Chinese cuisine encompasses the numerous
cuisines originating from
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
, as well as overseas cuisines created by the
Chinese diaspora
Overseas Chinese () refers to people of Chinese birth or ethnicity who reside outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese.
Terminology
() or ''Hoan-kheh'' () in Hokkien, ...
. Because of the Chinese diaspora and historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has influenced many other cuisines in
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
and beyond, with modifications made to cater to local palates. Chinese food staples such as
rice,
soy sauce,
noodles,
tea,
chili oil
Chili oil is a condiment made from vegetable oil that has been infused with chili peppers. Different types of oil and hot peppers are used, and other components may also be included. It is commonly used in Chinese cuisine, Southeast Asian cuis ...
, and
tofu, and utensils such as
chopsticks
Chopsticks ( or ; Pinyin: ''kuaizi'' or ''zhu'') are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks of Chinese origin that have been used as kitchen and eating utensils in most of East and Southeast Asia for over three millennia. They are held in the ...
and the
wok, can now be found worldwide.
The preferences for
seasoning and
cooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences in
historical background and
ethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests, and deserts also have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering that the climate of China varies from
tropical in the south to
subarctic
The subarctic zone is a region in the Northern Hemisphere immediately south of the true Arctic, north of humid continental regions and covering much of Alaska, Canada, Iceland, the north of Scandinavia, Siberia, and the Cairngorms. Genera ...
in the northeast.
Imperial royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisine. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures have been integrated into Chinese cuisines over time.
There are numerous regional, religious, and ethnic styles of Chinese cuisine found within China and abroad. Chinese cuisine is highly diverse and most frequently categorised into provincial divisions, although these province-level classifications consist of many more styles within themselves. The most praised
Four Great Traditions in Chinese cuisine are
Chuan,
Lu,
Yue, and
Huaiyang, representing cuisines of West, North, South, and East China, respectively. The modern
Eight Cuisines of China are
Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze Riv ...
(),
Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020 ...
(),
Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its ...
(),
Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangx ...
(),
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
(),
Shandong (),
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
(), and
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Ji ...
() cuisines.
["Fujian Cuisine.Beautyfujian.com](_blank)
. Accessed June 2011.
Color, scent and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food, as well as the meaning, appearance, and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised with respect to the ingredients used, knife work, cooking time, and seasoning.
History
Pre-Tang dynasty
Chinese society greatly valued
gastronomy, and developed an extensive study of the subject based on its
traditional medical beliefs. Chinese culture initially centered around the
North China Plain. The first domesticated crops seem to have been the
foxtail and
broomcorn varieties of
millet, while
rice was cultivated in the south. By 2000 BC, wheat had arrived from western Asia. These grains were typically served as warm
noodle soups instead of baked into bread as in Europe. Nobles hunted various wild game and consumed
mutton, pork and
dog as these animals were domesticated. Grain was stored against famine and flood and meat was preserved with salt, vinegar, curing, and fermenting. The flavor of the meat was enhanced by cooking it in animal fats though this practice was mostly restricted to the wealthy.
By the time of
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
in the
late Zhou, gastronomy had become a high art. Confucius discussed the principles of dining: "The rice would never be too white, the meat would never be too finely cut... When it was not cooked right, man would not eat. When it was cooked bad, man would not eat. When the meat was not cut properly, man would not eat. When the food was not prepared with the right sauce, man would not eat. Although there are plenty of meats, they should not be cooked more than staple food. There is no limit for alcohol, before a man gets drunk." The
Lüshi chunqiu notes: "Only if one is chosen as the Son of Heaven will the tastiest delicacies be prepared
or him"
The
Zhaohun (4-3rd c. BC) gives some examples: turtle ragout, honey cakes and beer (chilled with ice).
During
Shi Huangdi's
Qin dynasty, the empire expanded into the south. By the time of the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
, the different regions and cuisines of China's people were linked by major
canal
Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface f ...
s and leading to greater complexity in the different regional cuisines. Not only is food seen as giving "
qi", energy, but the food is also about maintaining yin and yang. The philosophy behind it was rooted in the ''
I Ching'' and
Chinese traditional medicine: food was judged for color, aroma, taste, and texture and a good meal was expected to balance the
Four Natures ('
hot', warm, cool, and '
cold') and the
Five Tastes (pungent, sweet, sour, bitter, and salty).
