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Disease A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...
s of the
honey bee A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus ''Apis'' of the bee clade, all native to Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current cosm ...
or abnormal hive conditions include:


Pests and parasites


''Varroa'' mites

''
Varroa destructor ''Varroa destructor'', the ''Varroa'' mite is an external parasitic mite that attacks and feeds on the honey bees '' Apis cerana'' and ''Apis mellifera''. The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis. The ''Varroa'' mite can reproduce o ...
'' and ''V. jacobsoni'' are
parasitic Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...
mite Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari, but genetic analysis does not show clear e ...
s that feed on the fat bodies of adult,
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in thei ...
l and
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...
l bees. When the hive is very heavily infested, ''
Varroa ''Varroa'' is a genus of parasitic mesostigmatan mites associated with honey bees, placed in its own family, Varroidae. The genus was named for Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman scholar and beekeeper. The condition of a honeybee colony being infe ...
'' mites can be seen with the naked eye as a small red or brown spot on the bee's thorax. ''Varroa'' mites are carriers for many
virus A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsk ...
es that are damaging to bees. For example, bees infected during their development will often have visibly deformed wings. ''Varroa'' mites have led to the virtual elimination of feral bee colonies in many areas, and are a major problem for kept bees in apiaries. Some feral populations are now recovering—it appears they have been naturally selected for ''Varroa'' resistance. ''Varroa'' mites were first discovered in Southeast Asia in about 1904, but are now present on all continents except Australia. They were discovered in the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
in 1987, in
New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
in 2000, and in
Devon Devon ( , historically known as Devonshire , ) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in South West England. The most populous settlement in Devon is the city of Plymouth, followed by Devon's county town, the city of Exeter. Devo ...
,
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
in 1992. To the untrained eye, these mites are generally not a very noticeable problem for a strongly growing hive- as the bees may appear strong in number, and may even be very effective at foraging. However, the mite reproduction cycle occurs inside the capped pupae, and the mite population can surge as a result of colony growth. Careful observation of a colony can help identify signs of disease often spread by mites. When the hive population growth is reduced in preparation for winter or due to poor late summer forage, the mite population growth can overtake that of the bees and can then destroy the hive. It has been observed diseased colonies may slowly die off and be unable to survive through winter even when adequate food stores are present. Often a colony will simply abscond (leave as in a swarm, but leaving no population behind) under such conditions. ''Varroa'' in combination with viral vectors and bacteria have been theoretically implicated in
colony collapse disorder Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear, leaving behind a queen, plenty of food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees. While s ...
. It is known that
thymol Thymol (also known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol, IPMP), , is a natural monoterpenoid phenol derivative of ''p''-Cymene, isomeric with carvacrol, found in oil of thyme, and extracted from ''Thymus vulgaris'' (common thyme), ajwain, and vari ...
, a compound produced by
thyme Thyme () is the herb (dried aerial parts) of some members of the genus '' Thymus'' of aromatic perennial evergreen herbs in the mint family Lamiaceae. Thymes are relatives of the oregano genus ''Origanum'', with both plants being mostly indigen ...
, naturally occurring in thyme honey, is a treatment for ''Varroa'', though it may cause bee mortality at high concentrations. Provisioning active colonies with crops of thyme may provide the colony with a non-interventional chemical defense against ''Varroa''.


Treatment

A variety of chemical and mechanical treatments are used to attempt to control ''Varroa'' mites. ;"Hard" chemicals: "Hard" chemical treatments include
amitraz Amitraz (development code BTS27419) is a non-systemic acaricide and insecticideCorta, E., Bakkali, A., Berrueta, L. A., Gallo, B., & Vicente, F. (1999). Kinetics and mechanism of amitraz hydrolysis in aqueous media by HPLC and GC-MS. Talanta, 48(1 ...
(marketed as "Apivar"), fluvalinate (marketed as "Apistan"),
coumaphos Coumaphos is a nonvolatile, fat-soluble phosphorothioate with ectoparasiticide properties: it kills insects and mites. It is well known by a variety of brand names as a dip or wash, used on farm and domestic animals to control ticks, mites, flie ...
(marketed as CheckMite), flumethrin (marketed as "Bayvarol" and "Polyvar Yellow"). ;"Soft" chemicals: "Soft" chemical treatments include
thymol Thymol (also known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol, IPMP), , is a natural monoterpenoid phenol derivative of ''p''-Cymene, isomeric with carvacrol, found in oil of thyme, and extracted from ''Thymus vulgaris'' (common thyme), ajwain, and vari ...
(marketed as "ApiLife-VAR" and "Apiguard"), sucrose octanoate esters (marketed as "Sucrocide"), oxalic acid (marked as "Api-bioxal") and formic acid (sold in liquid form or in gel strips as Mite Away Quick Strips and Formic Pro, but also used in other formulations). According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, when used in beehives as directed, chemical treatments kill a large proportion of the mites while not substantially disrupting bee behavior or life span. Use of chemical controls is generally regulated and varies from country to country. With few exceptions, they are not intended for use during production of marketable honey. ;"Mechanical" treatments: Common mechanical controls generally rely on disruption of some aspect of the mites' lifecycle. These controls are generally intended not to eliminate all mites, but merely to maintain the infestation at a level which the colony can tolerate. Examples of mechanical controls include drone brood sacrifice (''Varroa'' mites are preferentially attracted to the drone brood), powdered sugar dusting (which encourages cleaning behavior and dislodges some mites), screened bottom boards (so any dislodged mites fall through the bottom and away from the colony), brood interruption and, perhaps, downsizing of the brood cell size.


