The forearm is the region of the
upper limb
The upper limbs or upper extremities are the forelimbs of an upright-postured tetrapod vertebrate, extending from the scapulae and clavicles down to and including the digits, including all the musculatures and ligaments involved with the shoulde ...
between the
elbow
The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint. The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the media ...
and the
wrist
In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the Carpal bones, carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known ...
. The term forearm is used in
anatomy
Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its ...
to distinguish it from the
arm
In human anatomy, the arm refers to the upper limb in common usage, although academically the term specifically means the upper arm between the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the elbow joint. The distal part of the upper limb between th ...
, a word which is most often used to describe the entire appendage of the upper limb, but which in anatomy, technically, means only the region of the upper arm, whereas the lower "arm" is called the forearm. It is
homologous to the region of the
leg
A leg is a weight-bearing and locomotive anatomical structure, usually having a columnar shape. During locomotion, legs function as "extensible struts". The combination of movements at all joints can be modeled as a single, linear element ca ...
that lies between the
knee
In humans and other primates, the knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of two joints: one between the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and patella (patellofemoral joint). It is the largest joint in the hu ...
and the
ankle
The ankle, or the talocrural region, or the jumping bone (informal) is the area where the foot and the leg meet. The ankle includes three joints: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the subtalar joint, and the inferior tibiofibular join ...
joints, the
crus Crus can refer to:
*''Crus'', a subgenus of the fly genus ''Metopochetus''
*Crus (lower leg)
*Crus, a plural of Cru (wine)
*CRUs, an abbreviation of Civil Resettlement Units
* Rektorenkonferenz der Schweizer Universitäten (CRUS; English: Rectors' ...
.
The forearm contains two long
bone
A bone is a Stiffness, rigid Organ (biology), organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red blood cell, red and white blood cells, store minerals, provid ...
s, the
radius
In classical geometry, a radius ( : radii) of a circle or sphere is any of the line segments from its center to its perimeter, and in more modern usage, it is also their length. The name comes from the latin ''radius'', meaning ray but also the ...
and the
ulna
The ulna (''pl''. ulnae or ulnas) is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. That is, the ulna is on the same side of t ...
, forming the two radioulnar joints. The
interosseous membrane
An interosseous membrane is a thick dense fibrous sheet of connective tissue that spans the space between two bones, forming a type of syndesmosis joint.
Interosseous membranes in the human body:
* Interosseous membrane of forearm
* Interosseou ...
connects these bones. Ultimately, the forearm is covered by skin, the anterior surface usually being less hairy than the posterior surface.
The forearm contains many muscles, including the flexors and extensors of the
wrist
In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the Carpal bones, carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known ...
, flexors and extensors of the digits, a flexor of the elbow (
brachioradialis
The brachioradialis is a muscle of the forearm that flexes the forearm at the elbow. It is also capable of both pronation and supination, depending on the position of the forearm. It is attached to the distal styloid process of the radius by way o ...
), and
pronators and
supinators that turn the hand to face down or upwards, respectively. In cross-section, the forearm can be divided into two
fascial compartment
A fascial compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and nerves and is surrounded by deep fascia. In the human body, the limbs can each be divided into two segments – the upper limb can be divided into the arm and the forea ...
s. The posterior compartment contains the extensors of the hands, which are supplied by the
radial nerve
The radial nerve is a nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial comp ...
. The anterior compartment contains the flexors and is mainly supplied by the
median nerve
The median nerve is a nerve in humans and other animals in the upper limb. It is one of the five main nerves originating from the brachial plexus.
The median nerve originates from the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, and has contr ...
. The flexor muscles are more massive than the extensors because they work against gravity and act as anti-gravity muscles. The
ulnar nerve
In human anatomy, the ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is ...
also runs the length of the forearm.
The
radial
Radial is a geometric term of location which may refer to:
Mathematics and Direction
* Vector (geometric), a line
* Radius, adjective form of
* Radial distance, a directional coordinate in a polar coordinate system
* Radial set
* A bearing f ...
and
ulnar arteries and their branches supply the blood to the forearm. These usually run on the anterior face of the radius and ulna down the whole forearm. The main superficial veins of the forearm are the
cephalic
A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple animals m ...
