![Seversk checkpoint](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Seversk_checkpoint.jpg)
A closed city or closed town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied so that specific authorization is required to visit or remain overnight. Such places may be sensitive
military
A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
establishments or secret
research
Research is " creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness ...
installations that require much more space or internal freedom than is available in a conventional
military base
A military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or for the military or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations. A military base always provides accommodations for ...
. There may also be a wider variety of permanent residents, including close family members of workers or trusted traders who are not directly connected with
clandestine
Clandestine may refer to:
* Secrecy, the practice of hiding information from certain individuals or groups, perhaps while sharing it with other individuals
* Clandestine operation, a secret intelligence or military activity
Music and entertainme ...
purposes.
Many closed cities existed in the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
from the mid 1940s until its
dissolution in 1991.
After 1991, a number of them still existed in the
CIS
Cis or cis- may refer to:
Places
* Cis, Trentino, in Italy
* In Poland:
** Cis, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, south-central
** Cis, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, north
Math, science and biology
* cis (mathematics) (cis(''θ'')), a trigonome ...
countries, especially in Russia. In modern Russia, such places are officially known as "closed administrative-territorial formations" (, ''zakrytye administrativno-territorial'nye obrazovaniya'', or ''ZATO'' for short).
Structure and operations
![Checkpoint in closed city Zheleznogorsk, Krasnoyarsk Krai](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Checkpoint_in_closed_city_Zheleznogorsk%2C_Krasnoyarsk_Krai.jpg)
Sometimes closed cities may only be represented on
classified maps that are not available to the general public.
In some cases there may be no road signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad time tables and bus routes.
Sometimes closed cities may be indicated obliquely as a nearby insignificant village, with the name of the stop serving the closed city made equivocal or misleading. For mail delivery, a closed city is usually named as the nearest large city and a special
postcode e.g. Arzamas‑16, Chelyabinsk‑65. The actual settlement can be rather distant from its namesakes; for instance,
Sarov
Sarov (russian: Саро́в) is a closed town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It was known as Gorkiy-130 (Горький-130) and Arzamas-16 (), after a (somewhat) nearby town of Arzamas,SarovLabsCreation of Nuclear Center Arzamas-16/ref ...
, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic of
Mordovia
The Republic of Mordovia (russian: Респу́блика Мордо́вия, r=Respublika Mordoviya, p=rʲɪsˈpublʲɪkə mɐrˈdovʲɪjə; mdf, Мордовия Республиксь, ''Mordovija Respublikś''; myv, Мордовия Рес ...
, whereas
Arzamas
Arzamas (russian: Арзама́с) is a city in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Tyosha River (a tributary of the Oka), east of Moscow. Population:
History
Arzamas was founded in 1578 by Ivan the Terrible in the lands pop ...
is in the
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (russian: link=no, Нижегородская область, ''Nizhegorodskaya oblast''), is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Nizhny Novgorod. It has a population of 3,310,5 ...
(roughly away). People not living in a closed city were subject to document checks and
security checkpoint
Civilian checkpoints or security checkpoints are distinguishable from border or frontier checkpoints in that they are erected and enforced within contiguous areas under military or paramilitary control. Civilian checkpoints have been employed w ...
s, and explicit permission was required for them to visit. To relocate to a closed city, one would need security clearance by the organization running it, such as the
KGB
The KGB (russian: links=no, lit=Committee for State Security, Комитет государственной безопасности (КГБ), a=ru-KGB.ogg, p=kəmʲɪˈtʲet ɡəsʊˈdarstvʲɪn(ː)əj bʲɪzɐˈpasnəsʲtʲɪ, Komitet gosud ...
in Soviet closed cities.
Closed cities were sometimes guarded by a security perimeter with
barbed wire and
towers
A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant factor. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, self-supporting structures.
Towers are specific ...
. The very fact of such a city's existence was often classified, and residents were expected not to divulge their place of residence to outsiders. This lack of freedom was often compensated by better housing conditions and a better choice of goods in retail trade than elsewhere in the country.
Also, in the Soviet Union, people working with classified information received a
salary bonus.
Soviet-era
![Map of Russia - Oblasts with Atomgrads](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Map_of_Russia_-_Oblasts_with_Atomgrads.svg)
Closed cities were established in the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
from the late 1940s onwards under the euphemistic name of "post boxes", referring to the practice of addressing post to them via mailboxes in other cities. They fell into two distinct categories.
# The first category comprised relatively small communities with sensitive military, industrial, or scientific facilities such as arms plants or
nuclear research
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter.
Nuclear physics should not be confused with atomic physics, which studies the ...
sites.
["Secret Cities".GlobalSecurity.org](_blank)
Accessed August 2011. Examples are the modern towns of
Ozyorsk (
Chelyabinsk
Chelyabinsk ( rus, Челя́бинск, p=tɕɪˈlʲæbʲɪnsk, a=Ru-Chelyabinsk.ogg; ba, Силәбе, ''Siläbe'') is the administrative center and largest city of Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. It is the seventh-largest city in Russia, with a ...
-65) with a
plutonium
Plutonium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibi ...
production plant, and
Sillamäe
Sillamäe (Estonian for 'Bridge Hill'; also known by the Germanised names of ''Sillamäggi'' or ''Sillamägi'') is a town in Ida-Viru County in the northern part of Estonia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. It has a population of ...