Acarine (tracheal) mites

''
Acarapis woodi ''Acarapis woodi'' is an internal parasite affecting honey bees, the symptoms of infestation was originally observed on the Isle of Wight in 1904, but was not described until 1921. ''Acarapis woodi'' mites live and reproduce in the tracheae of ...
'' is a parasitic mite that infests the trachea that lead from the first pair of thoracic spiracles. An unidentified bee illness was first reported on the Isle of Wight in England in 1904, becoming known as the 'Isle of Wight Disease' (IoWD), which was initially thought to be caused by ''Acarapis woodi'' when it was identified in 1921 by Rennie. The IoWD disease quickly spread to the rest of Great Britain and Ireland, dealing a devastating blow to British and Irish beekeeping, being claimed as having wiped out the indigenous bee population of the British Isles. In 1991 Bailey & Ball stated "The final opinion of Rennie (1923), a co-discoverer of Acarapis woodi, who had much experience with bees said to have the Isle of Wight Disease, was that under the original and now quite properly discarded designation 'Isle of Wight Disease' were included several maladies having analogous superficial symptoms", the authors came to the firm conclusion that the IoWD was not caused by Acarine (Acarapis woodi) mites solely, but primarily by Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV), even though Acarapis woodi was always found to be present within the hive whenever CBPV symptoms were observed.
Brother Adam Karl Kehrle OSB OBE (3 August 1898, Mittelbiberach, Germany – 1 September 1996, Buckfast, Devonshire, England, UK), known as Brother Adam, was a Benedictine monk, beekeeper, and an authority on bee breeding, developer of the Buc ...
at
Buckfast Abbey Buckfast Abbey forms part of an active Benedictine monastery at Buckfast, near Buckfastleigh, Devon, England. Buckfast first became home to an abbey in 1018. The first Benedictine abbey was followed by a Savignac (later Cistercian) abbey cons ...
developed a resistant bee breed known as the
Buckfast bee The Buckfast bee is a breed of honey bee, a cross of many subspecies and their strains, developed by Brother Adam (born Karl Kehrle in 1898 in Germany), who was in charge of beekeeping from 1919 at Buckfast Abbey in Devon in the United King ...
, which is now available worldwide. Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the dissection and microscopic examination of a sample of bees from the hive. ''
Acarapis woodi ''Acarapis woodi'' is an internal parasite affecting honey bees, the symptoms of infestation was originally observed on the Isle of Wight in 1904, but was not described until 1921. ''Acarapis woodi'' mites live and reproduce in the tracheae of ...
'' are believed to have entered the U.S. in 1984, from Mexico. Mature female acarine mites leave the bee's airway and climb out on a hair of the bee, where they wait until they can transfer to a young bee. Once on the new bee, they move into the airways and begin laying eggs.


Treatment

Acarine mites are commonly controlled with grease patties (typically made from one part vegetable shortening mixed with three to four parts powdered sugar) placed on the top bars of the hive. The bees come to eat the sugar and pick up traces of shortening, which disrupts the mite's ability to identify a young bee. Some of the mites waiting to transfer to a new host remain on the original host. Others transfer to a random bee—a proportion of which will die of other causes before the mite can reproduce. Menthol, either allowed to vaporize from crystal form or mixed into the grease patties, is also often used to treat acarine mites.