Salt was used as a preservative from early times, but in cooking was added in the form of soy sauce, and not at the table.
By the Later Han period (2nd century), writers frequently complained of lazy aristocrats who did nothing but sit around all day eating
smoked meats and roasts.
During the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
, the Chinese developed methods of food preservation for military rations during campaigns such as drying meat into
jerky and cooking, roasting, and drying grain.
Chinese legends claim that the roasted, flat bread
shaobing was brought back from the ''
Xiyu'' (the Western Regions, a name for
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes the fo ...
) by the Han dynasty General
Ban Chao, and that it was originally known as hubing (, lit. "barbarian bread"). The shaobing is believed to be descended from the hubing.
Shaobing is believed to be related to the Persian ''
nan'' and Central Asian ''
nan'', as well as the Middle Eastern
pita.
Foreign westerners made and sold sesame cakes in China during the Tang dynasty.
During the
Southern and Northern dynasties non-Han people like the
Xianbei of
Northern Wei introduced their cuisine to northern China, and these influences continued up to the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, popularizing meat like mutton and dairy products like goat milk, yogurts, and
Kumis among even Han people. It was during the Song dynasty that
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
developed an aversion to dairy products and abandoned the dairy foods introduced earlier.
The Han Chinese rebel Wang Su who received asylum in the Xianbei Northern Wei after fleeing from Southern Qi, at first could not stand eating dairy products like goat's milk and meat like mutton and had to consume tea and fish instead, but after a few years he was able to eat yogurt and lamb, and the Xianbei Emperor asked him which of the foods of China (Zhongguo) he preferred, fish vs mutton and tea vs yogurt.
Post-Tang dynasty
The great migration of Chinese people south during the invasions preceding and during the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
increased the relative importance of
southern Chinese staples such as rice and
congee.
Su Dongpo has improved the red braised pork as
Dongpo pork. The dietary and culinary habits also changed greatly during this period, with many ingredients such as
soy sauce and Central Asian influenced foods becoming widespread and the creation of important cookbooks such as the ''Shanjia Qinggong'' () and the ''
Wushi Zhongkuilu'' () showing the respective esoteric foods and common household cuisine of the time.
The
Yuan and
Qing dynasties introduced
Mongolian and
Manchu cuisine
Manchu cuisine or Manchurian cuisine is the cuisine of Manchuria, the historical name for a region which now covers mostly Northeast China and Outer Manchuria. It uses the traditional Manchu staple foods of millet, soybean, peas, corn and broom ...
, warm northern dishes that popularized
hot pot cooking. During the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
many
Muslim communities
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraham ...
emerged in China, who practiced a porkless cuisine now preserved by
Hui restaurants throughout the country.
Yunnan cuisine is unique in China for its cheeses like
Rubing and
Rushan cheese
''Rushan'' () is a cow's milk cheese of Yunnan, China. It is traditionally made by the Bai people, who call it (or , in another dialect of Bai), the etymology of which is unclear.
Freshly made cows’ milk curds are pulled and stretched int ...
made by the
Bai people, and its yogurt, the yogurt may have been due to a combination of Mongolian influence during the Yuan dynasty, the Central Asian settlement in Yunnan, and the proximity and influence of India and Tibet on Yunnan.
As part of the last leg of the
Columbian Exchange, Spanish and Portuguese traders began introducing foods from the New World to China through the port cities of
Canton and
Macau. Mexican
chili pepper
Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from Nahuatl '' chīlli'' (), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for ...
s became essential ingredients in
Sichuan cuisine and calorically dense potatoes and corn became staple foods across the northern plains.
During the Qing dynasty, Chinese gastronomes such as
Yuan Mei focused upon the primary goal of extracting the maximum flavour of each ingredient. As noted in his culinary work the ''
Suiyuan shidan'', however, the fashions of cuisine at the time were quite varied and in some cases were flamboyantly ostentatious, especially when the display served also a formal ceremonial purpose, as in the case of the
Manchu Han Imperial Feast.
As the pace of life increases in modern China, fast food like
fried noodles,
fried rice
Fried rice is a dish of cooked rice that has been stir-fried in a wok or a frying pan and is usually mixed with other ingredients such as eggs, vegetables, seafood, or meat. It is often eaten by itself or as an accompaniment to another dish. ...
and ''
gaifan
''Gaifan'' () or ''gaijiaofan'' () is a type of dish in Chinese cuisine typically offered in low-cost establishments. It consists of a fish, meat, or vegetable topping served over rice. The dish can be either freshly cooked or previously cooked, ...