, the site of a
uranium enrichment
Enriched uranium is a type of uranium in which the percent composition of uranium-235 (written 235U) has been increased through the process of isotope separation. Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (238 ...
facility. Even Soviet citizens were not allowed access to these places without proper authorization. In addition to this, some bigger cities were closed for unauthorized access to foreigners, while they were freely accessible to Soviet citizens. These included cities like
Perm
Perm or PERM may refer to:
Places
*Perm, Russia, a city in Russia
** Permsky District, the district
**Perm Krai, a federal subject of Russia since 2005
**Perm Oblast, a former federal subject of Russia 1938–2005
**Perm Governorate, an administra ...
, a center for Soviet artillery, munitions, and also aircraft engines production, and
Vladivostok
Vladivostok ( rus, Владивосто́к, a=Владивосток.ogg, p=vɫədʲɪvɐˈstok) is the largest city and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai, Russia. The city is located around the Golden Horn Bay on the Sea of Japan, c ...
, the headquarters and primary base of the
Soviet Pacific Fleet
, image = Great emblem of the Pacific Fleet.svg
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Russian Pacific Fleet Great emblem
, dates = 1731–present
, country ...
.
# The second category consisted of border cities (and some whole border areas, such as the
Kaliningrad Oblast
Kaliningrad Oblast (russian: Калинингра́дская о́бласть, translit=Kaliningradskaya oblast') is the westernmost federal subject of Russia. It is a semi-exclave situated on the Baltic Sea. The largest city and admin ...
,
Saaremaa
Saaremaa is the largest island in Estonia, measuring . The main island of Saare County, it is located in the Baltic Sea, south of Hiiumaa island and west of Muhu island, and belongs to the West Estonian Archipelago. The capital of the isla ...
, and
Hiiumaa
Hiiumaa (, ) is the second largest island in Estonia and is part of the West Estonian archipelago, in the Baltic Sea. It has an area of 989 km2 and is 22 km from the Estonian mainland. Its largest town is Kärdla. It is located within ...
), which were closed for security purposes. Comparable closed areas existed elsewhere in the
Eastern bloc; a substantial area along the
inner German border and the border between
West Germany
West Germany is the colloquial term used to indicate the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; german: Bundesrepublik Deutschland , BRD) between its formation on 23 May 1949 and the German reunification through the accession of East Germany on 3 O ...
and
Czechoslovakia
, rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי,
, common_name = Czechoslovakia
, life_span = 1918–19391945–1992
, p1 = Austria-Hungary
, image_p1 ...
was placed under similar restrictions (although by the 1970s foreigners could cross the latter by train). Citizens were required to have special permits to enter such areas.
The locations of the first category of closed cities were chosen for their geographical characteristics. They were often established in remote places situated deep in the
Urals
The Ural Mountains ( ; rus, Ура́льские го́ры, r=Uralskiye gory, p=ʊˈralʲskʲɪjə ˈɡorɨ; ba, Урал тауҙары) or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western ...
and
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive region, geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a ...
, out of reach of enemy bombers. They were built close to rivers and lakes that were used to provide the large amounts of water needed for heavy industry and nuclear technology. Existing civilian settlements in the vicinity were often used as sources of construction labour. Although the closure of cities originated as a strictly temporary measure that was to be normalized under more favorable conditions, in practice the closed cities took on a life of their own and became a notable institutional feature of the Soviet system.
Any movement to and from closed areas was tightly controlled. Foreigners were prohibited from entering them and local citizens were under stringent restrictions. They had to have special permission to travel there or leave, and anyone seeking residency was required to undergo vetting by the
NKVD
The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (russian: Наро́дный комиссариа́т вну́тренних дел, Naródnyy komissariát vnútrennikh del, ), abbreviated NKVD ( ), was the interior ministry of the Soviet Union.
...
and its successor agencies. Access to some closed cities was physically enforced by surrounding them with
barbed wire fences monitored by armed guards.
Mailbox
"Mailbox" () was the unofficial name of a secret Soviet facility much like the closed city, but smaller, usually the size of a
factory
A factory, manufacturing plant or a production plant is an industrial facility, often a complex consisting of several buildings filled with machinery, where workers manufacture items or operate machines which process each item into another. ...
. The "mailbox" name was usually classified, as were the activities there. Incoming
mail
The mail or post is a system for physically transporting postcards, letters, and parcels. A postal service can be private or public, though many governments place restrictions on private systems. Since the mid-19th century, national postal sys ...
was addressed to "Mailbox #XXXX", thus the name of "mailbox". Most Soviet
design bureaus (OKB) for
weapon
A weapon, arm or armament is any implement or device that can be used to deter, threaten, inflict physical damage, harm, or kill. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, ...
s,
aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engine ...
, space technology,
military
A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
electronics
The field of electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behaviour and effects of electrons using electronic devices. Electronics uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification ...
, etc. were "mailboxes".
Post-Soviet list
Russia
![Severomorsk (5145531991)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Severomorsk_%285145531991%29.jpg)
Russia has the largest number of closed cities. The policy of closing cities underwent major changes in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The adoption of a
new constitution for the Russian Federation in 1993 prompted significant reforms to the status of closed cities, which were renamed "closed administrative-territorial formations" (or ZATO, after the Russian acronym).