''Nosema'' disease

'' Nosema apis'' is a microsporidian that invades the intestinal tracts of adult bees and causes ''Nosema'' disease, also known as nosemosis. ''Nosema'' infection is also associated with black queen cell virus. It is normally only a problem when the bees cannot leave the hive to eliminate waste (for example, during an extended cold spell in winter or when the hives are enclosed in a wintering barn). When the bees are unable to void ( cleansing flights), they can develop
dysentery Dysentery (UK pronunciation: , US: ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications ...
. ''Nosema'' disease is treated by increasing the ventilation through the hive. Some beekeepers treat hives with agents such as fumagillin. Nosemosis can also be prevented or minimized by removing much of the honey from the beehive, then feeding the bees on sugar water in the late fall. Sugar water made from refined sugar has lower ash content than flower nectar, reducing the risk of dysentery. Refined sugar, however, contains fewer nutrients than natural
honey Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
, which causes some controversy among beekeepers. In 1996, a similar type of organism to ''N. apis'' was discovered on the Asian honey bee ''
Apis cerana ''Apis cerana'', the eastern honey bee, Asiatic honey bee or Asian honey bee, is a species of honey bee native to South, Southeast and East Asia. This species is the sister species of ''Apis koschevnikovi'' and both are in the same subgenus as ...
'' and subsequently named ''
N. ceranae ''Nosema ceranae'' is a microsporidian, a small, unicellular parasite that mainly affects ''Apis cerana'', the Asiatic honey bee. Along with '' Nosema apis'', it causes the disease nosemosis, the most widespread of the diseases of adult honey b ...
''. This parasite apparently also infects the western honey bee. Exposure to corn pollen containing genes for '' Bacillus thuringiensis'' (Bt) production may weaken the bees' defense against ''Nosema''. In relation to feeding a group of bees with Bt corn pollen and a control group with non-Bt corn pollen: "in the first year, the bee colonies happened to be infested with parasites (microsporidia). This infestation led to a reduction in the number of bees and subsequently to reduced broods in the Bt-fed colonies, as well as in the colonies fed on Bt toxin-free pollen. The trial was then discontinued at an early stage. This effect was significantly more marked in the Bt-fed colonies. (The significant differences indicate an interaction of toxin and pathogen on the epithelial cells of the honeybee intestine. The underlying mechanism which causes this effect is unknown.)" This study should be interpreted with caution given that no repetition of the experiment nor any attempt to find confounding factors was made. In addition, Bt toxin and transgenic Bt pollen showed no acute toxicity to any of the life stages of the bees examined, even when the Bt toxin was fed at concentrations 100 times that found in transgenic Bt pollen from maize. Nosema disease is very common when bees get into
winter cluster In beekeeping, a winter cluster is a well-defined cluster of honey bees that forms inside a beehive when the air temperature dips below 10 to 14 °C (50 to 57 F). Honey bees are one of but a few kinds of insects that survive the winter as a co ...
s, as they spend an extensive time in their hives as they keep together for warmth and have little to no opportunities to eliminate waste.


Small hive beetle

''Aethina tumida'' is a small, dark-colored beetle that lives in beehives. Originally from Africa, the first discovery of small hive beetles in the Western Hemisphere was made in St. Lucie County, Florida, in 1998. The next year, a specimen that had been collected from Charleston, South Carolina, in 1996 was identified, and is believed to be the index case for the United States. By December 1999, small hive beetles were reported in
Iowa Iowa () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wisconsin to the northeast, Illinois to th ...
,
Maine Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and ...
,
Massachusetts Massachusetts (Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut Massachusett_writing_systems.html" ;"title="nowiki/> məhswatʃəwiːsət.html" ;"title="Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət">Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət'' En ...
,
Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
,
New Jersey New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...
,
Ohio Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
,
Pennsylvania Pennsylvania (; ( Pennsylvania Dutch: )), officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state spanning the Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes regions of the United States. It borders Delaware to its southeast, ...
,
Texas Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...
, and
Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
, and it was found in
California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
by 2006. The lifecycle of this beetle includes
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in thei ...
tion in the ground outside of the hive. Controls to prevent ants from climbing into the hive are believed to also be effective against the hive beetle. Several beekeepers are experimenting with the use of diatomaceous earth around the hive as a way to disrupt the beetle's lifecycle. The diatoms abrade the insects' surfaces, causing them to dehydrate and die.


Treatment

Several pesticides are currently used against the small hive beetle. The chemical
fipronil Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family. Fipronil disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the ligand-gated ion channel of the GABAA receptor and glutamate-gated chloride (GluCl ...
(marketed as Combat Roach Gel) is commonly applied inside the corrugations of a piece of cardboard. Standard corrugations are large enough that a small hive beetle can enter the cardboard through the end, but small enough that honey bees cannot enter (thus are kept away from the pesticide). Alternative controls such as oil-based top-bar traps are also available, but they have had very little commercial success.


Wax moths

''
Galleria mellonella ''Galleria mellonella'', the greater wax moth or honeycomb moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. ''G. mellonella'' is found throughout the world. It is one of two species of wax moths, with the other being the lesser wax moth. ''G. mellonella' ...
'' (greater wax moths) do not attack the bees directly, but feed on the shed exoskeletons of bee larvae and pollen that is found in dark brood comb, which was used by the bees to hold the developing bees. Their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings—these contain
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, res ...
essential for the larval development, in the form of brood cocoons. The destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae. When honey supers are stored for the winter in a mild climate, or in heated storage, the wax moth larvae can destroy portions of the comb, though they will not fully develop. Damaged comb may be scraped out and replaced by the bees. Wax moth larvae and eggs are killed by freezing, so storage in unheated sheds or barns in higher latitudes is the only control necessary. Because wax moths cannot survive a cold winter, they are usually not a problem for beekeepers in the northern U.S. or Canada, unless they survive winter in heated storage, or are brought from the south by purchase or migration of beekeepers. They thrive and spread most rapidly with temperatures above 30 °C (90 °F), so some areas with only occasional days that are hot rarely have a problem with wax moths, unless the colony is already weak due to stress from other factors.