'' (dish over rice) become more and more popular.
Regional cuisines
There are a variety of styles of cooking in China, but most Chinese chefs classified eight regional cuisines according to their distinct tastes and local characteristics. A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine but perhaps the best known and most influential are
Cantonese cuisine,
Shandong cuisine,
Jiangsu cuisine (specifically
Huaiyang cuisine) and
Sichuan cuisine.
These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as availability of resources, climate,
geography
Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, an ...
,
history
History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
, cooking techniques and lifestyle. One style may favour the use of
garlic and
shallots over chili and spices, while another may favour preparing
seafood over other meats and
fowl.
Jiangsu cuisine favours cooking techniques such as
braising and
stewing, while
Sichuan cuisine employs
baking.
Zhejiang cuisine focuses more on serving fresh food and shares some traits in common with Japanese food.
Fujian cuisine is famous for its delicious seafood and soups and the use of spices.
Hunan cuisine is famous for its hot and sour taste.
Anhui cuisine incorporates wild food for an unusual taste and is wilder than Fujian cuisine.
Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of
preservation
Preservation may refer to:
Heritage and conservation
* Preservation (library and archival science), activities aimed at prolonging the life of a record while making as few changes as possible
* ''Preservation'' (magazine), published by the Nat ...
such as
drying
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is often used as a final production step before selling or packaging products. To be consid ...
,
salting,
pickling and
fermentation.
In addition, the "rice theory" attempts to describe cultural differences between north and south China; in the north, noodles are more consumed due to wheat being widely grown whereas in the south, rice is more preferred as it has historically been more cultivated there.
Staple foods
Chinese ancestors successfully planted
millet,
rice, and other grains about 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. As for
wheat
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
, another staple, it took another three or four thousand years. For the first time, grains provided people with a steady supply of food. Because of the lack of various foods, Chinese people had to adapt to new eating habits. The meat was scarce at that time, that's why people cooked with small amounts of meat and rice or noodles.
Rice
Rice is a primary
staple food for people from rice farming areas in southern China.
Steamed rice, usually
white rice, is the most commonly eaten form. People in South China also like to use rice to make congee as breakfast. Rice is also used to produce
beer
Beer is one of the oldest and the most widely consumed type of alcoholic drink in the world, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from ce ...
,
baijiu and
vinegar.
Glutinous rice ("sticky rice") is a variety of rice used in special dishes such as lotus leaf rice and glutinous rice balls.
Wheat
In wheat-farming areas in
Northern China, people largely rely on
flour-based food, such as
noodles, ''
bing'' (bread), ''
jiaozi'' (a kind of Chinese
dumplings), and ''
mantou'' (a type of steamed buns).
[Yao, Zhang. ''China Everyday!''. Page One Pub. 2007. ] Wheat likely "appeared in the lower Yellow River around 2600 Before Common Era (BCE), followed by Gansu and Xinjiang around 1900 BCE and finally occurred in the middle Yellow River and Tibet regions by 1600 BCE".
Noodles
Chinese noodles come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often served in soups or fried as toppings. Some varieties, such as Shou Mian (寿面, literally noodles of longevity), is an avatar of long life and good health according to Chinese traditions.
Noodles can be served hot or cold with different toppings, with broth, and occasionally dry (as is the case with mi-fen). Noodles are commonly made with rice flour or wheat flour, but other flours such as
soybean
The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.
Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu ...
are also used in minor groups. The names given to the noodle is unique in their own way, such as the method used to make the noodle as in hand-pulled noodle.
Soybean products
Tofu is made of
soybean
The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.
Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu ...
s and is another popular food product that supplies protein. The production process of tofu varies from region to region, resulting in different kinds of tofu with a wide range of texture and taste.
[J. Li & Y. Hsieh. ''Traditional Chinese Food Technology and Cuisine''. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2004;13(2): 147–155.] Other products such as
soy milk,
soy paste,
soy oil, and fermented
soy sauce are also important in Chinese cooking.
There are many kinds of soybean products, including
tofu skin, smoked tofu, dried tofu, and fried tofu.