Municipally all such entities have a status of urban
okrug
An ''okrug, ; russian: о́круг, ókrug; sr, округ, okrug, ; uk, о́круг, о́kruh; be, акруга, akruha; pl, okręg; ab, оқрҿс; mhr, йырвел, '' is a type of administrative division in some Slavic states. Th ...
s, as mandated by the federal law.
There are currently 44 publicly acknowledged closed cities in Russia with a total population of about 1.5 million people. 75% are administered by the
Russian Ministry of Defense
The Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation (russian: Министерство обороны Российской Федерации, Минобороны России, informally abbreviated as МО, МО РФ or Minoboron) is the govern ...
, with the rest being administered by
Rosatom
Rosatom, ( rus, Росатом, p=rɐsˈatəm}) also known as Rosatom State Nuclear Energy Corporation, the State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom or Rosatom State Corporation, is a Russian state corporation headquartered in Moscow that speciali ...
.
[Nadezhda Kutepova & Olga Tsepilova, "A short history of the ZATO", pp. 148–149, in ''Cultures of Contamination, Volume 14: Legacies of Pollution in Russia and the US'' (Research in Social Problems and Public Policy), editors Michael Edelstein, Maria Tysiachniouk, Lyudmila V. Smirnova. JAI Press, 2007. ] Another 15 or so closed cities are believed to exist, but their names and locations have not been publicly disclosed by the Russian government.
[Greg Kaser, "Motivation and Redirection: Rationale and Achievements in the Russian Closed Nuclear Cities", p. 3, in ''Countering Nuclear and Radiological Terrorism'', editors David J. Diamond, Samuel Apikyan, Greg Kaser. Springer, 2006. ]
Some Russian closed cities are open for foreign investment, but foreigners may only enter with a permit. An example is the
Nuclear Cities Initiative (NCI), a joint effort of the United States
National Nuclear Security Administration
The National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) is a United States federal agency responsible for safeguarding national security through the military application of Nuclear physics, nuclear science. NNSA maintains and enhances the Stockpil ...
and
Minatom
Ministry for Atomic Energy of the Russian Federation and Federal Agency on Atomic Energy (or Rosatom), were a Russian federal executive body in 1992–2008 (as Federal Ministry in 1992–2004 and as Federal Agency in 2004–2008).
The Min ...
, which involves in part the cities of
Sarov
Sarov (russian: Саро́в) is a closed town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It was known as Gorkiy-130 (Горький-130) and Arzamas-16 (), after a (somewhat) nearby town of Arzamas,SarovLabsCreation of Nuclear Center Arzamas-16/ref ...
,
Snezhinsk, and
Zheleznogorsk.
The number of closed cities has been significantly reduced since the mid-1990s. However, on 30 October 2001, foreign travel (without any exceptions) was restricted in the northern cities of
Norilsk
Norilsk ( rus, Нори́льск, p=nɐˈrʲilʲsk, ''Norílʹsk'') is a closed city in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located south of the western Taymyr Peninsula, around 90 km east of the Yenisey River and 1,500 km north of Krasnoyarsk. Norilsk ...
,
Talnakh
Talnakh (russian: Талнах) was a town located about north of Norilsk at the foot of the Putoran Mountains in Taymyr Peninsula, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. In 2005 the town was merged into Norilsk. Population:
It is the site of the mines se ...
,
Kayerkan
Kayerkan (russian: Кайерка́н), located in the northern part of Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia and in the southern part of the Taymyr Peninsula, was a town under jurisdiction of Norilsk
Norilsk ( rus, Нори́льск, p=nɐˈrʲilʲsk, ''N ...
,
Dudinka
Dudinka (russian: Дуди́нка; Nenets: Тут'ын, ''Tutꜧyn'') is a town on the Yenisei River and the administrative center of Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. It used to be the administrative center of Ta ...
, and
Igarka
Igarka (russian: Ига́рка) is a town in Turukhansky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located north of the Arctic Circle. Igarka is a monotown established around a sawmill which processed timber logged in the basin of the Yenisei Riv ...
. Russian and Belarusian citizens visiting these cities are not required to have any permits; however, local courts are known to deport Belarusian citizens.
Krasnoyarsk-26 in Siberia, researched for the subject of
Sidney Sheldon
Sidney Sheldon (February 11, 1917 – January 30, 2007) was an American writer. He was prominent in the 1930s, first working on Broadway plays, and then in motion pictures, notably writing the successful comedy '' The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxe ...
's 2001 fictional murder mystery-romance ''
The Sky is Falling'', was planned in 2003 to be shut down by 2011, in co-operation with the U.S, and documented by their Natural Resources Defense Council, but actually closed in 2008.
The number of closed cities in Russia is defined by government decree (see links further). They include the following cities. Reasons for restrictions are denoted in the descriptions below.
Altai Krai
*
Sibirsky
Amur Oblast
*
Uglegorskformerly known as Svobodny-18 (), site of the second Russian trial
cosmodrome of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, also called
Svobodny Cosmodrome
Svobodny (russian: Свобо́дный) was a Russian rocket launch site located approximately 15 km north of Svobodny, Amur Oblast. The cosmodrome was originally constructed as a launch site for intercontinental ballistic missiles called ...
