Asha (; also arta ; ae, 𐬀𐬴𐬀, translit=aṣ̌a/arta) is a

Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...

concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'order' and 'right working'... For other connotations, see meaning below. It is of cardinal importance. to Zoroastrian

theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...

and

doctrine Doctrine (from la, doctrina, meaning "teaching, instruction") is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a belief system ...

. In the moral sphere, ''aṣ̌a/arta'' represents what has been called "the decisive confessional concept of Zoroastrianism". qtd. in
. The opposite of

Avestan Avestan (), or historically Zend, is an umbrella term for two Old Iranian languages: Old Avestan (spoken in the 2nd millennium BCE) and Younger Avestan (spoken in the 1st millennium BCE). They are known only from their conjoined use as the scrip ...

''aṣ̌a'' is ''druj'', "deceit, falsehood". Its

Old Persian Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan language, Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native ...

equivalent is ''arta-''. In

Middle Iranian languages The Iranian languages or Iranic languages are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau. The Iranian languages are grouped ...

the term appears as ''ard-''. The word is also the proper name of the divinity Asha, the

Amesha Spenta In Zoroastrianism, the Amesha Spenta ( ae, , Aməša Spəṇta—literally "Immortal (which is) holy/bounteous/furthering") are a class of seven divine entities emanating from Ahura Mazda, the highest divinity of the religion. Later Middle Persian ...

that is the hypostasis or "genius". of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In the

Younger Avesta The Avesta () is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the lit ...

, this figure is more commonly referred to as Asha Vahishta (''Aṣ̌a Vahišta'', ''Arta Vahišta''), "Best Truth". The

Middle Persian Middle Persian or Pahlavi, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg () in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasanian Empire. For some time after the Sasanian collapse, Middle Per ...

descendant is ''Ashawahist'' or ''Ardwahisht'';

New Persian New Persian ( fa, فارسی نو), also known as Modern Persian () and Dari (), is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into thre ...

''Ardibehesht'' or ''Ordibehesht''. In the

Gathas The Gathas ()"Gatha"
''

Zoroaster Zoroaster,; fa, زرتشت, Zartosht, label=New Persian, Modern Persian; ku, زەردەشت, Zerdeşt also known as Zarathustra,, . Also known as Zarathushtra Spitama, or Ashu Zarathushtra is regarded as the spiritual founder of Zoroastria ...

—it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta, only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective of ''aṣ̌a/arta''.

Etymology

Avestan ' and its

Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

equivalent '' '' both derive from

Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Indo-Iranian, also Proto-Indo-Iranic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium B ...

''*ṛtá-'' "truth", which in turn continues

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo-E ...

''*'' "properly joined, right, true", from the root ''*''. The word is attested in

as '. It is unclear whether the Avestan variation between ''aṣ̌a'' and ''arta'' is merely orthographical. Benveniste suggested ''š'' was only a convenient way of writing ''rt'' and should not be considered phonetically relevant.. According to Gray, ''ṣ̌'' is a misreading, representing – not /ʃ/ - but /rr/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a

voiceless In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies v ...

''r''.. Miller suggested that ''rt'' was restored when a scribe was aware of the

morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful Constituent (linguistics), constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistics, linguistic study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology (linguistics), morphology. In English, morphemes are ...

boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the ''–ta'' suffix).. Avestan ''druj'', like its

Vedic Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit was an ancient language of the Indo-Aryan subgroup of the Indo-European language family. It is attested in the Vedas and related literature compiled over the period of the mid- 2nd to mid-1st millennium BCE. It was orally preser ...

cousin ''druh'', appears to derive from the PIE root ''*'', also continued in Persian دروغ / ''d ūġ'' "lie", German ''Trug'' "fraud, deception".

Old Norse Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian, is a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and t ...

draugr The draugr or draug ( non, draugr, plural ; modern is, draugur, fo, dreygur and Danish language, Danish, Swedish language, Swedish, and no, draug) is an undead creature from the Scandinavian saga literature and folktale. Commentators extend t ...

'' and

Middle Irish Middle Irish, sometimes called Middle Gaelic ( ga, An Mheán-Ghaeilge, gd, Meadhan-Ghàidhlig), is the Goidelic language which was spoken in Ireland, most of Scotland and the Isle of Man from AD; it is therefore a contemporary of late Old Engli ...