Control and treatment

A strong hive generally needs no treatment to control wax moths; the bees themselves kill and clean out the moth larvae and webs. Wax moth larvae may fully develop in cell cleanings when such cleanings accumulate thickly where they are not accessible to the bees. Wax moth development in comb is generally not a problem with
top bar hive A top-bar hive is a single-story frameless beehive in which the comb hangs from removable bars. The bars form a continuous roof over the comb, whereas the frames in most current hives allow space for bees to move up or down between boxes. Hives t ...
s, as unused combs are usually left in the hive during the winter. Since this type of hive is not used in severe wintering conditions, the bees are able to patrol and inspect the unused comb. Wax moths can be controlled in stored comb by application of the aizawai variety of ''B. thuringiensis'' spores by spraying. It is a very effective biological control and has an excellent safety record. Wax moths can be controlled chemically with paradichlorobenzene (moth crystals or urinal disks). If chemical methods are used, the combs must be well-aired for several days before use. The use of naphthalene (mothballs) is discouraged because it accumulates in the wax, which can kill bees or contaminate honey stores. Control of wax moths by other means includes the freezing of the comb for a few hours. Langstroth found that placing a spider, such as a daddy-long-legs, with stored combs controlled wax moth and eliminate the need for hash chemicals. This has been confirmed more recently by others, such as Bergqvist.


''Tropilaelaps''

''Tropilaelaps mercedesae'' and ''T. clareae'' are considered serious threats to honeybees. Although they are not currently found outside Asia, these mites have the potential to inflict serious damage to colonies due to their rapid reproduction inside the hive.


Bacterial diseases


American foulbrood

American foulbrood (AFB), caused by the spore-forming '' Paenibacillus larvae'' (formerly classified as ''B. larvae'', then ''P. larvae'' ssp. ''larvae/pulvifaciens''), is the most widespread and destructive of the bee brood diseases. ''P. larvae'' is a rod-shaped bacterium. Larvae up to three days old become infected by ingesting spores present in their food. Young larvae less than 24 hours old are most susceptible to infection. Spores germinate in the gut of the larva and the vegetative bacteria begin to grow, taking nourishment from the larva. Spores will not germinate in larvae over three days old. Infected larvae normally die after their cell is sealed. The vegetative form of the bacterium will die, but not before it produces many millions of spores. American foulbrood spores are extremely resistant to desiccation and can remain viable for 80 years in honey and beekeeping equipment. Each dead larva may contain as many as 100 million spores. This disease only affects the bee larvae, but is highly infectious and deadly to bee brood. Infected larvae darken and die. As with European foulbrood, research has been conducted using the "Shook Swarm"Controlling American Foulbrood in Honeybees By Shook Swarm Method
/ref> method to control American foulbrood, "the advantage being that chemicals are not used".


European foulbrood

European foulbrood (EFB) is caused by the bacterium '' Melissococcus plutonius'' that infects the
midgut The midgut is the portion of the embryo from which most of the intestines develop. After it bends around the superior mesenteric artery, it is called the "midgut loop". It comprises the portion of the alimentary canal from the end of the foregut a ...
of bee larvae. European foulbrood is considered less serious than American foulbrood. ''M. plutonius'' is not a spore-forming bacterium, but bacterial cells can survive for several months on wax foundation. Symptoms include dead and dying larvae which can appear curled upwards, brown or yellow, melted or deflated with tracheal tubes more apparent, or dried out and rubbery. method Scientific research showed that the spread of the disease is density dependent. The higher the density of apiaries, the higher the probability of disease transmission. European foulbrood is often considered a "stress" disease—dangerous only if the colony is already under stress for other reasons. An otherwise healthy colony can usually survive European foulbrood. Chemical treatment with oxytetracycline hydrochloride may control an outbreak of the disease, but honey from treated colonies could have chemical residues from the treatment, and prophylactic treatments are not recommended as they may lead to resistant bacteria. The "shook swarm" method of bee husbandry can also effectively control the disease, with the advantage of avoiding the use of chemicals. The Alexander-House-Miller treatment has also been shown to be effective against the disease. The method requires the hive to be strong and the queen to be prevented from laying for a week or so. A modified version of this method is given by Carr in his article. The queen is placed on frames of foundation below a queen excluder, and all of the brood frames are put above the excluder. Once all of the worker brood has emerged, these frames are removed from the hive and the old comb in them replaced with foundation ready for re-use.