Stinky tofu is fermented tofu. Like
blue cheese or
durian, it has a very distinct, potent and strong smell, and is an acquired taste. Hard stinky tofu is often deep-fried and paired with soy sauce or salty spice. Soft stinky tofu is usually used as a spread on steamed buns.
Doufuru is another type of fermented tofu that has a salty taste. Doufuru can be pickled together with soy beans,
red yeast rice or chili to create different color and flavor. This is more of a pickled type of tofu and is not as strongly scented as stinky tofu. Doufuru has the consistency of slightly soft blue cheese, and a taste similar to Japanese
miso paste
is a traditional Japanese seasoning. It is a thick paste produced by fermenting soybeans with salt and ''kōji'' (the fungus ''Aspergillus oryzae'') and sometimes rice, barley, seaweed, or other ingredients. It is used for sauces and sprea ...
, but less salty. Doufuru can be used as a spread on steamed buns, or paired with
rice congee.
Sufu is one other type of fermented tofu that goes through ageing process. The color (red, white, green) and flavor profile can determine the type of sufu it is. This kind of tofu is usually eaten alongside breakfast rice.
Soybean milk is soybean-based milk. It is a morning beverage, and it has many benefits to human health.
Vegetables
Apart from vegetables that can be commonly seen, some unique
vegetables used in Chinese cuisine include
baby corn
An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to ...
,
bok choy
Bok choy (American English, Canadian English, and Australian English), pak choi (British English) or pok choi (''Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''chinensis'') is a type of Chinese cabbage, used as food. ''Chinensis'' varieties do not form heads and have g ...
,
snow peas,
Chinese eggplant,
Chinese broccoli, and
straw mushrooms. Other vegetables including
bean sprouts, pea vine tips,
watercress,
lotus roots, chestnuts, water chestnuts, and
bamboo shoots are also used in different cuisines of China.
Because of different climate and soil conditions, cultivars of green beans, peas, and mushrooms can be found in rich variety.
A variety of dried or pickled vegetables are also processed, especially in drier or colder regions where fresh vegetables were hard to get out of season.
Herbs and seasonings
Seasonings such as fresh
ginger root,
garlic,
scallion,
cilantro and
sesame are widely used in many regional cuisines.
Sichuan peppercorns,
star anise,
cinnamon,
fennel
Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...
,
cloves and
white peppers are also used in different regions.
[ 'The Times'' Accessed June 2011.]
To add extra flavor to the dishes, many Chinese cuisines also contain dried Chinese mushrooms, dried baby shrimp, dried tangerine peel,
[Chinese Restaurants Are Adding Herbs for Flavor and Health]
– ''The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'' and dried Sichuan chillies.
When it comes to
sauce
In cooking, a sauce is a liquid, cream, or semi-solid food, served on or used in preparing other foods. Most sauces are not normally consumed by themselves; they add flavor, moisture, and visual appeal to a dish. ''Sauce'' is a French wor ...
s, China is home to soy sauce, which is made from fermented soybeans and wheat. A number of sauces are also based on fermented soybeans, including
hoisin sauce, ground bean sauce and yellow bean sauce. There are also different sauces preferred by regional cuisines,
oyster sauce,
fish sauce and furu (fermented tofu) are also widely used. Vinegar also has a variety with different flavors: clear rice vinegar,
Chinkiang black rice vinegar, Shanxi vinegar, Henghe vinegar etc.
Desserts and snacks
Generally, seasonal fruits serve as the most common form of dessert consumed after dinner.
Dim sum (点心), originally means a small portion of food, can refer to dessert, or pastries. Later to avoid disambiguation, tian dian (甜点) and gao dian (糕点) are used to describe desserts and pastries.
Traditionally, Chinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, usually during the meal, or at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine.
Besides being served as dim sum along with tea, pastries are used for celebration of traditional festivals. The most famous one is
moon cake, used to celebrate the
Mid-Autumn Festival.
A wide variety of
Chinese desserts are available, mainly including steamed and boiled sweet snacks.
Bing is an umbrella term for all breads in Chinese, also including pastries and sweets. These are baked wheat-flour-based confections, with different stuffings including
red bean paste,
jujube, and a variety of others. Su (酥) is another kind of pastry made with more amount of oil, making the confection more friable. Chinese candies and sweets, called ''táng'' (糖)
["Chinese Desserts."](_blank)
Kaleidoscope - Cultural China
. Accessed June 2011. are usually made with
cane sugar
Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula .
For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and ref ...
, malt sugar, honey, nuts, and fruit.
Gao or Guo are rice-based snacks that are typically steamed
and may be made from glutinous or normal rice.
Another cold dessert is called ''baobing'', which is
shaved ice with sweet syrup.
Chinese jellies are known collectively in the language as ''ices''. Many jelly desserts are traditionally set with agar and are flavoured with fruits, known as guodong (果冻), though
gelatine based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts.
Chinese dessert soups are typically sweet and served hot.
European pastries are also seen in China, like
mille-feuille,
crème brûlée, and
cheesecake, but they are generally not as popular because the Chinese preference of dessert is mildly sweet and less oily.
Many types of street foods, which vary from region to region, can be eaten as snacks or light dinner.
Prawn cracker
Prawn crackers ( id, krupuk udang) are a deep fried snack made from starch and prawn. They are a common snack food in Southeast Asian cuisine, but they are most closely associated with Indonesia.They have also been adapted into East Asian cu ...
s are an often-consumed snack in Southeast China.
Dairy products
Chinese in earlier dynasties evidently drank milk and ate dairy products, although not necessarily from cows, but perhaps ''
kumis'' (fermented mare's milk) or goat's milk.
Historically, many Chinese chefs tried not to use milk, because of the high rate of
lactose intolerance among the Chinese population. However, today, dairy products are increasingly used in Chinese cuisine, such as the "
double skin milk" dessert in Guangdong Province, the Rubing (milk cake) cheese in
Yunnan
Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the ...
, and
yoghurt in Qinghai and Xinjiang. China has a wide variety of dairy desserts that are very popular.
Cold dishes
Cold dishes are usually served before the main meal. Besides salad and pickles as appetizers, they can range from jelly, beancurd, noodle salad, cooked meat and sausages, to jellyfish or cold soups.
Chinese sausages vary from region to region. The most common sausage is made of pork and pork fat. The flavor is generally salty-sweet in Southern China. In other parts of China, sausages are salted to be preserved. Chinese sausage is prepared in many different ways, including oven-roasting, stir-frying, and
steaming
Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American southwest, steam pits used for cooking ha ...
.
Soups
In some part of South China, soups are served between the cold dishes and the main dishes. In other parts of China, soups are served between the main dish and staple foods, before desserts or fruit salad. There are many traditional Chinese soups, such as
wonton soup, herbal chicken soup,
hot and sour soup
Hot and sour soup is a popular example of Sichuan cuisine. Similar versions are found in Henan province, near Beijing, and in Henan cuisine itself, where it may also be known as ''hulatang'' or "pepper hot soup" (胡辣汤).
North America Uni ...
,
winter melon soup, and so on.
Drinks
Tea plays an important role in Chinese dining culture. In China, there are two main types of tea, one is made from dried tea leaves, the other one is made by extracts from tea leaves.
Baijiu and
huangjiu as strong alcoholic beverages are preferred by many people as well. Wine is not so popular as other drinks in China that are consumed whilst dining, although they are usually available in the menu.
Tea
As well as with dim sum, many Chinese drink their tea with snacks such as nuts, plums, dried fruit (in particular
jujube), small sweets, melon seeds, and
waxberry.
China was the earliest country to cultivate and drink tea, which is enjoyed by people from all social classes.
[Q. Hong & F. Chunjian. ''Origins of Chinese Tea and Wine''. Asiapac Books Pte Ltd. 2005..] Tea processing began after the
Qin and
Han dynasties.
The different types of Chinese tea include black, white, green, yellow, oolong, and dark tea. Chinese tea is often classified into several different categories according to the species of plant from which it is sourced, the region in which it is grown, and the method of production used. Some of these types are
green tea,
oolong tea
Oolong (, ; (''wūlóngchá'', "dark dragon" tea)) is a traditional semi-oxidized Chinese tea (''Camellia sinensis)'' produced through a process including withering the plant under strong sun and oxidation before curling and twisting.Zhonggu ...
, black tea, scented tea,
white tea
White tea may refer to one of several styles of tea which generally feature young or minimally processed leaves of the ''Camellia sinensis'' plant.
Currently there is no generally accepted definition of white tea and very little international ...