.
Arkhangelsk Oblast
*
Mirnyysite of
Plesetsk Cosmodrome
Plesetsk Cosmodrome ( rus, Космодром «Плесецк», r=Kosmodrom "Plesetsk", p=kəsmɐˈdrom plʲɪˈsʲet͡sk) is a Russian spaceport located in Mirny, Arkhangelsk Oblast, about 800 km north of Moscow and approximately 200 ...
.
Astrakhan Oblast
*
Znamensk
Znamensk (russian: Знаменск) is the name of several inhabited localities in Russia.
;Urban localities
* Znamensk, Astrakhan Oblast, a closed town in Astrakhan Oblast
;Rural localities
*Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement in Znamen ...
formerly known as Kapustin Yar-1 (), home to the
Kapustin Yar (air base) and the
"4th Missile Test Range".
Republic of Bashkortostan
*
Mezhgoryeformerly known as Ufa-105 () and Beloretsk-15 (), home to the 129th Directorate of strategic subjects' technical supply and maintenance.
Chelyabinsk Oblast
![SnezhinskHousesPobedaStreet](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/SnezhinskHousesPobedaStreet.jpg)
*
Lokomotivny
*
Magnitogorsk
Magnitogorsk ( rus, Магнитого́рск, p=məɡnʲɪtɐˈɡorsk, ) is an industrial city in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, located on the eastern side of the extreme southern extent of the Ural Mountains by the Ural River. Its population ...
*
Ozyorskformerly known as Chelyabinsk-65 () and Chelyabinsk-40 (), nuclear material processing and recycling plant.
*
Snezhinskformerly known as Chelyabinsk-70 (), site of one of the two major Russian Federal Nuclear Centers.
*
Tryokhgorny
Tryokhgorny (russian: Трёхго́рный, lit. ''(a town of) three mountains'') is a closed city, closed town in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, located in the western part of the oblast from Chelyabinsk. Population:
History
On January 24 ...
formerly known as Zlatoust-36 (), site of development of parts and machinery for atomic stations and weaponry.
Kamchatka Krai
*
Vilyuchinsk
Vilyuchinsk (russian: Вилючинск) is a closed town in Kamchatka Krai, Russia, located on the Kamchatka Peninsula about across Avacha Bay from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. Population:
History
It was founded as Sovetsky () on October ...
formerly known as Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky-50 (), base of a squadron of submarines from the
Russian Pacific Fleet
, image = Great emblem of the Pacific Fleet.svg
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Russian Pacific Fleet Great emblem
, dates = 1731–present
, country ...
, also involved in the production of nuclear submarines.
Kirov Oblast
*
Pervomayskyformerly known as Yurya-2 ().
Krasnoyarsk Krai
*
Dikson
*
Solnechnyformerly known as Uzhur-4 ().
*
Zelenogorskformerly known as Krasnoyarsk-45 ().
*
Zheleznogorskformerly known as Krasnoyarsk-26 ().
Moscow Oblast
*
Krasnoznamensk Krasnoznamensk (russian: Краснознаменск) is the name of several urban localities in Russia:
* Krasnoznamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast, a town in Krasnoznamensky District of Kaliningrad Oblast
*Krasnoznamensk, Moscow Oblast
Krasnoznamens ...
formerly known as Golitsyno-2 ().
*
Molodyozhnyformerly known as Naro-Fominsk-5 ().
*
Vlasikhaformerly known as Gorky-2 ().
*
Voskhodformerly known as Novopetrovsk-2 ().
*
Zvyozdny gorodokformerly known as Shchyolkovo-14 ().
Murmansk Oblast
![Дом-радуга](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC-%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0.jpg)
*
Alexandrovskclosed administrative-territorial formation, includes the towns of
Gadzhiyevo
Gadzhiyevo (russian: Гаджи́ево) is a town under the administrative jurisdiction of the closed administrative-territorial formation of Alexandrovsk in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. Population:
It was previously known as ''Yagelnaya Guba'' ( ...
,
Polyarny, and
Snezhnogorsk
*
Ostrovnoy
*
Severomorsk
Severomorsk (russian: Северомо́рск), known as Vayenga () until April 18, 1951, is a closed town in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. Severomorsk is the main administrative base of the Russian Northern Fleet. The town is located on the coast o ...
*
Snezhnogorsk
*
Vidyayevo
Vidyayevo (russian: Видя́ево) is a closed rural inhabited locality in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. Despite having a rural status, it is municipally incorporated as Vidyayevo Urban Okrug, as such status is the only one allowed by the federa ...
*
Zaozyorsk
Zaozyorsk (russian: Заозёрск), formerly known as Zaozyorny (), Severomorsk-7 (), and Murmansk-150 (), is a closed town in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 11,199; down from 12,687 recorded in the ...