''airddrach'' mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognate ''druh'' means "affliction, afflicting demon". In Avestan, '' druj-'' has a secondary derivation, the adjective ''drəguuaṇt-'' (

Young Avestan Avestan (), or historically Zend, is an umbrella term for two Old Iranian languages: Old Avestan (spoken in the 2nd millennium BCE) and Younger Avestan (spoken in the 1st millennium BCE). They are known only from their conjoined use as the scrip ...

'' druuaṇt-''), "partisan of deception, deceiver" for which the superlative ''draojišta-'' and perhaps the comparative ''draoj(ii)ah-'' are attested (Kellens, 2010, pp. 69 ff.).

Meaning

''Aṣ̌a'' "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue" but may be summarized as follows: It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement', because it is true, corresponds to an objective, material reality that embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it.. "This cosmic ..force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order.". The correspondence between 'truth', reality and an all-encompassing cosmic principle is not far removed from Heraclitus' conception of

Logos ''Logos'' (, ; grc, wikt:λόγος, λόγος, lógos, lit=word, discourse, or reason) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive ...

As "truth"

Both Avestan ''aṣ̌a/arta'' and Vedic ''ŗtá-'' are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respective

antonyms In lexical semantics, opposites are words lying in an inherently incompatible binary relationship. For example, something that is ''long'' entails that it is not ''short''. It is referred to as a 'binary' relationship because there are two members ...

. The opposite of Avestan ''aṣ̌a/arta'' is ''druj-'', "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedic ' are ' and ''druh'', likewise "lie". That "truth" is also what was commonly understood by the term as attested in

Greek myth A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities of ...

of: ''Isis and Osiris'' 47,

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...

calls the divinity Αλήθεια ''

Aletheia ''Aletheia'' or Alethia (; grc, ἀλήθεια) is truth or disclosure in philosophy. Originating in Ancient Greek philosophy, the term was later used in the works of 20th-century philosopher Martin Heidegger. Although often translated as "tru ...

'', "Truth.".

As "existence"

The adjective corresponding to the noun ''aṣ̌a/arta'', "truth", is Avestan ''haithya-'' (''haiθiia-''), "true", the opposite of which is also ''druj-''. Avestan ''haithya-'' derives from Indo-Iranian ''*sātya'' that in turn derives from

Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutch ...

''*h₁s-ṇt-'' "being, existing". The Sanskrit

cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...

'' sátya-'' means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression ''haiθīm var''ə''z'', "to make true" as in "to bring to realization." Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the ''aṣ̌a/arta'': from (root) ''ŗ'' with a substantivizing ''-ta'' suffix. The root ''ŗ'' corresponds to Old Avestan ''ar''ə''ta-'' and Younger Avestan ə''r''ə''ta-'' "established", hence ''aṣ̌a/arta'' "that which is established." The synonymy of ''aṣ̌a'' and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the creator (of existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created). Also, because ''aṣ̌a'' is everything that ''druj-'' is not (or vice versa), since ''aṣ̌a'' is, ''druj-'' is not. This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, such as in the first '' Yasht'', dedicated to

Ahura Mazda Ahura Mazda (; ae, , translit=Ahura Mazdā; ), also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ahuramazda, Hoormazd, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmuz, is the creator deity in Zoroastrianism. He is the first and most frequently invoked spirit in the ''Yasna''. ...

, in which the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" ( ''Yasht'' 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology of ''Gandar''ə''βa'', the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of the ''druj-'' that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aṣ̌a" (''Yasht'' 19.41) In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"), Vohu Manah is active in good thoughts,

Sraosha Sraosha ( ae, 𐬯𐬭𐬀𐬊𐬴𐬀 or ) is the Avestan name of the Zoroastrian ''yazata'' of "Conscience" and "Observance", which is also the literal meaning of his name. In the Middle Persian commentaries of the 9th-12th centuries, the div ...

in good words and Aṣ̌a in good deeds. (''Denkard'' 3.13-14). Aṣ̌a is thus "represented as active and effective.".