Fungal diseases


Chalkbrood

'' Ascosphaera apis'' causes a fungal disease that only affects bee brood, but adult bees can be carriers. It infests the gut of the larvae before the cell is sealed or soon after.Jones, R., & Sweeney-Lynch, S. (2011). ''The beekeeper’s bible: Bees, honey, recipes & other home uses''. Stewart, Tabori & Chang. The fungus competes with them for food, ultimately causing them to starve. The fungus then goes on to consume the rest of the larval bodies, causing them to appear white, hard, and "chalky." If fungal spores start to develop, the larva can also appear gray or black. One study suggested it could be economically devastating because not only does it weaken the hive, but it can cause honey reductions of 5-37%. Chalkbrood (ascosphaerosis larvae apium) is most commonly visible during wet springs. Hedtke et al. provided statistical evidence that chalkbrood outbreaks occurred in summer when there was a
N. ceranae ''Nosema ceranae'' is a microsporidian, a small, unicellular parasite that mainly affects ''Apis cerana'', the Asiatic honey bee. Along with '' Nosema apis'', it causes the disease nosemosis, the most widespread of the diseases of adult honey b ...
infection earlier in the spring and there is an ongoing V. destructor infestation. Stress, genetics of the bees, and health can also be contribute to the presence of chalkbrood. Spores of the fungus can last for up to 15 years, which is why old equipment from a previously infected hive should not be used. These spores can last in pollen, honey, and wax. Even though Hornitzky's literature review of articles on chalkbrood disease concluded that there was no definitive cure or control, there are a variety of prevention mechanisms. Improving genetic stock to be more hygienic, sterilization of old equipment, good ventilation and the replacement of old brood comb are all techniques that can be attempted. Chalkbrood was first recognized in 1900s in Europe, and then spread to countries such as Argentina, Turkey, Philippines, Mexico, Chile, Central America and Japan. It was first recorded in the United States in the mid-1960s in Utah and spread across the US from there.


Stonebrood

Stonebrood (aspergillosis larvae apium) is a fungal disease caused by '' Aspergillus fumigatus'', '' A. flavus'', and '' A. niger''. It causes mummification of the brood of a honey bee colony. The fungi are common soil inhabitants and are also pathogenic to other insects, birds, and mammals. The disease is difficult to identify in the early stages of infection. The spores of the different species have different colours and can also cause respiratory damage to humans and other animals. When bee larvae take in spores, they may hatch in the gut, growing rapidly to form a collar-like ring near the larval heads. After death, the larvae turn black and become difficult to crush, hence the name stonebrood. Eventually, the fungus erupts from the integument of the larvae and forms a false skin. In this stage, the larvae are covered with powdery fungal spores. Worker bees clean out the infected brood and the hive may recover depending on factors such as the strength of the colony, the level of infection, and hygienic habits of the strain of bees (variation in the trait occurs among different subspecies).


Viral diseases


Dicistroviridae ''Dicistroviridae'' is a family of viruses in the order ''Picornavirales''. Invertebrates, including aphids, leafhoppers, flies, bees, ants, and silkworms, serve as natural hosts. There are 15 species in this family, assigned to three genera. Di ...


Chronic bee paralysis virus Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV) commonly affects adult ''Apis mellifera'' honey bees and causes a chronic paralysis that can easily spread to other members of a colony. Bees infected with CBPV begin to show symptoms after 5 days and die a few ...

* Syndrome 1 result in abnormal trembling of the wings and body. The bees cannot fly, and often crawl on the ground and up plant stems. In some cases, the crawling bees can be found in large numbers (1000+). The bees huddle together on the top of the cluster or on the top bars of the hive. They may have bloated abdomens due to distension of the honey sac. The wings are partially spread or dislocated. * Syndrome 2-affected bees are able to fly, but are almost hairless. They appear dark or black and look smaller. They have a relatively broad abdomen. They are often nibbled by older bees in the colony and this may be the cause of the hairlessness. They are hindered at the entrance to the hive by the guard bees. A few days after infection, trembling begins. They then become flightless and soon die. In 2008, the chronic bee paralysis virus was reported for the first time in ''
Formica rufa ''Formica rufa'', also known as the red wood ant, southern wood ant, or horse ant, is a boreal member of the ''Formica rufa'' group of ants, and is the type species for that group, being described already by Linneaus in the first version of Sys ...
'' and another species of ant, ''
Camponotus vagus ''Camponotus vagus'' is a species of large, black, Palaearctic carpenter ant with a wide range that includes much of Europe, a large area of Asia, and part of Africa. Description ''Camponotus vagus'' is a relatively distinctive species that is ...
''.