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
![SarovskyMonasteryUspenskySobor](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/SarovskyMonasteryUspenskySobor.jpg)
*
Sarov
Sarov (russian: Саро́в) is a closed town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It was known as Gorkiy-130 (Горький-130) and Arzamas-16 (), after a (somewhat) nearby town of Arzamas,SarovLabsCreation of Nuclear Center Arzamas-16/ref ...
formerly known as Arzamas-16
Orenburg Oblast
*
Komarovsky
Penza Oblast
*
Zarechnyformerly known as Penza-19
Perm Krai
![Cultural center in closed town Zvezdniy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Cultural_center_in_closed_town_Zvezdniy.jpg)
*
Zvyozdnyformerly known as Perm-76 ().
Primorsky Krai
*
Fokinoformerly known as Shkotovo-17 ().
Pskov Oblast
*
Smuravyevo
Smuravyevo (Russian: Смуравьёво) (also Gdov or Smurav'yevo) is a former airbase of the Russian Air Force and former closed city in Pskov Oblast, Russia.
Location
This medium-sized base is located 14 km northeast of Gdov, 63 km ...
Saratov Oblast
*
Mikhaylovsky
*
Shikhany
Shikhany (russian: Шиханы) is a town in Saratov Oblast, Russia, located north of Saratov on the right bank of the Volga River Population: . It has been a closed town since 1997, but lost this status on 1 January 2019. The town is located 2 ...
*
Svetly
Sverdlovsk Oblast
*
Lesnoyformerly known as Sverdlovsk-45
*
Novouralsk
Novouralsk (russian: Новоура́льск, lit. ''new town in the Urals'') is a closed town in Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia, located on the eastern side of the Ural Mountains, about north of Yekaterinburg, the administrative center of the obla ...
formerly known as Sverdlovsk-44
*
Svobodny
*
Uralsky
Tomsk Oblast
![Seversk Kurchatova](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Seversk_Kurchatova.jpg)
*
Seversk
Seversk ( rus, Се́верск, p=ˈsʲevʲɪrsk) is a closed city in Tomsk Oblast, Russia, located northwest of Tomsk on the right bank of the Tom River. Population:
It was previously known as ''Pyaty Pochtovy'' (until 1949) and ''Tomsk-7'' ...
formerly known as Tomsk-7
Tver Oblast
*
Ozyorny
*
Solnechny
Vladimir Oblast
*
Raduzhny
Zabaykalsky Krai
*
Gornyformerly known as Chita-46 ().
Restricted territories
There is a list of territories within Russia that do not have closed-city status but require special permits for foreigners to visit. The largest locality within such territory is the city of
Norilsk
Norilsk ( rus, Нори́льск, p=nɐˈrʲilʲsk, ''Norílʹsk'') is a closed city in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located south of the western Taymyr Peninsula, around 90 km east of the Yenisey River and 1,500 km north of Krasnoyarsk. Norilsk ...
.
Azerbaijan
*
Agdam District
Aghdam District ( az, Ağdam rayonu) is one of the 66 administrative divisions of Azerbaijan. It is located in the west of the country and belongs to the Karabakh Economic Region. The district borders the districts of Khojaly, Kalbajar, Tartar, ...
,
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (, ; az, Azərbaycan ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, , also sometimes officially called the Azerbaijan Republic is a transcontinental country located at the boundary of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is a part of t ...
Estonia
There were two closed cities in
Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, a ...
:
Sillamäe
Sillamäe (Estonian for 'Bridge Hill'; also known by the Germanised names of ''Sillamäggi'' or ''Sillamägi'') is a town in Ida-Viru County in the northern part of Estonia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. It has a population of ...
and
Paldiski
Paldiski is a town and Baltic Sea port situated on the Pakri Peninsula of northwestern Estonia. Since 2017, it's the administrative centre of Lääne-Harju Parish of Harju County. Previously a village of Estonia-Swedes known by the historical ...
. As with all the other industrial cities, the population of them was mainly Russian-speaking. Sillamäe was the site for a chemical factory that produced
fuel rod
Nuclear fuel is material used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to power turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission.
Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile actinide elements that are capable of undergoing ...
s and nuclear materials for the Soviet
nuclear power plants and
nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions ( thermonuclear bomb), producing a nuclear explosion. Both bom ...
facilities, while Paldiski was home to a
Soviet Navy nuclear submarine
A nuclear submarine is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor, but not necessarily nuclear-armed. Nuclear submarines have considerable performance advantages over "conventional" (typically diesel-electric) submarines. Nuclear propulsion, ...
training centre. Sillamäe was closed until Estonia regained its independence in 1991; Paldiski remained closed until 1994, when the last Russian warship left.
Tartu, home to
Raadi Airfield, was partially closed. Foreign academics could visit the
University of Tartu
The University of Tartu (UT; et, Tartu Ülikool; la, Universitas Tartuensis) is a university in the city of Tartu in Estonia. It is the national university of Estonia. It is the only classical university in the country, and also its biggest ...
, but had to sleep elsewhere.
Kazakhstan
![Baikonuriss](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Baikonuriss.jpg)
*
Baikonur, a town close to the spaceport facility of the same name in
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
, which is rented and administered by Russia. Non-resident visitors will need pre-approval from the Russian authorities to visit both the town of Baikonur itself and the Cosmodrome. Note that said approval is completely separate from just having a Russian visa. Some tourism organisations in Kazakhstan provide services in organising trips to visit Baikonur and the museums contained there.
