Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of
fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids ( liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them.
It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, aerospace, civil, chemical and ...
that uses
numerical analysis
Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). It is the study of numerical methods ...
and
data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve
fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (
liquids and
gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or ...
es) with surfaces defined by
boundary conditions. With high-speed
supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems. Ongoing research yields software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as
transonic
Transonic (or transsonic) flow is air flowing around an object at a speed that generates regions of both subsonic and supersonic airflow around that object. The exact range of speeds depends on the object's critical Mach number, but transoni ...
or
turbulent
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between ...
flows. Initial validation of such software is typically performed using experimental apparatus such as
wind tunnel
Wind tunnels are large tubes with air blowing through them which are used to replicate the interaction between air and an object flying through the air or moving along the ground. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft ...
s. In addition, previously performed
analytical or
empirical analysis of a particular problem can be used for comparison. A final validation is often performed using full-scale testing, such as
flight test
Flight testing is a branch of aeronautical engineering that develops specialist equipment required for testing aircraft behaviour and systems. Instrumentation systems are developed using proprietary transducers and data acquisition systems. D ...
s.
CFD is applied to a wide range of research and engineering problems in many fields of study and industries, including
aerodynamics
Aerodynamics, from grc, ἀήρ ''aero'' (air) + grc, δυναμική (dynamics), is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dy ...
and aerospace analysis,
hypersonics,
weather simulation, natural science and
environmental engineering
Environmental engineering is a professional engineering discipline that encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and ...
, industrial system design and analysis,
biological engineering, fluid flows and
heat transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, ...
,
engine
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy.
Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g. energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power ...
and
combustion
Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combus ...
analysis, and visual effects for film and games.
Background and history
![X-43A (Hyper - X) Mach 7 computational fluid dynamic (CFD)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/X-43A_%28Hyper_-_X%29_Mach_7_computational_fluid_dynamic_%28CFD%29.jpg)
The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems is the
Navier–Stokes equations
In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations ( ) are partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician Geo ...
, which define many single-phase (gas or liquid, but not both) fluid flows. These equations can be simplified by removing terms describing
viscous
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity quantifies the inte ...
actions to yield the
Euler equations
200px, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
In mathematics and physics, many topics are named in honor of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who made many important discoveries and innovations. Many of these items named after Euler include ...
. Further simplification, by removing terms describing
vorticity
In continuum mechanics, vorticity is a pseudovector field that describes the local spinning motion of a continuum near some point (the tendency of something to rotate), as would be seen by an observer located at that point and traveling along wi ...
yields the
full potential equation
In fluid dynamics, potential flow (or ideal flow) describes the velocity field as the gradient of a scalar function: the velocity potential. As a result, a potential flow is characterized by an irrotational velocity field, which is a valid appr ...
s. Finally, for small
perturbation
Perturbation or perturb may refer to:
* Perturbation theory, mathematical methods that give approximate solutions to problems that cannot be solved exactly
* Perturbation (geology), changes in the nature of alluvial deposits over time
* Perturbat ...
s in subsonic and
supersonic flows (not
transonic
Transonic (or transsonic) flow is air flowing around an object at a speed that generates regions of both subsonic and supersonic airflow around that object. The exact range of speeds depends on the object's critical Mach number, but transoni ...
or
hypersonic) these equations can be
linearized to yield the linearized potential equations.
Historically, methods were first developed to solve the linearized potential equations. Two-dimensional (2D) methods, using
conformal transformation
In mathematics, a conformal map is a function that locally preserves angles, but not necessarily lengths.
More formally, let U and V be open subsets of \mathbb^n. A function f:U\to V is called conformal (or angle-preserving) at a point u_0\in ...
s of the flow about a
cylinder
A cylinder (from ) has traditionally been a three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic of curvilinear geometric shapes. In elementary geometry, it is considered a prism with a circle as its base.
A cylinder may also be defined as an infin ...
to the flow about an
airfoil were developed in the 1930s.
One of the earliest type of calculations resembling modern CFD are those by
Lewis Fry Richardson, in the sense that these calculations used finite differences and divided the physical space in cells. Although they failed dramatically, these calculations, together with Richardson's book ''Weather Prediction by Numerical Process'', set the basis for modern CFD and numerical meteorology. In fact, early CFD calculations during the 1940s using
ENIAC
ENIAC (; Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first programmable, electronic, general-purpose digital computer, completed in 1945. There were other computers that had these features, but the ENIAC had all of them in one pac ...
used methods close to those in Richardson's 1922 book.
The computer power available paced development of
three-dimensional
Three-dimensional space (also: 3D space, 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which three values (called ''parameters'') are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This is the informa ...
methods. Probably the first work using computers to model fluid flow, as governed by the Navier–Stokes equations, was performed at
Los Alamos National Lab
Los Alamos National Laboratory (often shortened as Los Alamos and LANL) is one of the sixteen research and development laboratories of the United States Department of Energy (DOE), located a short distance northwest of Santa Fe, New Mexico, in ...
, in the T3 group.
This group was led by
Francis H. Harlow, who is widely considered one of the pioneers of CFD. From 1957 to late 1960s, this group developed a variety of numerical methods to simulate transient two-dimensional fluid flows, such as
particle-in-cell
In plasma physics, the particle-in-cell (PIC) method refers to a technique used to solve a certain class of partial differential equations. In this method, individual particles (or fluid elements) in a Lagrangian frame are tracked in continuous ph ...
method,
fluid-in-cell method,
vorticity stream function
In continuum mechanics, vorticity is a pseudovector field that describes the local spinning motion of a continuum near some point (the tendency of something to rotate), as would be seen by an observer located at that point and traveling along wit ...
method,
and
marker-and-cell method The marker-and-cell method is commonly used in computer graphics to discretize functions for fluid and other simulations. It was developed by Francis Harlow and his collaborators at the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
See also
*Immersed boundary ...
.
Fromm's vorticity-stream-function method for 2D, transient, incompressible flow was the first treatment of strongly contorting incompressible flows in the world.