Acute bee paralysis virus

Acute bee paralysis virus is considered to be a common infective agent of bees. It belongs to the family ''
Dicistroviridae ''Dicistroviridae'' is a family of viruses in the order ''Picornavirales''. Invertebrates, including aphids, leafhoppers, flies, bees, ants, and silkworms, serve as natural hosts. There are 15 species in this family, assigned to three genera. Di ...
'', as does the Israel acute paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, and the
black queen cell virus The black queen cell virus (BQCV) is a virus that infects honey bees, specifically ''Apis mellifera'', ''Apis florea'', and ''Apis dorsata''. Infection of the latter two species is more recent and can be attributed to genetic similarity and geogr ...
. It is frequently detected in apparently healthy colonies. This virus seemingly plays a role in cases of sudden collapse of honey bee colonies infested with the parasitic mite '' V. destructor''.


Israeli acute paralysis virus

Described in 2004 the Israeli acute paralysis virus belongs to the family ''
Dicistroviridae ''Dicistroviridae'' is a family of viruses in the order ''Picornavirales''. Invertebrates, including aphids, leafhoppers, flies, bees, ants, and silkworms, serve as natural hosts. There are 15 species in this family, assigned to three genera. Di ...
'', as does the Acute bee paralysis virus. The virus is named after the place where it was first identified - its place of origin is unknown. It has been suggested as a marker associated with
colony collapse disorder Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear, leaving behind a queen, plenty of food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees. While s ...
.


Kashmir bee virus

Kashmir bee virus is related to the preceding viruses. Recently discovered, it is currently only positively identifiable by a laboratory test. Little is known about it yet.


Black queen cell virus The black queen cell virus (BQCV) is a virus that infects honey bees, specifically ''Apis mellifera'', ''Apis florea'', and ''Apis dorsata''. Infection of the latter two species is more recent and can be attributed to genetic similarity and geogr ...

Black queen cell virus causes the queen larva to turn black and die. It is thought to be associated with '' Nosema''.


Cloudy wing virus

Cloudy wing virus is a little-studied, small, icosahedral virus commonly found in honey bees, especially in collapsing colonies infested by ''V. destructor'', providing circumstantial evidence that the mite may act as a vector.


Sacbrood virus

A
picornavirus Picornaviruses are a group of related nonenveloped RNA viruses which infect vertebrates including fish, mammals, and birds. They are viruses that represent a large family of small, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with a 30 nm ...
-like virus causes sacbrood disease. Affected larvae change from pearly white to gray and finally black. Death occurs when the larvae are upright, just before pupation. Consequently, affected larvae are usually found in capped cells. Head development of diseased larvae is typically retarded. The head region is usually darker than the rest of the body and may lean toward the center of the cell. When affected larvae are carefully removed from their cells, they appear to be a sac filled with water. Typically, the scales are brittle but easy to remove. Sacbrood-diseased larvae have no characteristic odor.


Iflaviridae ''Iflaviridae'' is a family of positive sense RNA viruses insect-infecting viruses. Some of the insects commonly infected by iflaviruses include aphids, leafhoppers, flies, bees, ants, silkworms and wasps. The name "Ifla" is derived from the n ...


Deformed wing virus

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is the causative agent of the wing deformities and other body malformations typically seen in honeybee colonies that are heavily infested with the parasitic mite '' V. destructor''. DWV is part of a complex of closely related virus strains/species that also includes Kakugo virus, ''V. destructor'' virus 1 and Egypt bee virus. This deformity can clearly be seen on the honeybee's wings in the image. The deformities are produced almost exclusively due to DWV transmission by ''V. destructor'' when it parasitizes pupae. Bees infected as adults remain symptom-free, although they do display behavioral changes and have reduced life expectancy. Deformed bees are rapidly expelled from the colony, leading to a gradual loss of adult bees for colony maintenance. If this loss is excessive and can no longer be compensated by the emergence of healthy bees, the colony rapidly dwindles and dies.


Kakugo virus

Kakugo virus is an '' Iflavirus'' infecting bees; varroa mites may mediate its prevalence. Kakugo virus appears to be a subtype of ''
Deformed wing virus ''Deformed wing virus'' (DWV) is an RNA virus, one of 22 known viruses affecting honey bees. While most commonly infecting the honey bee, '' Apis mellifera'', it has also been documented in other bee species, like ''Bombus terrestris'', thus, i ...
''.


Slow bee paralysis virus

As the name suggests, '' slow bee paralysis virus'' induces paralysis to the anterior legs ten to twelve days after infection.


Iridoviridae ''Iridoviridae'' is a family of viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes. Amphibians, fish, and invertebrates such as arthropods serve as natural hosts. There are currently 22 species in this family, divided among two subfamilies and seven gener ...


Invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6)

Applying proteomics-based pathogen screening tools in 2010, researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of an I ridovirus; specifically invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) and ''
N. ceranae ''Nosema ceranae'' is a microsporidian, a small, unicellular parasite that mainly affects ''Apis cerana'', the Asiatic honey bee. Along with '' Nosema apis'', it causes the disease nosemosis, the most widespread of the diseases of adult honey b ...
'' in all CCD colonies sampled. On the basis of this research, the ''
New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'' reported the colony collapse mystery solved, quoting researcher Dr. Bromenshenk, a co-author of the study, "
he virus and fungus He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...
are both present in all these collapsed colonies." Evidence for this association, however, remains minimal and several authors have disputed the original methodology used to associate CCD with IIV-6.


Secoviridae ''Secoviridae'' is a family of viruses in the order ''Picornavirales''. Plants serve as natural hosts. There are 8 genera and 86 species in this family, one of which is unassigned to a genus. The family was created in 2009 with the grouping of f ...


Tobacco ringspot virus

The RNA virus
tobacco ringspot virus ''Tobacco ringspot virus'' (TRSV) is a plant pathogenic virus in the plant virus family ''Secoviridae''. It is the type species of the genus ''Nepovirus''. Nepoviruses are transmitted between plants by nematodes, thrips, mites, grasshoppers, and ...
, a plant pathogen, was described to infect honeybees through infected pollen, but this unusual claim was soon challenged and remains to be confirmed.


Lake Sinai virus

In 2015, Lake Sinai virus (LSV) genomes were assembled and three main domains were discovered: Orf1, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and
capsid A capsid is the protein shell of a virus, enclosing its genetic material. It consists of several oligomeric (repeating) structural subunits made of protein called protomers. The observable 3-dimensional morphological subunits, which may or ma ...
protein sequences Protein primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in a peptide or protein. By convention, the primary structure of a protein is reported starting from the amino-terminal (N) end to the carboxyl-terminal (C) end. Protein biosynthes ...
. LSV1, LSV2, LSV3, LSV4, LSV5, and LSV6 were described. LSV were detected in bees, mites and pollen. It only actively replicates in honey bees and mason bees (''Osmia cornuta'') and not in ''Varroa'' mites.


Dysentery

Dysentery Dysentery (UK pronunciation: , US: ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications ...
is a condition resulting from a combination of long periods of inability to make cleansing flights (generally due to cold weather) and food stores that contain a high proportion of indigestible matter. As a bee's gut becomes engorged with feces that cannot be voided in flight as preferred by the bees, the bee voids within the hive. When enough bees do this, the hive population rapidly collapses and death of the colony results. Dark honeys and honeydews have greater quantities of indigestible matter. Occasional warm days in winter are critical for honey bee survival; dysentery problems increase in likelihood during periods of more than two or three weeks with temperatures below 50 °F (10 °C). When cleansing flights are few, bees are often forced out at times when the temperature is barely adequate for their wing muscles to function, and large quantities of bees may be seen dead in the snow around the hives. Colonies found dead in spring from dysentery have feces smeared over the frames and other hive parts. In very cold areas of North America and Europe, where honey bees are kept in ventilated buildings during the coldest part of winter, no cleansing flights are possible; under such circumstances, beekeepers commonly remove all honey from the hives and replace it with sugar water or
high-fructose corn syrup High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), also known as glucose–fructose, isoglucose and glucose–fructose syrup, is a sweetener made from corn starch. As in the production of conventional corn syrup, the starch is broken down into glucose by enzy ...
, which have nearly no indigestible matter.


Chilled brood

Chilled brood is not actually a disease, but can be a result of mistreatment of the bees by the beekeeper. It also can be caused by a pesticide hit that primarily kills off the adult population, or by a sudden drop in temperature during rapid spring build-up. The brood must be kept warm at all times; nurse bees will cluster over the brood to keep it at the right temperature. When a beekeeper opens the hive (to inspect, remove honey, check the queen, or just to look) and prevents the nurse bees from clustering on the frame for too long, the brood can become chilled, deforming or even killing some of the bees.