*
Priozersk
Priozersk (russian: Приозе́рск; fi, Käkisalmi; sv, Kexholm) is a town and the administrative center of Priozersky District in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located at the northwestern shore of Lake Ladoga, at the estuary of the northern ...
, Kazakhstan
*
Kurchatov, Kazakhstana former closed city that known by its postal code, Semipalatinsk-21.
Kyrgyzstan
*
Mailuu-Suu
Mayluu-Suu ( ky, Майлуу-Суу, russian: Майли-Сай ''Mayli-Say'') is a mining town in the Jalal-Abad Region of southern Kyrgyzstan. It is a city of regional significance, not part of a district. Its area is , and its resident populati ...
,
Jalal-Abad Region
Jalal-Abad Region ( ky, Жалал-Абад облусу, Jalal-Abad oblusu; russian: Джалал-Абадская область, Dzhalal-Abadskaya oblast) is a region ('' oblast'') of Kyrgyzstan. Its capital is the city of the same name, Jal ...
, a formerly closed
uranium
Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weak ...
mining town, once known as "Mailbox 200".
Moldova
Moldova
Moldova ( , ; ), officially the Republic of Moldova ( ro, Republica Moldova), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. The unrecognised state of Transnistr ...
has one partially closed city: the village of
Cobasna
Cobasna (Moldovan Cyrillic: Кобасна; , ''Kovbasna''; , ''Kolbasnaya'') is a commune in northern Transnistria, Moldova that is composed of three villages: Cobasna, Cobasna station, and Suhaia Rîbnița. It is controlled by the self-proclaim ...
(
Rîbnița District
The Rîbnița District ( ro, Raionul Rîbnița; russian: Рыбницкий район; uk, Рибницький район) is an administrative district of Transnistria (''de facto'') in Moldova (''de jure''). Its seat is the city of Rîbnița ...
), which is under the control of the unrecognized state of
Transnistria
Transnistria, officially the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (PMR), is an unrecognised breakaway state that is internationally recognised as a part of Moldova. Transnistria controls most of the narrow strip of land between the Dniester riv ...
internationally recognized as part of Moldova. The village, located on the left bank of the
Dniester
The Dniester, ; rus, Дне́стр, links=1, Dnéstr, ˈdⁿʲestr; ro, Nistru; grc, Τύρᾱς, Tyrās, ; la, Tyrās, la, Danaster, label=none, ) ( ,) is a transboundary river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and th ...
river, contains
a large Soviet-era ammunition depot guarded by Russian troops. Only the Transnistrian and Russian authorities have detailed information about this depot.
Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
had eighteen closed cities.
*Simferopol-28,
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
former closed town, a Soviet military space mission control centre.
*
Kamianske
Kamianske ( uk, Кам'янське, ), formerly Dniprodzerzhynsk, is an industrial city in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast of Ukraine and a port on the Dnieper. Administratively, it serves as the administrative center of Kamianske Raion. Kamianske hosts ...
, former closed city,
largest Uranium processing factory in former Soviet Union.
*
Feodosia-13,
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...
former closed town, a central storage of nuclear weapons.
Other countries list
Albania
During the
period of communist rule in Albania, the towns of
Çorovodë
Çorovodë ( sq-definite, Çorovoda) is a town and a former municipality in Berat County, Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision and the seat of the municipality Skrapar. The population at the 2011 census was 4,051.< ...
and Qyteti Stalin (now
Kuçovë
Kuçovë ( sq-definite, Kuçova) is a municipality in south-central Albania. It was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities Kozare, Kuçovë, Lumas and Perondi, which all became municipal units. The se ...
) were closed cities with a military airport, military industry and other critical war infrastructure.
China
* No. 404 Factory of
China National Nuclear Corporation
The China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC; ) is a state-owned enterprise founded in 1955 in Beijing. CNNC's president and vice-president are appointed by the Premier of the People's Republic of China. CNNC oversees all aspects of China's civ ...
(
中国核工业总公司第四零四厂), then the
Ministry of Nuclear Industry, located in the
Gobi desert in the western part of
Gansu province
Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province.
The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibeta ...
, is a closed town often called the ''nuclear town'' (
核城). It is the biggest nuclear industry base in China and it was built in 1958. China built its first military
nuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device used to initiate and control a fission nuclear chain reaction or nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat fr ...
there and 80% of the core parts for China's nuclear bombs were produced there. Until the 1980s, the whole town was closed to outsiders. A nuclear accident happened in 1969, involving a leak. The name "''mine area of Gansu''" (
甘肃矿区) was used for secrecy. In 2007, most residents were moved to nearby
Jiayuguan City
Jiayuguan (, ) is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Gansu province, with a population of 312,663 as of the 2020 census. Compared with the 231,853 people in the sixth national census in 2010, there was an increase of 80,810 people, with an a ...
.
*Some remote areas in China, such as
Datong Hui and Tu Autonomous County
Datong Hui and Tu Autonomous County (;; Xiao'erjing: ) is an autonomous county of Hui and Tu peoples in Qinghai Province, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Xining, the capital of Qinghai.
Since 2009, a folk m ...
(except Laoye Mountain),
Huangzhong County (except
Kumbum Monastery
Kumbum Monastery (, THL ''Kumbum Jampa Ling''), also called Ta'er Temple, is a Tibetan gompa in Lusar, Huangzhong County, Xining, Qinghai, China. It was founded in 1583 in a narrow valley close to the village of Lusar in the historical Tibeta ...