The first paper with three-dimensional model was published by John Hess and
A.M.O. Smith
Apollo Milton Olin Smith (usually referred to as A.M.O. Smith) (July 2, 1911 – May 1, 1997) was an important figure in the aerodynamics field at Douglas Aircraft from 1938 to 1975 and an early pioneer in the area of computational fluid dynamics. ...
of
Douglas Aircraft
The Douglas Aircraft Company was an American aerospace manufacturer based in Southern California. It was founded in 1921 by Donald Wills Douglas Sr. and later merged with McDonnell Aircraft in 1967 to form McDonnell Douglas; it then operated as ...
in 1967. This method discretized the surface of the geometry with panels, giving rise to this class of programs being called Panel Methods. Their method itself was simplified, in that it did not include lifting flows and hence was mainly applied to ship hulls and aircraft fuselages. The first lifting Panel Code (A230) was described in a paper written by Paul Rubbert and Gary Saaris of Boeing Aircraft in 1968. In time, more advanced three-dimensional Panel Codes were developed at
Boeing
The Boeing Company () is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, telecommunications equipment, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and p ...
(PANAIR, A502),
Lockheed (Quadpan),
Douglas
Douglas may refer to:
People
* Douglas (given name)
* Douglas (surname)
Animals
* Douglas (parrot), macaw that starred as the parrot ''Rosalinda'' in Pippi Longstocking
*Douglas the camel, a camel in the Confederate Army in the American Civi ...
(HESS),
McDonnell Aircraft
The McDonnell Aircraft Corporation was an American aerospace manufacturer based in St. Louis, Missouri. The company was founded on July 6, 1939, by James Smith McDonnell, and was best known for its military fighters, including the F-4 Phantom I ...
(MACAERO),
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil List of government space agencies, space program ...
(PMARC) and Analytical Methods (WBAERO, USAERO and VSAERO). Some (PANAIR, HESS and MACAERO) were higher order codes, using higher order distributions of surface singularities, while others (Quadpan, PMARC, USAERO and VSAERO) used single singularities on each surface panel. The advantage of the lower order codes was that they ran much faster on the computers of the time. Today, VSAERO has grown to be a multi-order code and is the most widely used program of this class. It has been used in the development of many
submarines, surface
ship
A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguished ...
s,
automobile
A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport people instead of goods.
The year 1886 is regarde ...
s,
helicopter
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and laterally. These attributes ...
s,
aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engine ...
, and more recently
wind turbine
A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy. Hundreds of thousands of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, now generate over 650 gigawatts of power, with 60 GW added each yea ...
s. Its sister code, USAERO is an unsteady panel method that has also been used for modeling such things as high speed trains and racing
yacht
A yacht is a sailing or power vessel used for pleasure, cruising, or racing. There is no standard definition, though the term generally applies to vessels with a cabin intended for overnight use. To be termed a , as opposed to a , such a pleasu ...
s. The NASA PMARC code from an early version of VSAERO and a derivative of PMARC, named CMARC, is also commercially available.
In the two-dimensional realm, a number of Panel Codes have been developed for airfoil analysis and design. The codes typically have a
boundary layer
In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface. The fluid's interaction with the wall induces a no-slip boundary cond ...
analysis included, so that viscous effects can be modeled. developed the PROFILE code, partly with NASA funding, which became available in the early 1980s. This was soon followed by
Mark Drela
Mark Drela (July 1, 1959) is an American aeronautical engineer, currently the Professor of Fluid Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and an Elected Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He is primarily ...
's
XFOIL
XFOIL is an interactive program for the design and analysis of subsonic isolated airfoils. Given the coordinates specifying the shape of a 2D airfoil, Reynolds and Mach numbers, XFOIL can calculate the pressure distribution on the airfoil and he ...
code. Both PROFILE and XFOIL incorporate two-dimensional panel codes, with coupled boundary layer codes for airfoil analysis work. PROFILE uses a
conformal transformation
In mathematics, a conformal map is a function that locally preserves angles, but not necessarily lengths.
More formally, let U and V be open subsets of \mathbb^n. A function f:U\to V is called conformal (or angle-preserving) at a point u_0\in ...
method for inverse airfoil design, while XFOIL has both a conformal transformation and an inverse panel method for airfoil design.
An intermediate step between Panel Codes and Full Potential codes were codes that used the Transonic Small Disturbance equations. In particular, the three-dimensional WIBCO code, developed by Charlie Boppe of
Grumman Aircraft
The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a 20th century American producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6, 1929, by Leroy Grumman and his business partners, it merged in 199 ...
in the early 1980s has seen heavy use.
![Starship simul 3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Starship_simul_3.png)
Developers turned to Full Potential codes, as panel methods could not calculate the non-linear flow present at
transonic
Transonic (or transsonic) flow is air flowing around an object at a speed that generates regions of both subsonic and supersonic airflow around that object. The exact range of speeds depends on the object's critical Mach number, but transoni ...
speeds. The first description of a means of using the Full Potential equations was published by Earll Murman and
Julian Cole of Boeing in 1970. Frances Bauer,
Paul Garabedian
Paul Roesel Garabedian (August 2, 1927May 13, 2010) was a mathematician and numerical analysis, numerical analyst. Garabedian was the Director-Division of Computational Fluid Dynamics at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York Univ ...
and
David Korn of the Courant Institute at
New York University
New York University (NYU) is a private research university in New York City. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded by a group of New Yorkers led by then- Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin.
In 1832, th ...
(NYU) wrote a series of two-dimensional Full Potential airfoil codes that were widely used, the most important being named Program H. A further growth of Program H was developed by Bob Melnik and his group at
Grumman Aerospace
The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a 20th century American producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6, 1929, by Leroy Grumman and his business partners, it merged in 1994 ...
as Grumfoil.
Antony Jameson
Guy Antony Jameson, Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS, FREng (born 20 November 1934, Gillingham, Kent) is Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Texas A&M University. Jameson is known for his pioneering work in the field of comp ...
, originally at Grumman Aircraft and the Courant Institute of NYU, worked with David Caughey to develop the important three-dimensional Full Potential code FLO22 in 1975. Many Full Potential codes emerged after this, culminating in Boeing's Tranair (A633) code, which still sees heavy use.
The next step was the Euler equations, which promised to provide more accurate solutions of transonic flows. The methodology used by Jameson in his three-dimensional FLO57 code (1981) was used by others to produce such programs as Lockheed's TEAM program and IAI/Analytical Methods' MGAERO program. MGAERO is unique in being a structured
cartesian mesh code, while most other such codes use structured body-fitted grids (with the exception of NASA's highly successful CART3D code, Lockheed's SPLITFLOW code and
Georgia Tech
The Georgia Institute of Technology, commonly referred to as Georgia Tech or, in the state of Georgia, as Tech or The Institute, is a public research university and institute of technology in Atlanta, Georgia. Established in 1885, it is part of ...
's NASCART-GT).
Antony Jameson
Guy Antony Jameson, Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS, FREng (born 20 November 1934, Gillingham, Kent) is Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Texas A&M University. Jameson is known for his pioneering work in the field of comp ...
also developed the three-dimensional AIRPLANE code which made use of unstructured tetrahedral grids.