As "right working"

Subject to context, ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' is also frequently translated as "right working" or "

hat which is A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...

right". The word then (''cf.'' Bartholomae's, coll. 229-259. and Geldner's. translations as German language "''Recht''") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in the English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order). These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, such as "the inexorable law of righteousness,". or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order.". As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working", ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars (''Yasna'' 44.3), and it is through ''aṣ̌a'' that plants grow (''Yasna'' 48.6). "Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European ''*ár-'' "to (properly) join together" and with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established", ''ar''ə''ta-'', also means "proper". The antonymic ''anar''ə''ta-'' (or ''anar''ə''θa-'') means "improper''. In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula ''*sātyas mantras'' (''Yasna'' 31.6: ''haiθīm mathrem'') "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization)'". It perhaps has also suggestions of harmoniousness or cooperativeness

In comparison to Vedic usage

The kinship. between Old Iranian ''aṣ̌a-/arta-'' and Vedic ''ŗtá-'' is evident in numerous formulaic phrases and expressions that appear in both the Avesta and in the

RigVeda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...

. cit.
. For instance, the ''*ŗtásya'' path, "path of truth", is attested multiple times in both sources: Y 51.13, 72.11; RV 3.12.7, 7.66.3. Similarly "source of truth," Avestan ''aṣ̌a khá'' and Vedic ' (Y 10.4; RV 2.28.5) The adjective corresponding to Avestan ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' is ''haiθiia-'' "true". Similarly, the adjective corresponding to Vedic ''ŗtá-'' "truth" is ''sátya-'' "true". The opposite of both ''aṣ̌a/arta-'' and ''haithya-'' is ''druj-'' "lie" or "false". In contrast, in the Vedas the opposite of both ''ŗtá-'' and ''sátya-'' is ''druj-'' and ''ánŗta-'', also "lie" or "false". However, while the Indo-Iranian concept of truth is attested throughout Zoroastrian tradition, ''ŗtá-'' disappears in post-Vedic literature and is not preserved in post-Vedic texts. On the other hand, ''sátya-'' and ''ánrta-'' both survive in classical Sanskrit. The main theme of the Rig Veda, "the truth and the gods", is not evident in the Gathas.. Thematic parallels between ''aṣ̌a/arta'' and ''ŗtá-'', however, exist such as in ''Yasht'' 10, the Avestan hymn to Mithra. There, Mithra, who is the hypostasis and the preserver of covenant, is the protector of ''aṣ̌a/arta''.. RigVedic

Mitra ''Mitra'' ( Proto-Indo-Iranian: ''*mitrás'') is the name of an Indo-Iranian divinity from which the names and some characteristics of Rigvedic Mitrá and Avestan Mithra derive. The names (and occasionally also some characteristics) of these t ...

is likewise preserver of ''ŗtá-''.

Fire as the agent of Truth

Asha Vahishta is closely associated with

fire Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material (the fuel) in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction Product (chemistry), products. At a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition ...

. Fire is "grandly conceived as a force informing all the ''other'' Amesha Spentas, giving them warmth and the spark of life.". In ''Yasht'' 17.20, Angra Mainyu clamours that Zoroaster burns him with Asha Vahishta. In ''Vendidad'' 4.54-55, speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt." This analogy of truth that burns and detecting truth through fire is already attested in the very earliest texts, that is, in the Gathas and in the ''

Yasna Haptanghaiti The ''Yasna Haptanghaiti'' (), Avestan for "Worship in Seven Chapters," is a set of seven hymns within the greater ''Yasna'' collection, that is, within the primary liturgical texts of the Zoroastrian Avesta. Chapter and verse pointers are to ''Yasn ...

''. In ''Yasna'' 43–44, Ahura Mazda dispenses justice through radiance of His fire and the strength of aṣ̌a. Fire "detects" sinners "by hand-grasping" (''Yasna'' 34.4). An individual who has passed the fiery test (''garmo-varah'', ordeal by heat), has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity (''Yasna'' 30.7). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all.". According to the post-

Sassanid The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

Dadestan i denig ' ( "Religious Judgments") or ' ( "Book of Questions") is a 9th-century Middle Persian work written by Manuščihr, who was high priest of the Persian Zoroastrian community of Pārs and Kermān, son of Juvānjam and brother of Zādspram. The work ...

