan''). The world of meditation in this tradition is incomparably rich and colorful, with gods, immortals, body energies, and cosmic sprouts vying for the adept's attention.
Lingbao meditation
Beginning around 400 CE, the
Lingbao "
Numinous
Numinous () is a term derived from the Latin ''numen'', meaning "arousing spiritual or religious emotion; mysterious or awe-inspiring."Collins English Dictionary -7th ed. - 2005 The term was given its present sense by the German theologian and ph ...
Treasure" School eclectically adopted concepts and practices from Daoism and Buddhism, which had recently been introduced to China.
Ge Chaofu
Ge Chaofu () is a member of the Chinese Ge family who lived during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is best known for writing the Taoist scripture known as ''The Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing'') which forms the basis of the beliefs of the Lingbao Sc ...
, Ge Hong's grandnephew, "released to the world" the ''Wufu jing'' "Talismans of the Numinous Treasure" and other Lingbao scriptures, and claimed family transmission down from
Ge Xuan
Ge Xuan (164–244), courtesy name Xiaoxian, was a Chinese Taoist practitioner who lived in the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) and Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. He was the ancestor of Ge Hong and a resident of Danyang Commandery i ...
(164–244), Ge Hong's great uncle.
The Lingbao School added the Buddhist concept of
reincarnation
Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...
to the Daoist tradition of ''xian'' "immortality; longevity", and viewed meditation as a means to unify body and spirit.
Many Lingbao meditation methods came from native Chinese traditions, such as visualizing inner gods (''Taiping jing''), and circulating the solar and lunar essences (''Huangting jing'' and ''Laozi zhongjing''). Meditation rituals changed from individuals practicing privately to Lingbao clergy worshipping communally; frequently with the "multidimensional quality" of a priest performing interior visualizations while leading congregants in communal visualization rites.
Buddhist influences
During the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, the introduction of traditional
Buddhist meditation
Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are '' bhāvanā'' ("mental development") and '' jhāna/dhyāna'' (mental training resulting in a calm and ...
methods richly influenced Daoist meditation.
The (c. late 5th-century)
The Northern Celestial Masters
The Northern Celestial Masters are an evolution of the Taoist Way of the Celestial Master () in the north of China during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Northern Celestial Masters were a continuation of the Way as it had been practiced ...
text ''
Xishengjing
The ''Xishengjing'' () is a late 5th century CE Taoist text with provenance at the Louguan 樓觀 "Tiered Abbey" of The Northern Celestial Masters. According to Taoist tradition, Louguan (the eastern terminus of the ancient Silk Road, west of the ...
'' "Scripture of Western Ascension" recommends cultivating an empty state of consciousness called ''
wuxin'' (lit. "no mind") "cease all mental activity" (translating
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
''acitta'' from ''
citta
''Citta'' (Pali and Sanskrit: चित्त; pronounced ''chitta''; IAST: ''citta)'' is one of three overlapping terms used in the '' nikaya'' to refer to the mind, the others being '' manas'' and '' viññāṇa''. Each is sometimes used in ...
'' "mind"), and advocates a simple form of ''guan'' "observation" insight meditation (translating ''
vipassanā
''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
'' from ''vidyā'' "knowledge").
Two early
Chinese encyclopedias
Chinese encyclopedias comprise both Chinese-language encyclopedias and foreign-language ones about China or Chinese topics. There is a type of native Chinese reference work called ''leishu'' (lit. "categorized writings") that is sometimes trans ...
, the (c. 570) Daoist encyclopedia ''Wushang biyao'' "Supreme Secret Essentials" and the (7th century) Buddhistic ''Daojiao yishu'' "Pivotal Meaning of Daoist Teachings" distinguish various levels of ''guan'' "observation" insight meditation, under the influence of the Buddhist
Madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
school's
Two truths doctrine
The Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: ''dvasatya,'' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; Pali: ''sacca''; word meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of the Śākyamuni Buddha: the "conventional" or "pr ...
. The ''Daojiao yishu'', for instance, says.