In the two-dimensional realm, Mark Drela and Michael Giles, then graduate students at MIT, developed the ISES Euler program (actually a suite of programs) for airfoil design and analysis. This code first became available in 1986 and has been further developed to design, analyze and optimize single or multi-element airfoils, as the MSES program. MSES sees wide use throughout the world. A derivative of MSES, for the design and analysis of airfoils in a cascade, is MISES, developed by Harold Youngren while he was a graduate student at MIT.
The Navier–Stokes equations were the ultimate target of development. Two-dimensional codes, such as NASA Ames' ARC2D code first emerged. A number of three-dimensional codes were developed (ARC3D,
OVERFLOW, CFL3D are three successful NASA contributions), leading to numerous commercial packages.
Hierarchy of fluid flow equations
CFD can be seen as a group of computational methodologies (discussed below) used to solve equations governing fluid flow. In the application of CFD, a critical step is to decide which set of physical assumptions and related equations need to be used for the problem at hand.
To illustrate this step, the following summarizes the physical assumptions/simplifications taken in equations of a flow that is single-phase (see
multiphase flow
In fluid mechanics, multiphase flow is the simultaneous flow of materials with two or more thermodynamic phases. Virtually all processing technologies from cavitating pumps and turbines to paper-making and the construction of plastics involve so ...
and
two-phase flow
In fluid mechanics, two-phase flow is a flow of gas and liquid — a particular example of multiphase flow. Two-phase flow can occur in various forms, such as flows transitioning from pure liquid to vapor as a result of external heating, separ ...
), single-species (i.e., it consists of one chemical species), non-reacting, and (unless said otherwise) compressible. Thermal radiation is neglected, and body forces due to gravity are considered (unless said otherwise). In addition, for this type of flow, the next discussion highlights the hierarchy of flow equations solved with CFD. Note that some of the following equations could be derived in more than one way.
*
Conservation laws
In physics, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves over time. Exact conservation laws include conservation of energy, conservation of linear momentum, ...
(CL): These are the most fundamental equations considered with CFD in the sense that, for example, all the following equations can be derived from them. For a single-phase, single-specie, compressible flow one considers the
conservation of mass
In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as the system's mass can ...
,
conservation of linear momentum
In Newtonian mechanics, momentum (more specifically linear momentum or translational momentum) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a direction. If is an object's mass ...
, and
conservation of energy.
* Continuum conservation laws (CCL): Start with the CL. Assume that mass, momentum and energy are ''locally'' conserved: These quantities are conserved and cannot "teleport" from one place to another but can only move by a continuous flow (see
continuity equation). Another interpretation is that one starts with the CL and assumes a continuum medium (see
continuum mechanics). The resulting system of equations is unclosed since to solve it one needs further relationships/equations: (a) constitutive relationships for the
viscous stress tensor
The viscous stress tensor is a tensor used in continuum mechanics to model the part of the stress at a point within some material that can be attributed to the strain rate, the rate at which it is deforming around that point.
The viscous stress ...
; (b) constitutive relationships for the diffusive
heat flux; (c) an
equation of state
In physics, chemistry, and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables, which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature, or intern ...
(EOS), such as the
ideal gas
An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that are not subject to interparticle interactions. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a simplified equation of state, and is a ...
law; and, (d) a caloric equation of state relating temperature with quantities such as
enthalpy
Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant ...
or
internal energy.
* Compressible
Navier-Stokes equations (C-NS): Start with the CCL. Assume a Newtonian viscous stress tensor (see
Newtonian fluid
A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from its flow are at every point linearly correlated to the local strain rate — the rate of change of its deformation over time. Stresses are proportional to the rate of chang ...
) and a Fourier heat flux (see
heat flux).
The C-NS need to be augmented with an EOS and a caloric EOS to have a closed system of equations.
* Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations (I-NS): Start with the C-NS. Assume that density is always and everywhere constant.
Another way to obtain the I-NS is to assume that the
Mach number is very small
and that temperature differences in the fluid are very small as well.
As a result, the mass-conservation and momentum-conservation equations are decoupled from the energy-conservation equation, so one only needs to solve for the first two equations.
* Compressible
Euler equations
200px, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
In mathematics and physics, many topics are named in honor of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who made many important discoveries and innovations. Many of these items named after Euler include ...
(EE): Start with the C-NS. Assume a frictionless flow with no diffusive heat flux.
* Weakly compressible Navier-Stokes equations (WC-NS): Start with the C-NS. Assume that density variations depend only on temperature and not on pressure.
For example, for an
ideal gas
An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that are not subject to interparticle interactions. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a simplified equation of state, and is a ...
, use
, where
is a conveniently-defined reference pressure that is always and everywhere constant,
is density,
is the specific
gas constant
The molar gas constant (also known as the gas constant, universal gas constant, or ideal gas constant) is denoted by the symbol or . It is the molar equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, expressed in units of energy per temperature increment per ...
, and
is temperature. As a result, the WC-NS do not capture acoustic waves. It is also common in the WC-NS to neglect the pressure-work and viscous-heating terms in the energy-conservation equation. The WC-NS are also called the C-NS with the low-Mach-number approximation.
* Boussinesq equations: Start with the C-NS. Assume that density variations are always and everywhere negligible except in the gravity term of the momentum-conservation equation (where density multiplies the gravitational acceleration).
Also assume that various fluid properties such as
viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity quantifies the inte ...
,
thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by k, \lambda, or \kappa.
Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal ...
, and
heat capacity
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to an object to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K).
Heat capacity ...
are always and everywhere constant. The Boussinesq equations are widely used in
microscale meteorology Microscale meteorology or micrometeorology is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than mesoscale, about or less. These two branches of meteorology are sometimes grouped together as "mesoscale and microscale meteorology" (MMM) ...
.
* Compressible
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations
The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS equations) are time-averaged
equations of motion for fluid flow. The idea behind the equations is Reynolds decomposition, whereby an instantaneous quantity is decomposed into its time-averaged ...
and compressible Favre-averaged Navier-Stokes equations (C-RANS and C-FANS): Start with the C-NS. Assume that any flow variable
, such as density, velocity and pressure, can be represented as
, where
is the ensemble-average
of any flow variable, and
is a perturbation or fluctuation from this average.
is not necessarily small. If
is a classic ensemble-average (see
Reynolds decomposition
In fluid dynamics and turbulence theory, Reynolds decomposition is a mathematical technique used to separate the expectation value of a quantity from its fluctuations.