'' (I.31.10), at the final judgement a river of molten metal will cover the earth. The righteous, as they wade through this river, will perceive the molten metal as a bath of warm milk. The wicked will be scorched. For details on aṣ̌a's role in personal and final judgement, see ''aṣ̌a'' in eschatology, below. Fire is moreover the "auxiliary of the truth," "and not only, as in the ordeal, of justice and of truth at the same time." In ''Yasna'' 31.19, "the man who thinks of ''aṣ̌a'', ..who uses his tongue in order to speak correctly,

oes so Oes or owes were metallic "O" shaped rings or eyelets sewn on to clothes and furnishing textiles for decorative effect in England and at the Elizabethan and Jacobean court. They were smaller than modern sequins. Making and metals Robert Sharp obta ...

with the aid of brilliant fire". In ''Yasna'' 34-44 devotees "ardently desire azda'smighty fire, through aṣ̌a." In ''Yasna'' 43–44, Ahura Mazda "shall come to oroasterthrough the splendour of azda'sfire, possessing the strength of (through) aṣ̌a and good mind (=Vohu Manah)." That fire "possesses strength through ''aṣ̌a''" is repeated again in ''Yasna'' 43.4. In ''Yasna'' 43.9, Zoroaster, wishing to serve fire, gives his attention to ''aṣ̌a''. In ''Yasna'' 37.1, in a list of what are otherwise all physical creations, ''aṣ̌a'' takes the place of fire. Asha Vahishta's association with ''atar'' is carried forward in the post-Gathic texts, and they are often mentioned together. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, each of the Amesha Spentas represents one aspect of creation and one of seven primordial elements that in Zoroastrian tradition are the basis of that creation. In this matrix, ''aṣ̌a/arta'' is the origin of fire, Avestan '' atar'', which permeates through all Creation. The correspondence then is that ''aṣ̌a/arta'' "penetrates all ethical life, as fire penetrates all physical being." In the liturgy Asha Vahishta is frequently invoked together with fire. (''Yasna'' l.4, 2.4, 3.6, 4.9, 6.3, 7.6, 17.3, 22.6, 59.3, 62.3 etc.). In one passage, fire is a protector of ''aṣ̌a'': "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" (''Yasht'' 13.77) In later Zoroastrian tradition, Asha Vahishta is still at times identified with the fire of the household hearth..

In eschatology and soteriology

In addition to the role of fire as the agent of Truth, fire, among its various other manifestations, is also "the fire of judicial ordeal, prototype of the fiery torrent of judgement day, when all will receive their just deserts 'by fire and by Aṣ̌a' (''Y'' 31.3)." In the Avesta, the "radiant quarters" of ''aṣ̌a'' is "the best existence", i.e. Paradise (cf. ''Vendidad'' 19.36), entry to which is restricted to those who are recognized as "possessing truth" ('' aṣ̌avan'').. The key to this doctrine is ''Yasna'' 16.7: "We worship the radiant quarters of ''Aṣ̌a'' in which dwell the souls of the dead, the Fravašis of the ''aṣ̌avan''s; the best existence (=Paradise) of the ''aṣ̌avan''s we worship, (which is) light and according all comforts." 'Aṣ̌a' derives from the same

root as '

Airyaman In the Avesta, (or ') is both an Avestan language common noun as well as the proper name of a Zoroastrian divinity. The common noun is a theological and social term literally meaning "member of (the) community or tribe." In a secondary developme ...

', the divinity of healing who is closely associated with Asha Vahishta. At the last judgement, the common noun ''airyaman'' is an epithet of the ''

saoshyans Saoshyanet (Avestan: 𐬯𐬀𐬊𐬳𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬧𐬝 saoš́iiaṇt̰) is the Avestan language expression that literally means "one who brings benefit", and which is used in several different ways in Zoroastrian scripture and tradition. In par ...