, and
compressed tea. There are four major
tea plantation regions:
Jiangbei,
Jiangnan,
Huanan and the southwestern region.
Well known types of green tea include
Longjing,
Huangshan
Huangshan (),Bernstein, pp. 125–127. literally meaning the Yellow Mountain(s), is a mountain range in southern Anhui Province in eastern China. It was originally called “Yishan”, and it was renamed because of a legend that Emperor Xua ...
,
Mao Feng,
Bilochun,
Putuofeng Cha, and
Liu'an Guapian.
[Zonglin Chang Xukui Li. ''Aspect of Chinese Culture''. 2006., .] China is the world's largest exporter of green tea.
One of the most ubiquitous accessories in modern China, after a wallet or purse and an umbrella, is a double-walled insulated glass thermos with tea leaves in the top behind a strainer.
Alcoholic beverages
The importance of ''
baijiu'' (
lit. "white liquor") in China (99.5% of its alcoholic market) makes it the most-consumed alcoholic spirit in the world. It dates back to the introduction of distilling during the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
;
[ can be made from wheat, corn, or rice; and is usually around 120 proof (60% ABV). The most ubiquitous brand is the cheap Er guo tou, but Mao Tai is the premium ''baijiu''. Other popular brands include Kang, Lu Zhou Te Qu, and Wu Liang Ye.]
'' Huangjiu'' (lit. "yellow liquor") is not distilled and is a strong rice wine (10–15% ABV). Popular brands include Shaoxing Lao Jiu, Shaoxing Hua Diao, and Te Jia Fan.
While fermented grain beverages have been brewed in China for over 9,000 years, it has been long overshadowed by stronger alcohol like Baijiu and Huangjiu.
Herbal drinks
Chinese herb tea, also known as ''medicinal herbal tea'', is a kind of tea made from Chinese medicinal herbs.
Other beverages
Soy milk, almond milk, walnut milk and coconut milk are also drunk during the meal in different regions. In some parts of China, hawthorn
Hawthorn or Hawthorns may refer to:
Plants
* '' Crataegus'' (hawthorn), a large genus of shrubs and trees in the family Rosaceae
* ''Rhaphiolepis'' (hawthorn), a genus of about 15 species of evergreen shrubs and small trees in the family Rosace ...
and jujube juice are preferred. A small shot of fruit vinegar is served as an appetizer in Shanxi.
Chinese cuisines outside China
Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved and been adapted to local tastes and ingredients, and modified by the local cuisine, to greater or lesser extents. This has resulted in a deep Chinese influence on other national cuisines such as Cambodian cuisine, Filipino cuisine
Filipino cuisine ( fil, lutong Pilipino/pagkaing Pilipino) is composed of the cuisines of more than a hundred distinct ethnolinguistic groups found throughout the Philippine archipelago. A majority of mainstream Filipino dishes that compose Fi ...
, Thai cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine. There are also a large number of forms of fusion cuisine, often popular in the country in question. Some, such as ramen ( Japanese Chinese cuisine) have become popular internationally.
Deep-fried meat combined with sweet and sour sauce as a cooking style receives an enormous preference outside of China. Therefore, many similar international Chinese cuisines are invented based on sweet and sour sauce, including Sweet and sour chicken (Europe and North America), Manchurian chicken (India) or ''tangsuyuk
''Tangsuyuk'' () is a Korean Chinese meat dish with sweet and sour sauce. It can be made with either pork or beef.
History and etymology
''Tangsuyuk'' is a dish that was first made by Chinese merchants in the port city of Incheon, where th ...
'' (South Korea). The Hawaiian pizza was inspired by Chinese sweet and sour flavors.
Apart from the host country, the dishes developed in overseas Chinese cuisines are heavily dependent on the cuisines derived from the origin of the Chinese immigrants. In Korean Chinese cuisine, the dishes derive primarily from Shandong cuisine while Filipino Chinese cuisine is strongly influenced by Fujian cuisine. American Chinese cuisine has distinctive dishes (such as chop suey) originally based on Cantonese cuisine, which are more popular among non-Chinese Americans than with Chinese Americans themselves.
According to the report released by China's largest on-demand service platform in 2018, there are over 600,000 Chinese restaurants overseas. The report also pointed out that hotpot is the most popular food in the foreign market. Sichuan cuisine and some Chinese snacks and fast food followed in second and third place, respectively.