Decomposition
For example, for a quantity u the decomposition would be
u(x,y,z ...
) one obtains the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations. And if
is a density-weighted ensemble-average one obtains the Favre-averaged Navier-Stokes equations.
As a result, and depending on the Reynolds number, the range of scales of motion is greatly reduced, something which leads to much faster solutions in comparison to solving the C-NS. However, information is lost, and the resulting system of equations requires the closure of various unclosed terms, notably the
Reynolds stress
In fluid dynamics, the Reynolds stress is the component of the total stress tensor in a fluid obtained from the averaging operation over the Navier–Stokes equations to account for turbulent fluctuations in fluid momentum.
Definition
The veloci ...
.
* Ideal flow or
potential flow
In fluid dynamics, potential flow (or ideal flow) describes the velocity field as the gradient of a scalar function: the velocity potential. As a result, a potential flow is characterized by an irrotational velocity field, which is a valid app ...
equations: Start with the EE. Assume zero fluid-particle rotation (zero vorticity) and zero flow expansion (zero divergence).
The resulting flowfield is entirely determined by the geometrical boundaries.
Ideal flows can be useful in modern CFD to initialize simulations.
* Linearized compressible Euler equations (LEE):
Start with the EE. Assume that any flow variable
, such as density, velocity and pressure, can be represented as
, where
is the value of the flow variable at some reference or base state, and
is a perturbation or fluctuation from this state. Furthermore, assume that this perturbation
is very small in comparison with some reference value. Finally, assume that
satisfies "its own" equation, such as the EE. The LEE and its many variations are widely used in
computational aeroacoustics
Computational aeroacoustics is a branch of aeroacoustics that aims to analyze the generation of noise by turbulent flows through numerical methods.
History
The origin of computational aeroacoustics can only very likely be dated back to the middle ...
.
* Sound wave or
acoustic wave equation
In physics, the acoustic wave equation governs the propagation of acoustic waves through a material medium resp. a standing wavefield. The form of the equation is a second order partial differential equation. The equation describes the evolutio ...
: Start with the LEE. Neglect all gradients of
and
, and assume that the Mach number at the reference or base state is very small.
The resulting equations for density, momentum and energy can be manipulated into a pressure equation, giving the well-known sound wave equation.
*
Shallow water equations
The shallow-water equations (SWE) are a set of hyperbolic partial differential equations (or parabolic if viscous shear is considered) that describe the flow below a pressure surface in a fluid (sometimes, but not necessarily, a free surface). ...
(SW): Consider a flow near a wall where the wall-parallel length-scale of interest is much larger than the wall-normal length-scale of interest. Start with the EE. Assume that density is always and everywhere constant, neglect the velocity component perpendicular to the wall, and consider the velocity parallel to the wall to be spatially-constant.
*
Boundary layer
In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface. The fluid's interaction with the wall induces a no-slip boundary cond ...
equations (BL): Start with the C-NS (I-NS) for compressible (incompressible) boundary layers. Assume that there are thin regions next to walls where spatial gradients perpendicular to the wall are much larger than those parallel to the wall.
* Bernoulli equation: Start with the EE. Assume that density variations depend only on pressure variations.
See
Bernoulli's Principle
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The principle is named after the Swiss mathematici ...
.
* Steady Bernoulli equation: Start with the Bernoulli Equation and assume a steady flow.
Or start with the EE and assume that the flow is steady and integrate the resulting equation along a streamline.
*
Stokes Flow or creeping flow equations: Start with the C-NS or I-NS. Neglect the inertia of the flow.
Such an assumption can be justified when the
Reynolds number is very low. As a result, the resulting set of equations is linear, something which simplifies greatly their solution.
* Two-dimensional channel flow equation: Consider the flow between two infinite parallel plates. Start with the C-NS. Assume that the flow is steady, two-dimensional, and fully developed (i.e., the velocity profile does not change along the streamwise direction).
Note that this widely-used fully-developed assumption can be inadequate in some instances, such as some compressible, microchannel flows, in which case it can be supplanted by a ''locally'' fully-developed assumption.
* One-dimensional Euler equations or one-dimensional gas-dynamic equations (1D-EE): Start with the EE. Assume that all flow quantities depend only on one spatial dimension.
*
Fanno flow
Fanno flow is the Adiabatic process, adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of friction is considered. Compressible flow, Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Fanno flow model certainly also appl ...
equation: Consider the flow inside a duct with constant area and adiabatic walls. Start with the 1D-EE. Assume a steady flow, no gravity effects, and introduce in the momentum-conservation equation an empirical term to recover the effect of wall friction (neglected in the EE). To close the Fanno flow equation, a model for this friction term is needed. Such a closure involves problem-dependent assumptions.
*
Rayleigh flow Rayleigh flow refers to frictionless, non- adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of heat addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly a ...
equation. Consider the flow inside a duct with constant area and either non-adiabatic walls without volumetric heat sources or adiabatic walls with volumetric heat sources. Start with the 1D-EE. Assume a steady flow, no gravity effects, and introduce in the energy-conservation equation an empirical term to recover the effect of wall heat transfer or the effect of the heat sources (neglected in the EE).
Methodology
In all of these approaches the same basic procedure is followed.
* During
preprocessing
** The
geometry
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...
and physical bounds of the problem can be defined using
computer aided design (CAD). From there, data can be suitably processed (cleaned-up) and the fluid volume (or fluid domain) is extracted.
** The
volume
Volume is a measure of occupied three-dimensional space. It is often quantified numerically using SI derived units (such as the cubic metre and litre) or by various imperial or US customary units (such as the gallon, quart, cubic inch). Th ...
occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the mesh). The mesh may be uniform or non-uniform, structured or unstructured, consisting of a combination of hexahedral, tetrahedral, prismatic, pyramidal or polyhedral elements.
** The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of fluid motion +
enthalpy
Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant ...
+ radiation + species conservation
** Boundary conditions are defined. This involves specifying the fluid behaviour and properties at all bounding surfaces of the fluid domain. For transient problems, the initial conditions are also defined.
* The
simulation
A simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. Simulations require the use of models; the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected system or process, whereas the s ...
is started and the equations are solved iteratively as a steady-state or transient.
* Finally a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of the resulting solution.
Discretization methods
The stability of the selected discretisation is generally established numerically rather than analytically as with simple linear problems. Special care must also be taken to ensure that the discretisation handles discontinuous solutions gracefully. The
Euler equations
200px, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
In mathematics and physics, many topics are named in honor of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who made many important discoveries and innovations. Many of these items named after Euler include ...
and
Navier–Stokes equations
In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations ( ) are partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician Geo ...
both admit shocks, and contact surfaces.