'', the saviours that bring about the final renovation of the world. The standing epithet of these saviour figures is '''astvat''ә''r''ә''ta''', which likewise has ''arta'' as an element of the name. These saviours are those who follow Ahura Mazda's teaching "with acts inspired by aṣ̌a" (''Yasna'' 48.12). Both Airyaman and Asha Vahishta (as also Atar) are closely associated with

" oice ofConscience" and guardian of the Chinvat bridge across which souls must pass. According to a lost Avestan passage that is only preserved in a later (9th century) Pahlavi text, towards the end of time and the final renovation, Aṣ̌a and Airyaman will together come upon the earth to do battle with the Az, the daeva of greed (''Zatspram'' 34.38-39). The third ''Yasht'', which is nominally addressed to Asha Vahishta, is in fact mostly devoted to the praise of the ''

airyaman ishya The airyaman ishya (; ''airyaman išya'', ''airyə̄mā išyō'') is Zoroastrianism's fourth of the four Gathic Avestan invocations. Name The prayer is named after its opening words, ''ā airyə̄mā išyō''. In present-day Zoroastrian usage, ...

'' (''airy''ә''mā īšyo'', "Longed-for ''airyaman''"), the fourth of the four great Gathic prayers. In present-day Zoroastrianism it is considered to invoke Airyaman just as the ''

Ashem Vohu Ashem Vohu (, Avestan: 𐬀𐬴𐬆𐬨 𐬬𐬊𐬵𐬏 aṣ̌əm vohū) is a very important prayer in Zoroastrianism. The Ashem Vohu, after the Ahunavar is considered one of the most basic, yet meaningful and powerful mantras in the religion. It ...

'', is the second of the four great Gathic prayers, is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. All four prayers (the first is the Ahuna Vairya, the third is the

Yenghe Hatam Yenghe hatam is one of the four major prayer formulas (the other three being Ashem Vohu, Ahuna Vairya and Airyaman ishya) of the Gathic canon, that is, part of the group of texts composed in the more archaic dialect of the Avestan language and b ...

) have judgement and/or salvation as a theme, and all four call on the Truth. It is Airyaman that – together with fire – will "melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and it will be upon the earth like a river" (''Bundahishn'' 34.18). In Zoroastrian tradition, metal is the domain of Xshathra airya the Amesha Spenta of " esirableDominion", with whom Aṣ̌a is again frequently identified. Dominion is moreover "a form of truth and results from truth.". In '' Denkard'' 8.37.13, Asha Vahishta actually takes over Airyaman's healer role as the healer of all spiritual ills and Airyaman then only retains the role of healer of corporeal ills. Although Airyaman has no dedication in the Siroza, the invocations to the divinities of the

Zoroastrian calendar Adherents of Zoroastrianism use three distinct versions of traditional calendars for liturgical purposes, all derived from medieval Iranian calendars and ultimately based on the Babylonian calendar as used in the Achaemenid empire. ''Qadimi'' ...

, Airyaman is twice invoked together with Aṣ̌a. (''Siroza'' 1.3 and 2.3) ''Aogemadaecha'' 41-47 prototypes death as a journey that has to be properly prepared for: As mortals acquires material goods as they go through life, so also should they furnish themselves with spiritual stores of righteousness. They will then be well provisioned when they embark on the journey from which they will not return. Aṣ̌a's role is not limited to judgement: In '' Bundahishn'' 26.35, Aṣ̌a prevents daevas from exacting too great a punishment to souls consigned to the House of Lies. Here, Aṣ̌a occupies the position that other texts assign to Mithra, who is traditionally identified with fairness. For the relationship between Aṣ̌a, eschatology and Nowruz, see in the Zoroastrian calendar, below. Although there are numerous eschatological parallels between Aṣ̌a and

Aši Ashi (Avestan: 𐬀𐬴𐬌 ''aṣ̌i/arti'') is the Avestan language word for the Zoroastrian concept of "that which is attained." As the hypostasis of "reward," "recompense," or "capricious luck," ''Ashi'' is also a divinity in the Zoroastrian ...

"recompense, reward" (most notably their respective associations with Sraosha and Vohu Manah), and are on occasion even mentioned together (''Yasna'' 51.10), the two are not

etymologically Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the form of words an ...

related. The feminine abstract noun ''aši/arti'' derives from ''ar-'', "to allot, to grant." Aši also has no Vedic equivalent.