,
median antebrachial and the
basilic vein
The basilic vein is a large superficial vein of the upper limb that helps drain parts of the hand and forearm. It originates on the medial (ulnar) side of the dorsal venous network of the hand and travels up the base of the forearm, where its c ...
. These veins can be used for cannularisation or
venipuncture
In medicine, venipuncture or venepuncture is the process of obtaining intravenous access for the purpose of venous blood sampling (also called ''phlebotomy'') or intravenous therapy. In healthcare, this procedure is performed by medical labor ...
, although the
cubital fossa
The cubital fossa, chelidon, or elbow pit, is the triangular area on the anterior side of the upper limb between the arm and forearm of a human or other hominid animals. It lies anteriorly to the elbow (Latin ) when in standard anatomical position ...
is a preferred site for getting blood.
Structure
Bones and joints
The bones of the forearm are the
radius
In classical geometry, a radius ( : radii) of a circle or sphere is any of the line segments from its center to its perimeter, and in more modern usage, it is also their length. The name comes from the latin ''radius'', meaning ray but also the ...
(located on the lateral side) and the
ulna
The ulna (''pl''. ulnae or ulnas) is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. That is, the ulna is on the same side of t ...
(located on the medial side)
Radius
Proximally, the head of the radius articulates with the
capitulum of the humerus
In human anatomy of the arm, the capitulum of the humerus is a smooth, rounded eminence on the lateral portion of the distal articular surface of the humerus. It articulates with the cupshaped depression on the head of the radius, and is limited ...
and the radial notch of the ulna at the
elbow
The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint. The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the media ...
. The
articulation between the radius and the ulna at the elbow is known as the
proximal radioulnar joint
The proximal radioulnar articulation, also known as the proximal radioulnar joint (PRUJ), is a synovial pivot joint between the circumference of the head of the radius and the ring formed by the radial notch of the ulna and the annular ligament.
...
.
Distally, it articulates with the ulna again at the
distal radioulnar joint
The distal radioulnar articulation (also known as the distal radioulnar joint, or inferior radioulnar joint) is a synovial pivot joint between the two bones in the forearm; the radius and ulna. It is one of two joints between the radius and ulna, ...
. It forms part of the
wrist joint
In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal ...
by articulating with the
scaphoid
The scaphoid bone is one of the carpal bones of the wrist. It is situated between the hand and forearm on the thumb side of the wrist (also called the lateral or radial side). It forms the radial border of the carpal tunnel. The scaphoid bone ...
at its lateral aspect and with the
lunate
Lunate is a crescent or moon-shaped microlith. In the specialized terminology of lithic reduction, a lunate flake is a small, crescent-shaped flake removed from a stone tool during the process of pressure flaking.
In the Natufian period, a lun ...
at its medial aspect.
Ulna
Proximally, the
trochlear notch of the ulna articulates with the
trochlea of the humerus
In the human arm, the humeral trochlea is the medial portion of the articular surface of the elbow joint which articulates with the trochlear notch on the ulna in the forearm.
Structure
In humans and apes it is trochleariform (or trochleiform), a ...
and the
radial notch
The radial notch of the ulna (lesser sigmoid cavity) is a narrow, oblong, articular depression on the lateral side of the coronoid process; it receives the circumferential articular surface of the head of the radius.
It is concave from before bac ...
articulates with the head of the radius at the
elbow
The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint. The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the media ...
.
Distally it forms part of the
distal radioulnar joint
The distal radioulnar articulation (also known as the distal radioulnar joint, or inferior radioulnar joint) is a synovial pivot joint between the two bones in the forearm; the radius and ulna. It is one of two joints between the radius and ulna, ...
and also articulates with the
wrist
In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as (1) the Carpal bones, carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known ...
.
Muscles
* "E/I" refers to "extrinsic" or "intrinsic". The intrinsic muscles of the forearm act on the forearm, meaning, across the elbow joint and the
proximal
Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position pro ...
and
distal
Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position pro ...
radioulnar joints (resulting in
pronation
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative ...
or
supination
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative ...