Some of the discretization methods being used are:
Finite volume method
The finite volume method (FVM) is a common approach used in CFD codes, as it has an advantage in
memory
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembered ...
usage and solution speed, especially for large problems, high
Reynolds number turbulent flows, and source term dominated flows (like combustion).
In the finite volume method, the governing partial differential equations (typically the Navier-Stokes equations, the mass and energy conservation equations, and the turbulence equations) are recast in a conservative form, and then solved over discrete control volumes. This
discretization guarantees the conservation of fluxes through a particular control volume. The finite volume equation yields governing equations in the form,
:
where
is the vector of conserved variables,
is the vector of fluxes (see
Euler equations
200px, Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
In mathematics and physics, many topics are named in honor of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who made many important discoveries and innovations. Many of these items named after Euler include ...
or
Navier–Stokes equations
In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations ( ) are partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician Geo ...
),
is the volume of the control volume element, and
is the surface area of the control volume element.
Finite element method
The finite element method (FEM) is used in structural analysis of solids, but is also applicable to fluids. However, the FEM formulation requires special care to ensure a conservative solution. The FEM formulation has been adapted for use with fluid dynamics governing equations.
Although FEM must be carefully formulated to be conservative, it is much more stable than the finite volume approach. However, FEM can require more memory and has slower solution times than the FVM.
In this method, a weighted residual equation is formed:
:
where
is the equation residual at an element vertex
,
is the conservation equation expressed on an element basis,
is the weight factor, and
is the volume of the element.
Finite difference method
The finite difference method (FDM) has historical importance
and is simple to program. It is currently only used in few specialized codes, which handle complex geometry with high accuracy and efficiency by using embedded boundaries or overlapping grids (with the solution interpolated across each grid).
:
where
is the vector of conserved variables, and
,
, and
are the fluxes in the
,
, and
directions respectively.
Spectral element method
Spectral element method is a finite element type method. It requires the mathematical problem (the partial differential equation) to be cast in a weak formulation. This is typically done by multiplying the differential equation by an arbitrary test function and integrating over the whole domain. Purely mathematically, the test functions are completely arbitrary - they belong to an infinite-dimensional function space. Clearly an infinite-dimensional function space cannot be represented on a discrete spectral element mesh; this is where the spectral element discretization begins. The most crucial thing is the choice of interpolating and testing functions. In a standard, low order FEM in 2D, for quadrilateral elements the most typical choice is the bilinear test or interpolating function of the form
. In a spectral element method however, the interpolating and test functions are chosen to be polynomials of a very high order (typically e.g. of the 10th order in CFD applications). This guarantees the rapid convergence of the method. Furthermore, very efficient integration procedures must be used, since the number of integrations to be performed in numerical codes is big. Thus, high order Gauss integration quadratures are employed, since they achieve the highest accuracy with the smallest number of computations to be carried out.
At the time there are some academic CFD codes based on the spectral element method and some more are currently under development, since the new time-stepping schemes arise in the scientific world.
Lattice Boltzmann method
The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with its simplified kinetic picture on a lattice provides a computationally efficient description of hydrodynamics.
Unlike the traditional CFD methods, which solve the conservation equations of macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and energy) numerically, LBM models the fluid consisting of fictive particles, and such particles perform consecutive propagation and collision processes over a discrete lattice mesh. In this method, one works with the discrete in space and time version of the kinetic evolution equation in the Boltzmann
Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) form.
Vortex method
The vortex method, also Lagrangian Vortex Particle Method, is a
meshfree technique for the simulation of incompressible turbulent flows. In it,
vorticity
In continuum mechanics, vorticity is a pseudovector field that describes the local spinning motion of a continuum near some point (the tendency of something to rotate), as would be seen by an observer located at that point and traveling along wi ...
is discretized onto
Lagrangian
Lagrangian may refer to:
Mathematics
* Lagrangian function, used to solve constrained minimization problems in optimization theory; see Lagrange multiplier
** Lagrangian relaxation, the method of approximating a difficult constrained problem with ...
particles, these computational elements being called vortices, vortons, or vortex particles. Vortex methods were developed as a grid-free methodology that would not be limited by the fundamental smoothing effects associated with grid-based methods. To be practical, however, vortex methods require means for rapidly computing velocities from the vortex elements – in other words they require the solution to a particular form of the
N-body problem
In physics, the -body problem is the problem of predicting the individual motions of a group of celestial objects interacting with each other gravitationally.Leimanis and Minorsky: Our interest is with Leimanis, who first discusses some histor ...
(in which the motion of N objects is tied to their mutual influences). This breakthrough came in the 1980s with the development of the
Barnes-Hut and
fast multipole method __NOTOC__
The fast multipole method (FMM) is a numerical technique that was developed to speed up the calculation of long-ranged forces in the ''n''-body problem. It does this by expanding the system Green's function using a multipole expansion, w ...
(FMM) algorithms. These paved the way to practical computation of the velocities from the vortex elements.
Software based on the vortex method offer a new means for solving tough fluid dynamics problems with minimal user intervention. All that is required is specification of problem geometry and setting of boundary and initial conditions. Among the significant advantages of this modern technology;
* It is practically grid-free, thus eliminating numerous iterations associated with RANS and LES.
* All problems are treated identically. No modeling or calibration inputs are required.
* Time-series simulations, which are crucial for correct analysis of acoustics, are possible.
* The small scale and large scale are accurately simulated at the same time.
Boundary element method
In the boundary element method, the boundary occupied by the fluid is divided into a surface mesh.
High-resolution discretization schemes
High-resolution schemes are used where shocks or discontinuities are present. Capturing sharp changes in the solution requires the use of second or higher-order numerical schemes that do not introduce spurious oscillations. This usually necessitates the application of
flux limiters to ensure that the solution is
total variation diminishing In numerical methods, total variation diminishing (TVD) is a property of certain discretization schemes used to solve hyperbolic partial differential equations. The most notable application of this method is in computational fluid dynamics. The con ...
.
Turbulence models
In computational modeling of turbulent flows, one common objective is to obtain a model that can predict quantities of interest, such as fluid velocity, for use in engineering designs of the system being modeled. For turbulent flows, the range of length scales and complexity of phenomena involved in turbulence make most modeling approaches prohibitively expensive; the resolution required to resolve all scales involved in turbulence is beyond what is computationally possible. The primary approach in such cases is to create numerical models to approximate unresolved phenomena. This section lists some commonly used computational models for turbulent flows.