Dining etiquette
Youths should not begin eating before their elders do. When eating from a bowl, one should not hold it with its bottom part, because it resembles the act of begging. Chopsticks
Chopsticks ( or ; Pinyin: ''kuaizi'' or ''zhu'') are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks of Chinese origin that have been used as kitchen and eating utensils in most of East and Southeast Asia for over three millennia. They are held in the ...
are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food. When someone is taking a break from eating at the table, they should not put the chopstick into the rice vertically, because it resembles the Chinese traditional funeral tribute, which involves putting chopsticks inside a bowl of rice vertically. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table. Chopsticks should not be waved around in the air or played with. Food should first be taken from the plate in front. It is considered impolite to stare at a plate. Watching TV, using mobile phones or doing other activities while eating is considered in poor taste. If an older person puts food in a younger person's bowl, the younger person should thank them.
Relation to Chinese philosophy and religion
Food plays various roles in social and cultural life. In Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
, ancestor veneration
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
is conducted by offering food to ancestors and Chinese festivals involve the consumption and preparation of specific foods which have symbolic meanings attached to them. Specific religions in China have their own cuisines such as the Taoist diet, Buddhist cuisine and Chinese Islamic Cuisine. The Kaifeng Jews
The Kaifeng Jews ( zh, t=開封猶太族, p=Kāifēng Yóutàizú; he, יהדות קאיפנג ''Yahădūt Qāʾyfeng'') are members of a small community of descendants of Chinese Jews in Kaifeng, in the Henan province of China. In the early ...
in Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
province once had their own Chinese Jewish cuisine but the community has largely died out in the modern era and not much is known about the specifics of their cuisine but they did influence foods eaten in their region and some of their dishes remain.
Food also plays a role in daily life. The formality of the meal setting can signify what kind of relationship people have with one another, and the type of food can indicate ones' social status and their country of origin. In a formal setting, up to sixteen of any combination of hot and cold dishes would be served to respect the guests. On the other hand, in a casual setting, people would eat inexpensive meals such as at food stalls or homemade food. The typical disparity in food in the Chinese society between the wealthy and everyone below that group lies in the rarity and cost of the food or ingredient, such as shark fins and bear paws. Depending on whether one goes for rice or anything that is made of wheat flour such as noodle or bread as their main source of food, people within similar culture or of different background can assume other's country of origin from the south or north of China. Different foods have different symbolic meanings. Mooncakes and dumplings are symbolic of the Mid-autumn festival and the Spring Festival, respectively. Pear symbolizes bad luck due to its similarity in pronunciation of 'away' in the native language and noodle means living a long life for its length.
In Chinese philosophy, food frequently conveys a message. A Chinese philosophy '' I Ching'' says, “Gentlemen use eating as a way to attain happiness. They should be aware of what they say, and refrain from eating too much."
Chinese culture has guidelines in how and when food are eaten. Chinese people typically eat three meals a day. Breakfast is served around 6-9am, lunch is served around 12-2pm, and dinner is served around 6-9pm. Within the Chinese culture, families do follow different traditions. In some families, the elderly members and youngsters get their meal first, then the mother and father, and then the children and teenagers. Other families have the male and female eat separately at different seating area. Whatever tradition the family decided to follow, it is all to show respect to members of the family.
See also
* '' A Bite of China'' by CCTV
* The eight major traditions of Chinese cuisine
** Shandong cuisine
** Sichuan cuisine
** Cantonese cuisine
** Fujian cuisine
** Jiangsu cuisine
** Zhejiang cuisine
** Hunan cuisine
** Anhui cuisine
* Other traditions in Chinese cuisine
** Beijing cuisine
*** Chinese imperial cuisine
** Shanghai cuisine
** Huaiyang cuisine
** Hubei cuisine
** Jiangxi cuisine
** Henan cuisine
Henan or Yu cuisine is an umbrella term used to define the native cooking styles of the Henan province in China. Henan (河南, or Honan) is a province located in Central China and is often also referred to by the names Zhongzhou or Zhongyuan, ...
** Shanxi cuisine
Shanxi cuisine, or Jin cuisine, is derived from the native cooking styles of Shanxi Province in China. It is famous for noodles, fried flatbread (''da bing'') and sour tastes. The cuisine is also famed for using its locally produced vinegar, just ...