In relationship to the other Amesha Spentas

Zoroastrian cosmogony According to the Zoroastrian cosmogony, Mashya and Mashyana were the first man and woman whose procreation gave rise to the human race. Etymology The names are from Avestan, nominally transliterated as ' and ', but like other Avestan words also, ...

and

cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount (lexicographer), Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in ...

, which—though alluded to in the Gathas—is only systematically described in Zoroastrian tradition (e.g. ''Bundahishn'' 3.12), ''aṣ̌a'' is the second (cf. ''Yasna'' 47.1) of the six primeval creations realized ("created by His thought") by Ahura Mazda. It is through these six, the

s that all subsequent creation was accomplished. In addition to Asha Vahishta's role as an Amesha Spenta and hence one of the primordial creations through which all other creation was realized, Truth is one of the "organs, aspects or emanations" of Ahura Mazda through which the Creator acts and is immanent in the world.. Although Vohu Manah regularly stands first in the list of the Amesha Spenta (and of Ahura Mazda's creations), in the Gathas Asha Vahishta is the most evident of the six, and also the most commonly associated with Wisdom (Mazda). In the 238 verses of these hymns, Aṣ̌a appears 157 times. Of the other concepts, only '' Vohu Manah'' "Good Purpose" appears nearly as often (136 occurrences). In comparison, the remaining four of the great sextet appear only 121 times altogether. Although a formal hierarchy is not evident in the Gathas, the group of six "divides naturally into three dyads." In this arrangement, Aṣ̌a is paired with Vohu Manah. This reflects the frequency in which the two appear (together) in the Gathas and is in turn reflected in Zoroastrian tradition. In ''Bundahishn'' 26.8, Vohu Manah stands at the left hand of God, while Aṣ̌a stands at the right.

In divine epithets

Of Ahura Mazda

Yasht 1, the hymn dedicated to Ahura Mazda, provides a list of 74 "names" by which the Creator is invoked. In the numbered list of ''Yasht'' 1.7, 'Asha Vahishta' "Best Truth" is the fourth name.. A later verse, ''Yasht'' 1.12, includes 'Aṣ̌avan'. "Possessing Truth" and 'Aṣ̌avastəma' "Most Righteous".. In ''Yasna'' 40.3, Ahura Mazda is ''aṣ̌aŋāč'' "having ''aṣ̌a'' following".

Of other divinities

One of Haoma's stock epithets is ''aṣ̌avazah-'' "furthering ''aṣ̌a''" (''Yasht'' 20.3; ''Yasna'' 8.9, 10.1.14, 11.10 et al.). Atar "possesses strength through ''aṣ̌a''" (''aṣ̌a-ahojah'', Yasna 43.4).

In the Zoroastrian calendar

In the

, the third day of the month and the second month of the year are dedicated to and named after ''aṣ̌a'' and Asha Vahishta (calledارديبهشت ''Ordibehesht'' in Modern Persian both in

Iranian Calendar The Iranian calendars or Iranian chronology ( fa, گاه‌شماری ایرانی, ) are a succession of calendars invented or used for over two millennia in Iran, also known as Persia. One of the longest chronological records in human history, ...

and Yazdgerdi calendar). A special service to ''aṣ̌a'' and Aṣ̌a, known as the ' ''Jashan'' of Ardavisht', is held on the day on which month-name and day-name dedications intersect. In the ''Fasli'' and ''Bastani'' variants of the

, this falls on April 22. Rapithwin, one of the five ''gah''s (watches) of the day, under the protection of Aṣ̌a. (''Bundahishn'' 3.22) This implies that all prayers recited between noon and three invoke Aṣ̌a. Noon is considered to be the "perfect" time, at which instant the world was created and at which instant time will stop on the day of the final renovation of the world. In the winter months, the ''daev''ic time of year, Rapithwin is known as the ''Second Havan'' (the first Havan being from dawn to noon), and with the first day of spring, March 21, Rapithwin symbolically returns. This day, March 21, is Nowruz Nowruz, the holiest of all Zoroastrian festivals is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. It follows immediately after Pateti, the day of introspection and the Zoroastrian equivalent of All-Souls Day. Nowruz, Zoroastrianism's New Year's Day, is celebrated on the first day of spring, traditionally understood to be the day of rebirth, and literally translated means "New Day". The first month of the year of the Zoroastrian calendar is Farvadin, which is dedicated to and named after the Fravašis, the ancestral higher spirits. "The underlying idea of the dedication" of the second month of the year to Asha Vahishta "may be revivification of the earth after the death of winter.".