, whereas the extrinsic muscles act upon the hand and wrist. In most cases, the extrinsic anterior muscles are ''flexors'', while the extrinsic posterior muscles are ''extensors''.
* The brachioradialis, flexor of the forearm, is unusual in that it is located in the
posterior compartment, but it is actually in the anterior portion of the forearm.
* The
anconeus
The anconeus muscle (or anconaeus/anconæus) is a small muscle on the posterior aspect of the elbow joint.
Some consider anconeus to be a continuation of the triceps brachii muscle. Some sources consider it to be part of the posterior compartmen ...
is considered by some as a part of the
posterior compartment of the arm
The fascial compartments of arm refers to the specific anatomical term of the compartments within the upper segment of the upper limb (the arm) of the body. The upper limb is divided into two segments, the arm and the forearm. Each of these seg ...
.
Nerves
:''See separate nerve articles for details on divisions proximal to the elbow and distal to the wrist; see
Brachial plexus
The brachial plexus is a network () of nerves formed by the anterior rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve ( C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in th ...
for the origins of the median, radial and ulnar nerves.''
*
Median nerve
The median nerve is a nerve in humans and other animals in the upper limb. It is one of the five main nerves originating from the brachial plexus.
The median nerve originates from the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, and has contr ...
– interior nerve of the anterior compartment (
PT,
FCR,
PL,
FDS).
**
anterior interosseous nerve
The anterior interosseous nerve (volar interosseous nerve) is a branch of the median nerve that supplies the deep muscles on the anterior of the forearm, except the ulnar (medial) half of the flexor digitorum profundus. Its nerve roots come from C8 ...
(supplies
FPL, lat. 1/2 of
FDP,
PQ).
*
Radial nerve
The radial nerve is a nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial comp ...
– supplies muscles of the posterior compartment (
ECRL,
ECRB).
**
Superficial branch of radial nerve
The superficial branch of the radial nerve passes along the front of the radial side of the forearm to the commencement of its lower third. It is a sensory nerve.
It lies at first slightly lateral to the radial artery, concealed beneath the Brac ...
**
Deep branch of radial nerve
The radial nerve divides into a superficial (sensory) and deep (motor) branch at the cubital fossa. The deep branch of the radial nerve winds to the back of the forearm around the lateral side of the radius between the two planes of fibers of the ...
, becomes
Posterior interosseus nerve
The posterior interosseous nerve (or dorsal interosseous nerve) is a nerve in the forearm. It is the continuation of the deep branch of the radial nerve, after this has crossed the supinator muscle. It is considerably diminished in size compared t ...
and supplies muscles of the posterior compartment (
ED,
EDM
EDM or E-DM may refer to:
Music
* Electronic dance music
* Early Day Miners, American band
Science and technology
* Electric dipole moment
* Electrical discharge machining
* Electronic distance measurement
*Entry, Descent, and landing demonstrat ...
,
ECU,
APL,
EPB,
EPL,
EI).
*
Ulnar nerve
In human anatomy, the ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is ...
– supplies some medial muscles (
FCU, med. 1/2 of
FDP).
Vessels
![Veins of the forearm and hand](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Veins_of_the_forearm_and_hand.jpg)
*
Brachial artery
The brachial artery is the major blood vessel of the (upper) arm. It is the continuation of the axillary artery beyond the lower margin of teres major muscle. It continues down the ventral surface of the arm until it reaches the cubital fossa ...
**
Radial artery
In human anatomy, the radial artery is the main artery of the lateral aspect of the forearm.
Structure
The radial artery arises from the bifurcation of the brachial artery in the antecubital fossa. It runs distally on the anterior part of the f ...
***
Radial recurrent artery
The radial recurrent artery arises from the radial artery immediately below the elbow.
It ascends between the branches of the radial nerve, lying on the supinator muscle and then between the brachioradialis muscle and the brachialis muscle, sup ...