), and
Huangyuan County around
Xining
Xining (; ), alternatively known as Sining, is the capital of Qinghai province in western China and the largest city on the Tibetan Plateau.
The city was a commercial hub along the Northern Silk Road's Hexi Corridor for over 2000 years, and w ...
, the capital of
Qinghai Province
Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest pop ...
, maintain travel restrictions for foreigners. A foreigner must apply for an alien travel document (
外国人旅行证) in advance, and report their accommodation to local police within 24 hours after entering the area. Similarly, all foreign visitors to the
Tibet Area must be part of a tour group to be permitted access.
Germany
*
Riems, Germany, an island in the Bay of Greifswald, is home to the oldest virological research institution in the world and is closed to the public. Quarantine stables and laboratories security are level 4. This means employees and visitors to the complex must change their clothes and shower when entering and exiting.
Hong Kong
![Lo Wu Restricted Area Sign](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Lo_Wu_Restricted_Area_Sign.JPG)
The Frontier Closed Area (FCA) is a fenced stretch of land along the northern border of Hong Kong, which serves as a buffer between the closed border and the rest of the territory. For anyone to enter the area, a Closed Area Permit is required. Between 1951 and 2012, it contained dozens of villages over an area of 28 square kilometres. Upon several stages of reduction, by 2016, the border town of
Sha Tau Kok
Sha Tau Kok is a closed city, closed town in Hong Kong. The last remaining major settlement in the Frontier Closed Area, it is Hong Kong's northernmost town.
Geography
The small rural village of Sha Tau Kok is located on the northern sh ...
remains as the only settlement within the FCA.
Korea
Within the
Korean Demilitarized Zone
The Korean Demilitarized Zone ( Korean: ; Hanbando Bimujang Jidae) is a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula near the 38th parallel north. The demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border barrier that divides the peninsula roughly in ...
between
North Korea
North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu (Amnok) and T ...
and
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eas ...
are two "peace villages" (one maintained by each nation):
Daeseong-dong
Daeseong-dong (also called Tae Sung Dong, Jayu-ui Maeul and Daeseongdong-gil) is a village in South Korea close to the North Korean border. It lies within the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The village is about 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) south ...
(South) and (possibly)
Kijŏng-dong
Kijŏng-dong, Kijŏngdong, or Kijŏng tong is a Potemkin village in P'yŏnghwa-ri (), Kaesong, North Korea. It is situated in the North's half of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Also known in North Korea as ''Peace Village'' (),[Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center
The Nyongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center is North Korea's major nuclear facility, operating its first nuclear reactors. It is located in Nyongbyon County in North Pyongan Province, about 100 km north of Pyongyang. The center produ ...]
sits within a closed city that occupies 24.8 square kilometers (9.6 sq mi).
Mexico
* In
Baja California
Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
, the communities on
Guadalupe Island
Guadalupe Island ( es, Isla Guadalupe, link=no) is a volcanic island located off the western coast of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula and about southwest of the city of Ensenada in the state of Baja California, in the Pacific Ocean. The ...
(such as ''Campo Oeste'') can be considered closed towns; because Guadalupe Island is located in a
Biosphere
The biosphere (from Greek βίος ''bíos'' "life" and σφαῖρα ''sphaira'' "sphere"), also known as the ecosphere (from Greek οἶκος ''oîkos'' "environment" and σφαῖρα), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also ...
Reserve
Reserve or reserves may refer to:
Places
* Reserve, Kansas, a US city
* Reserve, Louisiana, a census-designated place in St. John the Baptist Parish
* Reserve, Montana, a census-designated place in Sheridan County
* Reserve, New Mexico, a US vi ...
, the
Mexican government
The Federal government of Mexico (alternately known as the Government of the Republic or ' or ') is the national government of the United Mexican States, the central government established by its constitution to share sovereignty over the republi ...
requires special permits in order to visit the island.
Saudi Arabia
*
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
is closed to non-Muslims. Similar restrictions are in place for the city center of
Medina
Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
.
South Africa
*
Alexander Bay, Northern Cape. After diamonds were discovered along this coast in 1925 by
Hans Merensky
Hans Merensky (16 March 1871 – 21 October 1952) was a South African geologist, prospector, scientist, conservationist and philanthropist. He discovered the rich deposit of alluvial diamonds at Alexander Bay in Namaqualand, vast platinum ...
,
Alexander Bay became known for its mining activities. The town was a high security area and permits were needed when entered. Today, it is no longer a high security area and no permits are needed.
Sweden
*
Fårö
Fårö () or Fåre in Gutnish is a Baltic Sea island just north of the island of Gotland, itself off mainland Sweden's southeastern coast. It is the second-largest island in the province and it is a popular summer resort. It has its own language ...
and the northernmost parts of
Gotland were closed to foreign citizens until 1998.
United Kingdom
*
Imber, England has been closed since 1943 when its residents were evicted by the
British Army
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. , the British Army comprises 79,380 regular full-time personnel, 4,090 Gurk ...
, who continue to use the village as a training ground for
urban warfare
Urban warfare is combat conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. Urban combat differs from combat in the open at both the operational and the tactical levels. Complicating factors in urban warfare include the presence of civilians a ...