Turbulence models can be classified based on computational expense, which corresponds to the range of scales that are modeled versus resolved (the more turbulent scales that are resolved, the finer the resolution of the simulation, and therefore the higher the computational cost). If a majority or all of the turbulent scales are not modeled, the computational cost is very low, but the tradeoff comes in the form of decreased accuracy.
In addition to the wide range of length and time scales and the associated computational cost, the governing equations of fluid dynamics contain a
non-linear convection term and a non-linear and non-local pressure gradient term. These nonlinear equations must be solved numerically with the appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations are the oldest approach to turbulence modeling. An ensemble version of the governing equations is solved, which introduces new ''apparent stresses'' known as
Reynolds stresses
In fluid dynamics, the Reynolds stress is the component of the total stress tensor in a fluid obtained from the averaging operation over the Navier–Stokes equations to account for turbulent fluctuations in fluid momentum.
Definition
The veloci ...
. This adds a second order tensor of unknowns for which various models can provide different levels of closure. It is a common misconception that the RANS equations do not apply to flows with a time-varying mean flow because these equations are 'time-averaged'. In fact, statistically unsteady (or non-stationary) flows can equally be treated. This is sometimes referred to as URANS. There is nothing inherent in Reynolds averaging to preclude this, but the turbulence models used to close the equations are valid only as long as the time over which these changes in the mean occur is large compared to the time scales of the turbulent motion containing most of the energy.
RANS models can be divided into two broad approaches:
;
Boussinesq hypothesis: This method involves using an algebraic equation for the Reynolds stresses which include determining the turbulent viscosity, and depending on the level of sophistication of the model, solving transport equations for determining the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation. Models include k-ε (
Launder and
Spalding), Mixing Length Model (
Prandtl
Ludwig Prandtl (4 February 1875 – 15 August 1953) was a German fluid dynamicist, physicist and aerospace scientist. He was a pioneer in the development of rigorous systematic mathematical analyses which he used for underlying the science of ...
),
and Zero Equation Model (Cebeci and
Smith
Smith may refer to:
People
* Metalsmith, or simply smith, a craftsman fashioning tools or works of art out of various metals
* Smith (given name)
* Smith (surname), a family name originating in England, Scotland and Ireland
** List of people wi ...
).
The models available in this approach are often referred to by the number of transport equations associated with the method. For example, the Mixing Length model is a "Zero Equation" model because no transport equations are solved; the
is a "Two Equation" model because two transport equations (one for
and one for
) are solved.
;
Reynolds stress model (RSM): This approach attempts to actually solve transport equations for the Reynolds stresses. This means introduction of several transport equations for all the Reynolds stresses and hence this approach is much more costly in CPU effort.
Large eddy simulation
Large eddy simulation
Large eddy simulation (LES) is a mathematical model for turbulence used in computational fluid dynamics. It was initially proposed in 1963 by Joseph Smagorinsky to simulate atmospheric air currents, and first explored by Deardorff (1970). LES is c ...
(LES) is a technique in which the smallest scales of the flow are removed through a filtering operation, and their effect modeled using subgrid scale models. This allows the largest and most important scales of the turbulence to be resolved, while greatly reducing the computational cost incurred by the smallest scales. This method requires greater computational resources than RANS methods, but is far cheaper than DNS.
Detached eddy simulation
Detached eddy simulations (DES) is a modification of a RANS model in which the model switches to a subgrid scale formulation in regions fine enough for LES calculations. Regions near solid boundaries and where the turbulent length scale is less than the maximum grid dimension are assigned the RANS mode of solution. As the turbulent length scale exceeds the grid dimension, the regions are solved using the LES mode. Therefore, the grid resolution for DES is not as demanding as pure LES, thereby considerably cutting down the cost of the computation. Though DES was initially formulated for the Spalart-Allmaras model (Spalart et al., 1997), it can be implemented with other RANS models (Strelets, 2001), by appropriately modifying the length scale which is explicitly or implicitly involved in the RANS model. So while Spalart–Allmaras model based DES acts as LES with a wall model, DES based on other models (like two equation models) behave as a hybrid RANS-LES model. Grid generation is more complicated than for a simple RANS or LES case due to the RANS-LES switch. DES is a non-zonal approach and provides a single smooth velocity field across the RANS and the LES regions of the solutions.
Direct numerical simulation
Direct numerical simulation
A direct numerical simulation (DNS)Here the origin of the term ''direct numerical simulation'' (see e.g. p. 385 in ) owes to the fact that, at that time, there were considered to be just two principal ways of getting ''theoretical'' results r ...
(DNS) resolves the entire range of turbulent length scales. This marginalizes the effect of models, but is extremely expensive. The computational cost is proportional to
.
DNS is intractable for flows with complex geometries or flow configurations.
Coherent vortex simulation
The coherent vortex simulation approach decomposes the turbulent flow field into a coherent part, consisting of organized vortical motion, and the incoherent part, which is the random background flow.
This decomposition is done using
wavelet
A wavelet is a wave-like oscillation with an amplitude that begins at zero, increases or decreases, and then returns to zero one or more times. Wavelets are termed a "brief oscillation". A taxonomy of wavelets has been established, based on the num ...
filtering. The approach has much in common with LES, since it uses decomposition and resolves only the filtered portion, but different in that it does not use a linear, low-pass filter. Instead, the filtering operation is based on wavelets, and the filter can be adapted as the flow field evolves.
Farge
Farge () is a small village in the borough Blumenthal of Bremen, Germany. It is located at the river Weser.
The bombing of Bremen in World War II attacked Farge targets, including the oil storage.
The Farge concentration camp is located nearby ...
and Schneider tested the CVS method with two flow configurations and showed that the coherent portion of the flow exhibited the
energy spectrum exhibited by the total flow, and corresponded to coherent structures (
vortex tubes), while the incoherent parts of the flow composed homogeneous background noise, which exhibited no organized structures. Goldstein and Vasilyev
applied the FDV model to large eddy simulation, but did not assume that the wavelet filter eliminated all coherent motions from the subfilter scales. By employing both LES and CVS filtering, they showed that the SFS dissipation was dominated by the SFS flow field's coherent portion.
PDF methods
Probability density function
In probability theory, a probability density function (PDF), or density of a continuous random variable, is a function whose value at any given sample (or point) in the sample space (the set of possible values taken by the random variable) ca ...