***
dorsal metacarpal artery
****
Princeps pollicis artery
The princeps pollicis artery, or principal artery of the thumb, arises from the radial artery just as it turns medially towards the deep part of the hand; it descends between the first dorsal interosseous muscle and the oblique head of the adduct ...
**
Ulnar artery
The ulnar artery is the main blood vessel, with oxygenated blood, of the medial aspects of the forearm. It arises from the brachial artery and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the radial ar ...
***
Anterior ulnar recurrent artery
The anterior ulnar recurrent artery is an artery in the forearm. It is one of two recurrent arteries that arises from the ulnar artery, the other being the posterior ulnar recurrent artery.
It arises from the ulnar artery immediately below the el ...
and
posterior ulnar recurrent artery
The posterior ulnar recurrent artery is an artery in the forearm. It is one of two recurrent arteries that arises from the ulnar artery, the other being the anterior ulnar recurrent artery. The posterior ulnar recurrent artery being much larger t ...
***
Common interosseous artery
The common interosseous artery, about 1 cm. in length, arises immediately below the tuberosity of the radius from the ulnar artery.
Passing backward to the upper border of the interosseous membrane
An interosseous membrane is a thick den ...
****
Posterior interosseous artery
The posterior interosseous artery (dorsal interosseous artery) is an artery of the forearm. It is a branch of the common interosseous artery, which is a branch of the ulnar artery.
Structure
The posterior interosseous artery passes backward betw ...
****
Anterior interosseous artery
The anterior interosseous artery (volar interosseous artery) is an artery in the forearm. It is a branch of the common interosseous artery.
Course
It passes down the forearm on the palmar surface of the interosseous membrane.
It is accompanied ...
Other structures
*
Interosseous membrane of forearm
The interosseous membrane of the forearm (rarely middle or intermediate radioulnar joint) is a fibrous sheet that connects the interosseous margins of the radius and the ulna. It is the main part of the radio-ulnar syndesmosis, a fibrous joint be ...
*
Annular ligament of ulna
Function
The forearm can be brought closer to the upper arm (
flexed) and brought away from the upper arm (
extended) due to movement at the
elbow
The elbow is the region between the arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint. The elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the media ...
. The forearm can also be rotated so that the palm of the
hand
A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. A few other vertebrates such as the koala (which has two opposable thumbs on each "h ...
rotates inwards (
pronated
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relativ ...
) and rotated back so that the palm rotates outwards (
supinated
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative ...
) due to movement at the elbow and the
distal radioulnar joint
The distal radioulnar articulation (also known as the distal radioulnar joint, or inferior radioulnar joint) is a synovial pivot joint between the two bones in the forearm; the radius and ulna. It is one of two joints between the radius and ulna, ...
.
Clinical significance
![FracRadUlnaMark](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/FracRadUlnaMark.png)
A
fracture
Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displa ...
of the forearm can be classified as to whether it involves only the ulna (
ulnar fracture
The ulna (''pl''. ulnae or ulnas) is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in Standard anatomical position, anatomical position, is found on the Medial (anatomy), medial side of the forear ...
), only the radius (
radius fracture
The radius or radial bone is one of the two large bones of the forearm, the other being the ulna. It extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist and runs parallel to the ulna. The ulna is usually slightly longer than ...
), or both radioulnar fracture.
For treatment of children with
torus fracture
A Torus fracture, also known as a buckle fracture is the most common fracture in children. It is a common occurrence following a fall, as the wrist absorbs most of the impact and compresses the bony cortex on one side and remains intact on the othe ...
s of the forearm splinting appears to work better than casting.
Genetically determined disorders like
hereditary multiple exostoses
Hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), also known as hereditary multiple exostoses, is a disorder characterized by the development of multiple benign osteocartilaginous masses ( exostoses) in relation to the ends of long bones of the lower li ...
can lead to hand and forearm deformities. Hereditary multiple exostoses is due growth disturbance of the epiphyses of the radius and ulna, the two bones of the forearm.
Additional images
See also
*
Forearm flexors
References
{{Authority control
Upper limb anatomy