Pesticide losses

Honey bees are susceptible to many of the chemicals used for agricultural spraying of other insects and pests. Many pesticides are known to be toxic to bees. Because the bees forage up to several miles from the hive, they may fly into areas actively being sprayed by farmers or they may collect pollen from contaminated flowers. Carbamate pesticides, such as
carbaryl Carbaryl (1-naphthyl methylcarbamate) is a chemical in the carbamate family used chiefly as an insecticide. It is a white crystalline solid previously sold under the brand name Sevin, which was a trademark of the Bayer Company. The Sevin trademark ...
, can be especially pernicious since toxicity can take as long as two days to become evident, allowing infected pollen to be returned and distributed throughout the colony. Organophosphates and other insecticides are also known to kill honey bee clusters in treated areas. Pesticide losses may be relatively easy to identify (large and sudden numbers of dead bees in front of the hive) or quite difficult, especially if the loss results from a gradual accumulation of pesticide brought in by the foraging bees. Quick-acting pesticides may deprive the hive of its foragers, dropping them in the field before they can return home. Insecticides that are toxic to bees have label directions that protect the bees from poisoning as they forage. To comply with the label, applicators must know where and when bees forage in the application area, and the length of residual activity of the pesticide. Some pesticide authorities recommend, and some jurisdictions require, that notice of spraying be sent to all known beekeepers in the area, so they can seal the entrances to their hives and keep the bees inside until the pesticide has had a chance to disperse. This, however, does not solve all problems associated with spraying and the label instructions should be followed regardless of doing this. Sealing honey bees from flight on hot days can kill bees. Beekeeper notification does not offer any protection to bees, if the beekeeper cannot access them, or to wild native or feral honey bees. Thus, beekeeper notification as the sole protection procedure does not really protect all the pollinators of the area, and is, in effect, a circumventing of the label requirements. Pesticide losses are a major factor in
pollinator decline Pollinator decline is the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide that began being recorded at the end of the 20th century. Multiple lines of evidence exist for the reduction of wild pollinator ...
.


Colony collapse disorder

Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is a poorly understood phenomenon in which worker bees from a
beehive A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus '' Apis'' live and raise their young. Though the word ''beehive'' is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific and professional literature ...
or
western honey bee The western honey bee or European honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') is the most common of the 7–12 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name ''Apis'' is Latin for "bee", and ''mellifera'' is the Latin for "honey-bearing" or "honey carrying" ...
colony abruptly disappear. CCD was originally discovered in Florida by David Hackenberg in western honey bee colonies in late 2006. European beekeepers observed a similar phenomenon in
Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
,
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
, the
Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
,
Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
,
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
,
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
, and
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , i ...
,Gaëlle Dupont
Les abeilles malades de l'homme
''
Le Monde ''Le Monde'' (; ) is a French daily afternoon newspaper. It is the main publication of Le Monde Group and reported an average circulation of 323,039 copies per issue in 2009, about 40,000 of which were sold abroad. It has had its own website si ...
'', 29 August 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
and initial reports have also come in from Switzerland and
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, albeit to a lesser degree. Possible cases of CCD have also been reported in
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
since April 2007.Paul Molga
La mort des abeilles met la planète en danger
'' Les Echos'', 20 August 2007
Initial hypotheses were wildly different, including environmental change-related stresses,
malnutrition Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...
,
pathogen In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ ...
s (i.e., disease including Israel acute paralysis virus ),
mite Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari, but genetic analysis does not show clear e ...
s, or the class of pesticides known as
neonicotinoids Neonicotinoids (sometimes shortened to neonics ) are a class of neuro-active insecticides chemically similar to nicotine, developed by scientists at Shell and Bayer in the 1980s. The neonicotinoid family includes acetamiprid, clothianidin, din ...
, which include
imidacloprid Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system ...
,
clothianidin Clothianidin is an insecticide developed by Takeda Chemical Industries and Bayer AG. Similar to thiamethoxam and imidacloprid, it is a neonicotinoid. Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides that are chemically similar to nicotine, which has be ...
, and
thiamethoxam Thiamethoxam is the ISO common name for a mixture of ''cis-trans'' isomers used as a systemic insecticide of the neonicotinoid class. It has a broad spectrum of activity against many types of insects and can be used as a seed dressing. History ...
. Most new research suggests the neonicotinoid hypothesis was incorrect, however, and that pesticides play little role in CCD compared to ''Varroa'' and ''Nosema'' infestations. Other theories included radiation from cellular phones or other man-made devices and genetically modified crops with pest-control characteristics,. In 2010, U.S. researchers announced they had identified a co-infection of invertebrate iridescent virus type 6 (IIV-6) and ''N. ceranae'' in all CCD colonies sampled.


References


Further reading

* Canadian Honey Counci
Essential Oils for Varroa, Tracheal, AFB Control
(via Web Archive) * Morse, Roger (editor), ''The ABC and XYZ of Beekeeping'' * Sammataro, Diana; ''et al.'', ''The Beekeeper's Handbook'' * Shimanuki, Hachiro and Knox, David A.,
Diagnosis of Honey Bee Diseases
', US Department of Agriculture, July 2000


External links



at the University of Georgia, with a large section on Honey Bee Disorders

at the British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (via Web Archive)
BeeBase
at the
Defra DEFRA may refer to: * Deficit Reduction Act of 1984, United States law * Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, United Kingdom government department {{Disambiguation ...
Food and Environment Research Agency in the UK
Diseases and Afflictions of Honey Bees
Kohala.net (via Web Archive)
Beediseases
Honey bee diseases website by Dr. Guido Cordoni. {{DEFAULTSORT:Diseases of the Honey Bee Agricultural pests Bee diseases Western honey bee pests Beekeeping
Honey bee A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus ''Apis'' of the bee clade, all native to Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current cosm ...