(PDF) methods for turbulence, first introduced by
Lundgren,
are based on tracking the one-point PDF of the velocity,
, which gives the probability of the velocity at point
being between
and
. This approach is analogous to the
kinetic theory of gases, in which the macroscopic properties of a gas are described by a large number of particles. PDF methods are unique in that they can be applied in the framework of a number of different turbulence models; the main differences occur in the form of the PDF transport equation. For example, in the context of
large eddy simulation
Large eddy simulation (LES) is a mathematical model for turbulence used in computational fluid dynamics. It was initially proposed in 1963 by Joseph Smagorinsky to simulate atmospheric air currents, and first explored by Deardorff (1970). LES is c ...
, the PDF becomes the filtered PDF.
PDF methods can also be used to describe chemical reactions,
and are particularly useful for simulating chemically reacting flows because the chemical source term is closed and does not require a model. The PDF is commonly tracked by using Lagrangian particle methods; when combined with large eddy simulation, this leads to a
Langevin equation for subfilter particle evolution.
Vorticity confinement method
The
vorticity confinement (VC) method is an Eulerian technique used in the simulation of turbulent wakes. It uses a solitary-wave like approach to produce a stable solution with no numerical spreading. VC can capture the small-scale features to within as few as 2 grid cells. Within these features, a nonlinear difference equation is solved as opposed to the
finite difference equation
A finite difference is a mathematical expression of the form . If a finite difference is divided by , one gets a difference quotient. The approximation of derivatives by finite differences plays a central role in finite difference methods for the ...
. VC is similar to
shock capturing methods In computational fluid dynamics, shock-capturing methods are a class of techniques for computing inviscid flows with shock waves. The computation of flow containing shock waves is an extremely difficult task because such flows result in sharp, disco ...
, where conservation laws are satisfied, so that the essential integral quantities are accurately computed.
Linear eddy model
The Linear eddy model is a technique used to simulate the convective mixing that takes place in turbulent flow. Specifically, it provides a mathematical way to describe the interactions of a scalar variable within the vector flow field. It is primarily used in one-dimensional representations of turbulent flow, since it can be applied across a wide range of length scales and Reynolds numbers. This model is generally used as a building block for more complicated flow representations, as it provides high resolution predictions that hold across a large range of flow conditions.
Two-phase flow
![Bubble-rising](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Bubble-rising.jpg)
The modeling of
two-phase flow
In fluid mechanics, two-phase flow is a flow of gas and liquid — a particular example of multiphase flow. Two-phase flow can occur in various forms, such as flows transitioning from pure liquid to vapor as a result of external heating, separ ...
is still under development. Different methods have been proposed, including the
Volume of fluid method
In computational fluid dynamics, the volume of fluid (VOF) method is a free-surface modelling technique, i.e. a numerical technique for tracking and locating the free surface (or fluid–fluid interface). It belongs to the class of Eulerian m ...
, the
level-set method
Level-set methods (LSM) are a conceptual framework for using level sets as a tool for numerical analysis of surfaces and shapes. The advantage of the level-set model is that one can perform numerical computations involving curves and surfaces o ...
and
front tracking. These methods often involve a tradeoff between maintaining a sharp interface or conserving mass . This is crucial since the evaluation of the density, viscosity and surface tension is based on the values averaged over the interface.
Solution algorithms
Discretization in the space produces a system of
ordinary differential equations for unsteady problems and algebraic equations for steady problems. Implicit or semi-implicit methods are generally used to integrate the ordinary differential equations, producing a system of (usually) nonlinear algebraic equations. Applying a
Newton or
Picard iteration produces a system of linear equations which is nonsymmetric in the presence of advection and indefinite in the presence of incompressibility. Such systems, particularly in 3D, are frequently too large for direct solvers, so iterative methods are used, either stationary methods such as
successive overrelaxation or
Krylov subspace
In linear algebra, the order-''r'' Krylov subspace generated by an ''n''-by-''n'' matrix ''A'' and a vector ''b'' of dimension ''n'' is the linear subspace spanned by the images of ''b'' under the first ''r'' powers of ''A'' (starting from A^0=I), ...
methods. Krylov methods such as
GMRES In mathematics, the generalized minimal residual method (GMRES) is an iterative method for the numerical solution of an indefinite nonsymmetric system of linear equations. The method approximates the solution by the vector in a Krylov subspace wit ...
, typically used with
preconditioning
In mathematics, preconditioning is the application of a transformation, called the preconditioner, that conditions a given problem into a form that is more suitable for numerical solving methods. Preconditioning is typically related to reducin ...
, operate by minimizing the residual over successive subspaces generated by the preconditioned operator.
Multigrid In numerical analysis, a multigrid method (MG method) is an algorithm for solving differential equations using a hierarchy of discretizations. They are an example of a class of techniques called multiresolution methods, very useful in problems exhi ...
has the advantage of asymptotically optimal performance on many problems. Traditional solvers and preconditioners are effective at reducing high-frequency components of the residual, but low-frequency components typically require many iterations to reduce. By operating on multiple scales, multigrid reduces all components of the residual by similar factors, leading to a mesh-independent number of iterations.
For indefinite systems, preconditioners such as
incomplete LU factorization In numerical linear algebra, an incomplete LU factorization (abbreviated as ILU) of a matrix is a sparse approximation of the LU factorization often used as a preconditioner.
Introduction
Consider a sparse linear system Ax = b. These are often ...
,
additive Schwarz, and
multigrid In numerical analysis, a multigrid method (MG method) is an algorithm for solving differential equations using a hierarchy of discretizations. They are an example of a class of techniques called multiresolution methods, very useful in problems exhi ...
perform poorly or fail entirely, so the problem structure must be used for effective preconditioning. Methods commonly used in CFD are the
SIMPLE
Simple or SIMPLE may refer to:
*Simplicity, the state or quality of being simple
Arts and entertainment
* ''Simple'' (album), by Andy Yorke, 2008, and its title track
* "Simple" (Florida Georgia Line song), 2018
* "Simple", a song by Johnn ...
and
Uzawa algorithms which exhibit mesh-dependent convergence rates, but recent advances based on block LU factorization combined with multigrid for the resulting definite systems have led to preconditioners that deliver mesh-independent convergence rates.
Unsteady aerodynamics
CFD made a major break through in late 70s with the introduction of LTRAN2, a 2-D code to model oscillating airfoils based on
transonic
Transonic (or transsonic) flow is air flowing around an object at a speed that generates regions of both subsonic and supersonic airflow around that object. The exact range of speeds depends on the object's critical Mach number, but transoni ...
small perturbation theory by Ballhaus and associates. It uses a Murman-Cole switch algorithm for modeling the moving shock-waves. Later it was extended to 3-D with use of a rotated difference scheme by AFWAL/Boeing that resulted in LTRAN3.