Realize also that in concentration and insight, one does not reach enlightenment and perfection of body and mind through the two major kinds of observation [of energy and spirit] alone. Rather, there are five different sets of three levels of observation. One such set of three is: 1. Observation of apparent existence. 2. Observation of real existence. 3. Observation of partial emptiness.[Tr. .]
Tang Dynasty
Daoism was in competition with Confucianism and Buddhism during the
Tang Dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
(618–907), and Daoists integrated new meditation theories and techniques from Buddhists.
The 8th century was a "heyday" of Daoist meditation; recorded in works such as
Sun Simiao
Sun Simiao (; died 682) was a Chinese physician and writer of the Sui and Tang dynasty. He was titled as China's King of Medicine (, Yaowang) for his significant contributions to Chinese medicine and tremendous care to his patients.
Books
Sun ...
's ''Cunshen lianqi ming'' "Inscription on Visualization of Spirit and Refinement of Energy", Sima Chengzhen 's ''
Zuowanglun
The ''Zuowanglun'' or ''Zuowang lun'' is a Taoist meditative text that was written by the Shangqing School patriarch Sima Chengzhen (647–735). Taoism incorporated many Buddhist practices during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), and the ''Zuowan ...
'' "Essay on Sitting in Forgetfulness", and Wu Yun 's ''Shenxian kexue lun'' "Essay on How One May Become a Divine Immortal through Training". These Daoist classics reflect a variety of meditation practices, including concentration exercises, visualizations of body energies and celestial deities to a state of total absorption in the Dao, and contemplations of the world.
The (9th century) ''
Qingjing Jing
The ''Qingjing Jing'' () is an anonymous Tang Dynasty Taoist classic that combines philosophical themes from the ''Tao Te Ching'' with the logical presentation of Buddhist texts and a literary form reminiscent of the '' Heart Sutra''. It instruc ...
'' "Scripture of Clarity and Quiescence" associates the Tianshi tradition of a divinized Laozi with Daoist ''guan'' and Buddhist ''
vipaśyanā
''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
'' methods of insight meditation.
Song Dynasty
Under the
Song Dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
(960–1279), the Daoist schools of
Quanzhen
The Quanzhen School (全真: ''Quánzhēn''), also known as Completion of Authenticity, Complete Reality, and Complete Perfection is currently one of the two dominant denominations of Taoism in mainland China. It originated in Northern China in ...
"Complete Authenticity" and
Zhengyi "Orthodox Unity" emerged, and
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy
Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Wa ...
became prominent.
Along with the continued integration of meditation methods, two new visualization and concentration practices became popular. ''
Neidan
Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that Taoist initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death. Also known as Jindan ...
'' "inner alchemy" involved the circulation and refinement of inner energies in a rhythm based on the ''
Yijing
The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
''. Meditation focused upon starry deities (e.g., the ''
Santai
Santai County ( zh, t=三台縣, s=三台县, w=San1-t῾ai2 Hsien4, p=Sāntái Xiàn; formerly known as Tungchwanfu) is a county under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Mianyang, in the northeast of Sichuan Province of China.
It ...
'' "Three Steps" stars in
Ursa Major
Ursa Major (; also known as the Great Bear) is a constellation in the northern sky, whose associated mythology likely dates back into prehistory. Its Latin name means "greater (or larger) bear," referring to and contrasting it with nearby Ursa ...
) and warrior protectors (e.g., the '' Xuanwu'' "Dark Warrior;
Black Tortoise
The Black Tortoise () is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. Despite its English name, it is usually depicted as a tortoise entwined together with a snake. The name used in East Asian languages does not mention either anima ...
" Northern Sky spirit).
Later dynasties
During the
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
(1279–1367), Daoists continued to develop the Song period practices of ''neidan'' alchemy and deity visualizations.
Under the
Ming Dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
(1368–1644), ''neidan'' methods were interchanged between Daoism and
Chan Buddhism
Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
. Many literati in the
scholar-official
The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class.
Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
class practiced Daoist and Buddhist meditations, which exerted a stronger influence on Confucianism.