Iconography

Kushan The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...

coins, Asha Vahishta "appears as Aṣ̌aeixšo, with a diadem and nimbus, like Mithra in the same series."

In proper names

"''Arta-'' (Mid. Iranian ''ard-''), representing either the Av. divinity Aṣ̌a or the principle ''aṣ̌a'', occurs frequently as an element in

Iranian Iranian may refer to: * Iran, a sovereign state * Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran * Iranian lan ...

personal names." Hellenized/Latinized names include: * Artabanos ( Greek, Latin Artabanus, Modern Persian اردوان ''Ardavān''), from *Artabānu "glory of ''arta''". * Artabazanes (

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

) a variant of either Artabazus or Artabrzana * Artabazus, Artabazos (Greek, Latin Artavasdes), attested as Avestan Ashavazdah, perhaps meaning "powerful/persevering through ''arta''" * Artabrzana (Greek), from *Artabrzana "exalting ''arta''" *

Artaphrenes Artaphernes ( el, Ἀρταφέρνης, Old Persian: Artafarna, from Median ''Rtafarnah''), flourished circa 513–492 BC, was a brother of the Achaemenid king of Persia, Darius I, satrap of Lydia from the capital of Sardis, and a Persian genera ...

(Greek), either from Artamainyu "spirit of ''arta''" (''phrene'': Greek 'spirit') or a corruption of Artafarnah " ivineGlory of ''arta''" * Artasyras (Greek), from *Artasura, "powerful through ''arta''" * Artaxata, Artaxiasata (Greek,

Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...

Artashat), meaning "joy of ''arta''". * Artaxias (Greek, Armenian Artashes), from an Aramaic form of Artaxṣ̌acā (Artaxerxes, see below). * Artaxerxes (Latin, variant Artoxerxes, Greek Artaxesses,

Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...

Aramaic The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...

''Artaxṣ̌ast'' or ''Artaxṣ̌asta''), a compound of Arta and Xerxes, the latter not being a part of the original

Artaxṣ̌acā, "whose reign is through ''arta''" or "dominion of ''arta''." *

Artazostre Artazostre (or Artozostre) (Old Persian *''Artazauštrī'') was a Persian princess, daughter of king Darius the Great (521-485 BC) by Artystone, daughter of Cyrus the Great. According to the Greek historian Herodotus (VI, 43) Artazostre was given ...

(Greek), from *Artazaushri "who is in favor of ''arta''" or "who takes delight in ''arta''" * Artembares (Greek), from *Artempara "who encourages ''arta''" or "who furthers ''arta''." Other names include: * Artavardiya (Old Persian) and Irdumardiya (

Elamite Elamite, also known as Hatamtite and formerly as Susian, is an extinct language that was spoken by the ancient Elamites. It was used in what is now southwestern Iran from 2600 BC to 330 BC. Elamite works disappear from the archeological record ...

), meaning "doer of Justice" * Arda Viraz, the "righteous Viraz" (having an eschatological connotation) * Ardeshir, Middle Persian form of Old Persian Artaxṣ̌acā (i.e. Artaxerxes), literally "whose reign is through ''arta''"; actually means "Holy Kingship". Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary Middle Iranian ''ard-'' is also suggested to be the root of names of the current day

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

ian cities of Ardabil,

Ardekan Ardakan ( fa, اردكان, also romanized as Ardakān and Artagan) is the capital city of Ardakan County, Yazd Province, Iran. At the 2016 census, its population was 75,271 in 22,475 families. Ardakan is the second major city of Yazd Province. ...

, Ardehal and Ardestan.

Notes

References

Bibliography

p. 115.
* (fasc., 1979, Berlin: de Gruyter) * * * : 389-390 * : 1-5 * * * * * * : 705-706 * * * * * * * * : 694-696 * : 696 * *