. While most of the village's buildings have been demolished and replaced for training purposes, the village church (
St Giles') was kept intact and the village is occasionally opened to the public during holidays.
*
Foulness Island
Foulness Island () is a closed island on the east coast of Essex in England, which is separated from the mainland by narrow creeks. In the 2001 census, the usually resident population of the civil parish was 212, living in the settlements of C ...
contains two villages with permanent residences, but public right of way is limited to certain paths and access controlled by the
Ministry of Defence. The site contains an active live firing range, as well as several inactive firing ranges and other structures as well as the site of the development and testing of the UK's first atomic weapons.
United States
![Richland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Richland.jpg)
*
Dugway, Utah
Dugway is a census-designated place (CDP) in southeastern Tooele County, Utah, United States. The population was 2,016, at the 2000 census, a modest increase over the 1990 figure of 1,761. The town is located inside the United States Army's larg ...
inside the
Dugway Proving Ground
Dugway Proving Ground (DPG) is a U.S. Army facility established in 1942 to test biological and chemical weapons, located about southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, United States, and south of the Utah Test and Training Range.
Location
Dugway P ...
.
* The
Gold Coast Historic District in
Richland, Washington
Richland () is a city in Benton County, Washington, United States. It is located in southeastern Washington at the confluence of the Yakima and the Columbia Rivers. As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 60,560. Along with the nearby c ...
was a closed city during the
Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project w ...
.
*
Los Alamos, New Mexico
Los Alamos is an census-designated place in Los Alamos County, New Mexico, United States, that is recognized as the development and creation place of the atomic bomb—the primary objective of the Manhattan Project by Los Alamos National Labo ...
was a closed city during the Manhattan Project.
*
Mercury, Nevada
Mercury is a closed village in Nye County, Nevada, United States, north of U.S. Route 95 at a point northwest of Las Vegas. It is situated within the Nevada National Security Site and was constructed by the Atomic Energy Commission to hou ...
is situated within the
Nevada Test Site
The Nevada National Security Site (N2S2 or NNSS), known as the Nevada Test Site (NTS) until 2010, is a United States Department of Energy (DOE) reservation located in southeastern Nye County, Nevada, about 65 miles (105 km) northwest of the ...
, the primary testing location of American nuclear devices from 1951 to 1992, currently called Nevada National Security Site, and is currently closed as part of this site.
*
Oak Ridge, Tennessee was a closed city during the Manhattan Project.
*
Plum Island, New York home of the
Plum Island Animal Disease Center
Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) is a United States federal research facility dedicated to the study of foreign animal diseases of livestock. It is part of the Department of Homeland Security Directorate for Science and Technology, an ...
*
Fort Irwin, California
Between 1957–1962, approximately one-third of the United States was closed to Soviet citizens.
Only eight states were accessible in their entirety: Oregon, Wyoming, Utah, North Carolina, Arkansas, Vermont, Missouri, and Mississippi.
[Russians Were Once Banned From a Third of the U.S.](_blank)
National Geographic.
In popular culture
The 2020 film ''
Tenet'' prominently features a fictional Soviet-era closed city in Siberia called Stalsk-12 in its storyline.
See also
*
Exclusion zone
An exclusion zone is a territorial division established for various, case-specific purposes.
Per the United States Department of Defense, an exclusion zone is a territory where an authority prohibits specific activities in a specific geographic ...
*
Internal passport
An internal passport or a domestic passport is an identity document. Uses for internal passports have included restricting citizens of a subdivided state to employment in their own area (preventing their migration to richer cities or regions), cle ...
*
Military town {{Unreferenced, date=May 2019, bot=noref (GreenC bot)
A military town is a civilian municipality which is economically dependent upon or receives its greatest economic impetus from a nearby military installation, such as a military base or military ...
*
Naukograd
Naukograd ( rus, наукогра́д, p=nəʊkɐˈgrat, also technopole), meaning "science city", is a formal term for towns with high concentrations of research and development facilities in Russia and the Soviet Union, some specifically built ...
(literally ''science city'')
*
Nuclear Cities Initiative
*
Propiska in the Soviet Union
A propiska ( rus, пропи́ска, p=prɐˈpʲiskə, a=Ru-прописка.ogg, plural: ''propiski'') was both a residency permit and a migration-recording tool, used in the Russian Empire before 1917 and in the Soviet Union from the 1930s. L ...
References
Further reading
* Bukharin, Oleg (September/October 1998)
"Retooling Russia's Nuclear Cities" ''The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists''Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science.
*
*
External links
*
Current list of (acknowledged) closed cities / areas, from the Russian Federation Administration website
Russia's closed cities are open and shut caserticle from ''Russia Journal''. ''(Original source requires paid subscription&nbs
)''
National Nuclear Security Administration, U.S. Department of Energy website.(article), fro
www.globalsecurity.orgRight to the city in former Soviet Union closed cities (ZATO) Andrius Ropolas's paper focusing upon the social aspects of closed cites. Helpful bibliography.
;Maps
*
*
Closed cities map
{{Authority control
Geography of Russia
Military history of the Soviet Union
Society of Russia
Science and technology in Russia
Science and technology in the Soviet Union
Soviet phraseology