In the
Qing Dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
(1644–1912), Daoists wrote the first specialized texts on ''nüdan'' "inner alchemy for women", and developed new forms of physical meditation, notably ''
Taijiquan
Tai chi (), short for Tai chi ch'üan ( zh, s=太极拳, t=太極拳, first=t, p=Tàijíquán, labels=no), sometimes called "shadowboxing", is an internal Chinese martial art practiced for defense training, health benefits and meditation. Ta ...
''—sometimes described as meditation in motion or moving meditation. This ''
Neijia
''Neijia'' ( 內家) is a term in Chinese martial arts, grouping those styles that practice ''neijing'', usually translated as internal martial arts, occupied with spiritual, mental or qi-related aspects, as opposed to an "external" approach ...
'' internal martial art is named after the
Taijitu
In Chinese philosophy, a ''taijitu'' () is a symbol or diagram () representing Taiji () in both its monist ('' wuji'') and its dualist (yin and yang) aspects. Such a diagram was first introduced by Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhou Dunyi (; 1017 ...
symbol, which was a traditional focus in both Daoist and
Neo-Confucian
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in th ...
meditation.
Modern period
Daoism and other Chinese religions were suppressed under the
Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast ...
(1912–1949) and in the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
from 1949 to 1979. Many Daoist temples and monasteries have been reopened in recent years.
Western knowledge of Daoist meditation was stimulated by
Richard Wilhelm's (German 1929, English 1962) ''
The Secret of the Golden Flower
''The Secret of the Golden Flower'' () is a Chinese Taoist book on neidan
Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that Taoist initiates use to prolong life and create a ...
'' translation of the (17th century) ''neidan'' text ''Taiyi jinhua zongzhi'' .
In the 20th century, the ''
Qigong
''Qigong'' (), ''qi gong'', ''chi kung'', ''chi 'ung'', or ''chi gung'' () is a system of coordinated body-posture and movement, breathing, and meditation
used for the purposes of health, spirituality, and martial-arts training. With roots in ...
'' movement has incorporated and popularized Daoist meditation, and "mainly employs concentrative exercises but also favors the circulation of energy in an inner-alchemical mode". Teachers have created new methods of meditation, such as
Wang Xiangzhai
Wang Xiangzhai (; November 26, 1885 - July 12, 1963), also known as Nibao, Zhenghe and Yuseng, was a Chinese xingyiquan master, responsible for founding the martial art of Yiquan.
Biography
Wang Xiangzhai was born in Hebei province, China. As h ...
's ''
zhan zhuang
Zhàn zhuāng (站樁/站桩, ) is a training method often practiced by students of neijia (internal kung fu), such as , Xing Yi Quan, Bagua Zhang and Taiji Quan. ''Zhàn zhuāng'' is sometimes translated ''Standing-on-stake'', ''Standing Qigon ...
'' "standing like a post" in the ''
Yiquan
Yìquán, also known as Dàchéngquán, is a Chinese martial art founded by the Xìngyìquán master Wáng Xiāngzhāi (王薌齋). "Yì" (意) means Intent (but not intention), "quán" (拳) means boxing.
History
Having studied Xing Yi Q ...
'' school.
References
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* Luk, Charles (1964), ''The Secrets of Chinese Meditation: self-cultivation by mind control as taught in the Ch'an Mahayana and Taoist schools in China'', Rider and Co.
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* Maspero, Henri (1981), ''Taoism and Chinese Religion'', tr. by Frank A. Kierman Jr., University of Massachusetts Press.
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*Robinet, Isabelle (1989c), "Visualization and Ecstatic Flight in Shangqing Taoism," in Kohn (1989a), 159–191
* Robinet, Isabelle (1993), ''Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity'', SUNY Press.
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* Sha, Zhi Gang (2010). ''Tao II: The Way of Healing, Rejuvenation, Longevity, and Immortality.'' New York City: Simon & Schuster.
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Footnotes
External links
Daoist meditation The Daoist Foundation
On Sitting in Oblivion FYSK Daoist Culture Centre
Tàishàng Lǎojūn Nèiguānjīng Classic of Inner Contemplation Tàishàng Lǎojūn Nèiguānjīng Classic of Inner Contemplation
{{Meditation
Chinese philosophy
Meditation
Taoist practices