Biomedical engineering
![Vel-Streamline-FC](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Vel-Streamline-FC.jpg)
CFD investigations are used to clarify the characteristics of aortic flow in details that are beyond the capabilities of experimental measurements. To analyze these conditions, CAD models of the human vascular system are extracted employing modern imaging techniques such as
MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves ...
or
Computed Tomography. A 3D model is reconstructed from this data and the fluid flow can be computed. Blood properties such as density and viscosity, and realistic boundary conditions (e.g. systemic pressure) have to be taken into consideration. Therefore, making it possible to analyze and optimize the flow in the cardiovascular system for different applications.
CPU versus GPU
Traditionally, CFD simulations are performed on CPUs.
In a more recent trend, simulations are also performed on GPUs. These typically contain slower but more processors. For CFD algorithms that feature good parallelism performance (i.e. good speed-up by adding more cores) this can greatly reduce simulation times. Fluid-implicit particle and lattice-Boltzmann methods
are typical examples of codes that scale well on GPUs.
See also
*
Blade element theory Blade element theory (BET) is a mathematical process originally designed by William Froude (1878), David W. Taylor (1893) and Stefan Drzewiecki to determine the behavior of propellers. It involves breaking a blade down into several small parts th ...
*
Boundary conditions in fluid dynamics
Boundary conditions in fluid dynamics are the set of constraints to boundary value problems in computational fluid dynamics. These boundary conditions include inlet boundary conditions, outlet boundary conditions, wall boundary conditions, constant ...
*
Cavitation modelling Cavitation modelling is a type of computational fluid dynamic (CFD) that represents the flow of fluid during cavitation. It covers a wide range of applications, such as pumps, water turbines, pump inducers, and fuel cavitation in orifices as commo ...
*
Central differencing scheme
In applied mathematics, the central differencing scheme is a finite difference method that optimizes the approximation for the differential operator in the central node of the considered patch and provides numerical solutions to differential equat ...
*
Computational magnetohydrodynamics Computational magnetohydrodynamics (CMHD) is a rapidly developing branch of magnetohydrodynamics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve electrically conducting fluids. Most of the methods used in CMHD ...
*
Discrete element method
A discrete element method (DEM), also called a distinct element method, is any of a family of numerical methods for computing the motion and effect of a large number of small particles. Though DEM is very closely related to molecular dynamics, t ...
*
Finite element method
The finite element method (FEM) is a popular method for numerically solving differential equations arising in engineering and mathematical modeling. Typical problem areas of interest include the traditional fields of structural analysis, heat ...
*
Finite volume method for unsteady flow Unsteady flows are characterized as flows in which the properties of the fluid are time dependent. It gets reflected in the governing equations as the time derivative of the properties are absent.
For Studying Finite-volume method for unsteady flow ...
*
Fluid animation
Fluid animation refers to computer graphics techniques for generating realistic animations of fluids such as water and smoke. Fluid animations are typically focused on emulating the qualitative visual behavior of a fluid, with less emphasis place ...
*
Immersed boundary method
In computational fluid dynamics, the immersed boundary method originally referred to an approach developed by Charles Peskin in 1972 to simulate fluid-structure (fiber) interactions. Treating the coupling of the structure deformations and the flui ...
*
Lattice Boltzmann methods
The lattice Boltzmann methods (LBM), originated from the lattice gas automata (LGA) method (Hardy- Pomeau-Pazzis and Frisch- Hasslacher- Pomeau models), is a class of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods for fluid simulation. Instead of solv ...
*
List of finite element software packages
This is a list of notable software packages that implement the finite element method for solving partial differential equations
In mathematics, a partial differential equation (PDE) is an equation which imposes relations between the various ...
*
Meshfree methods
In the field of numerical analysis, meshfree methods are those that do not require connection between nodes of the simulation domain, i.e. a mesh, but are rather based on interaction of each node with all its neighbors. As a consequence, original ...
*
Moving particle semi-implicit method The moving particle semi-implicit (MPS) method is a computational method for the simulation of incompressible free surface flows. It is a macroscopic, deterministic particle method (Lagrangian mesh-free method) developed by Koshizuka and Oka (1996 ...
*
Multi-particle collision dynamics
*
Multidisciplinary design optimization
Multi-disciplinary design optimization (MDO) is a field of engineering that uses optimization methods to solve design problems incorporating a number of disciplines. It is also known as multidisciplinary system design optimization (MSDO), and Multi ...
*
Numerical methods in fluid mechanics
*
Shape optimization
Shape optimization is part of the field of optimal control theory. The typical problem is to find the shape which is optimal in that it minimizes a certain cost functional while satisfying given constraints. In many cases, the functional being ...
*
Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics
Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH) is a computational method used for simulating the mechanics of continuum media, such as solid mechanics and fluid flows. It was developed by Gingold and Monaghan and Lucy in 1977, initially for astrophysi ...
*
Stochastic Eulerian Lagrangian method In computational fluid dynamics, the Stochastic Eulerian Lagrangian Method (SELM)
is an approach to capture essential features of fluid-structure interactions subject to thermal fluctuations while introducing approximations which facilitate analysi ...
*
Turbulence modeling
Turbulence modeling is the construction and use of a mathematical model to predict the effects of turbulence. Turbulent flows are commonplace in most real life scenarios, including the flow of blood through the cardiovascular system, the airflow o ...
*
Visualization (graphics)
Visualization or visualisation (see spelling differences) is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and ...
*
Wind tunnel
Wind tunnels are large tubes with air blowing through them which are used to replicate the interaction between air and an object flying through the air or moving along the ground. Researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how an aircraft ...
References
Notes
*
*
External links
* ''Course:'
Introduction to CFD– Dmitri Kuzmin (
Dortmund University of Technology
TU Dortmund University (german: Technische Universität Dortmund) is a technical university in Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany with over 35,000 students, and over 6,000 staff including 300 professors, offering around 80 Bachelor's and ...
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* ''Course:'
Computational Fluid Dynamics–
Suman Chakraborty (
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (IIT Kharagpur) is a public institute of technology established by the Government of India in Kharagpur, West Bengal, India. Established in 1951, the institute is the first of the IITs to be established ...
)
* ''Course:'
Numerical PDE Techniques for Scientists and Engineers Open access Lectures and Codes for Numerical PDEs, including a modern view of Compressible CFD
{{DEFAULTSORT:Computational Fluid Dynamics
Computational fields of study