** Shaanxi cuisine
Shaanxi cuisine, or Qin cuisine, is derived from the native cooking styles of Shaanxi Province and parts of northwestern China.
Description
Shaanxi cuisine makes elaborate use of ordinary materials, and is best known for its noodles and lamb/mu ...
** British Chinese cuisine
** Guizhou cuisine
Guizhou cuisine, or Qian cuisine, consists of cooking traditions and dishes from Guizhou Province in southwestern China. Guizhou cuisine shares many features with Sichuan cuisine and Hunan cuisine, especially in bringing the sensation of spic ...
** Yunnan cuisine
** Teochew cuisine
* List of Chinese bakery products
Chinese bakery products ( or ) consist of pastries, cakes, snacks, and desserts of largely East Asian origin, though some are derived from Western baked goods. Some of the most common "Chinese" bakery products include mooncakes, sun cakes (Bei ...
* List of Chinese desserts
* List of Chinese dishes
* List of Chinese sauces
This is a list of notable Chinese sauces, encompassing sauces that originated in China or are widely used as cooking ingredients or condiments in Chinese cuisines.
Chinese sauces
These sauces are commonly used as ingredients for dishes in many Ch ...
* List of Chinese soups
* Chinese regional cuisine
* Chinese food therapy
* History of Chinese cuisine
* Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining
* Chinese cooking techniques
* Chinese Cuisine Training Institute
Chinese Culinary Institute (CCI) formerly known in English as Chinese Cuisine Training Institute (CCTI), is a cooking school at Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong. It is established and run by the Vocational Training Council of Hong Kong. It provides bot ...
* List of restaurants in China
This is a list of notable restaurants in China.
Restaurants
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*
*
*
*
Coffee and tea houses
*
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*
Fast food chains
*
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See also
* Chinese cuisine
* Chinese restaurant
* Chinese restaura ...
* Pizza in China
References
Further reading
; History
*
*
* David R. Knechtges, "A Literary Feast: Food in Early Chinese Literature," ''Journal of the American Oriental Society ''106.1 (1986): 49–63.
*
*
* Sterckx, Roel. ''Food, Sacrifice, and Sagehood in Early China.'' New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011 (2015).
* Sterckx, Roel. ''Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.'' London: Penguin, 2019.
*
*
* Endymion Wilkinson, "Chinese Culinary History (Feature Review)," ''China Review International ''8.2 (Fall 2001): 285–302.
*
; Cookbooks
* Buwei Yang Chao. '' How to Cook and Eat in Chinese.'' (New York: John Day, 1945; revisions and reprints).
* Fuchsia Dunlop
Fuchsia Dunlop is an English writer and cook who specialises in Chinese cuisine, especially Sichuan cuisine. She is the author of five books, including the autobiographical ''Shark's Fin and Sichuan Pepper'' (2008). According to Julia Moskin in ...
. ''Land of Plenty: A Treasury of Authentic Sichuan Cooking.'' (New York: Norton, 2003). .
* Fuchsia Dunlop. ''Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province.'' (New York: Norton, 2007). .
* Fuchsia Dunlop. ''Shark's Fin and Sichuan Pepper: A Sweet-Sour Memoir of Eating in China.'' (New York: Norton, 2008). .
* Fuchsia Dunlop. ''Every Grain of Rice: Simple Chinese Home Cooking'' (2012).
* Emily Hahn, ''Recipes, The Cooking of China.'' (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, Foods of the World, 1981).
* Hsiang-Ju Lin and Tsuifeng Lin. ''Chinese Gastronomy.'' (London: Nelson, 1969; rpr.). .
* Yan-Kit So. ''Classic Food of China.'' (London: Macmillan, rpr 1994, 1992). .
* Martin Yan. ''Martin Yan's Chinatown Cooking: 200 Traditional Recipes from 11 Chinatowns around the World.'' (New York: Morrow, 2002). .
*Georgina Freedman. ''Cooking South of The Clouds: Recipes and Stories From China's Yunnan Province.'' (Octopus; Kyle, 2018). .
External links
* K.C. Chan
"Food in Chinese Culture"
Asia Society
*
*
Chinese food made easy
at the BBC
*
Chinese Culinary History (Websites for Research)
Stony Brook University Libraries.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Cuisine
East Asian cuisine