The Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne ( ; french: Nation Mohawk à Akwesasne; moh, Ahkwesáhsne) is a
Mohawk Nation
The Mohawk people ( moh, Kanienʼkehá꞉ka) are the most easterly section of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an Iroquoian-speaking Indigenous people of North America, with communities in southeastern Canada and northern Ne ...
(''Kanienʼkehá:ka'')
territory
A territory is an area of land, sea, or space, particularly belonging or connected to a country, person, or animal.
In international politics, a territory is usually either the total area from which a state may extract power resources or a ...
that straddles the intersection of international (United States and Canada) borders and provincial (
Ontario
Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central Ca ...
and
Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
) boundaries on both banks of the
St. Lawrence River
The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connecting ...
. Although divided by an international border, the residents consider themselves to be one community. They maintain separate police forces due to jurisdictional issues and national laws.
The community was founded in the mid-18th century by Mohawk families from
Kahnawake
The Kahnawake Mohawk Territory (french: Territoire Mohawk de Kahnawake, in the Mohawk language, ''Kahnawáˀkye'' in Tuscarora) is a First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawá:ke on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, C ...
(also known as Caughnawaga), a Catholic Mohawk village that developed south of Montreal along the St. Lawrence River. Today Akwesasne has a total of 12,000 residents, with the largest population and land area of any ''Kanienʼkehá:ka'' community.
From its development in the mid-eighteenth century, Akwesasne was considered one of the
Seven Nations of Canada. It is one of several ''Kanienʼkehá꞉ka'' (Mohawk), meaning "people of the flint" in Mohawk, territories within present-day Canada; others are
Kahnawake
The Kahnawake Mohawk Territory (french: Territoire Mohawk de Kahnawake, in the Mohawk language, ''Kahnawáˀkye'' in Tuscarora) is a First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawá:ke on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, C ...
,
Wahta,
Tyendinaga,
Kanesatake
Kanesatake (''Kanehsatà:ke'' in Mohawk) is a Mohawk (''Kanien'kéha:ka'' in Mohawk) settlement on the shore of the Lake of Two Mountains in southwestern Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Ottawa and Saint Lawrence rivers and about west of ...
, and the
Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation
Six Nations (or Six Nations of the Grand River, french: Réserve des Six Nations, see, Ye:i’ Níónöëdzage:h) is demographically the largest First Nations reserve in Canada. As of the end of 2017, it has a total of 27,276 members, 12,848 of w ...
(which includes several subdivisions of Mohawk, the other five nations of the
Iroquois League
The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
, and some other Native American tribes), founded after the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
.
With settlement of the border between Canada and the United States in the early 19th century, a larger portion of the territory was defined as being within the United States. The portion in New York state is known as the federally recognized
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation is a Mohawk Indian reservation of the federally recognized tribe the St. Regis Mohawk Tribe, located in Franklin County, New York, United States. It is also known by its Mohawk name, Akwesasne. The population was ...
. The portion in Ontario is referred to as
Akwesasne Reserve No. 59 ( moh, Kawehnò:ke), and the portions in Quebec as Akwesasne Reserve No. 15 ( moh, Kaná:takon & Tsi Snaíhne).
The name ''Akwesasne'' in
Mohawk Mohawk may refer to:
Related to Native Americans
*Mohawk people, an indigenous people of North America (Canada and New York)
*Mohawk language, the language spoken by the Mohawk people
*Mohawk hairstyle, from a hairstyle once thought to have been t ...
means "Land Where the
Partridge
A partridge is a medium-sized Galliformes, galliform bird in any of several genera, with a wide Indigenous (ecology), native distribution throughout parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. Several species have been introduced to the Americas. They a ...
Drums", referring to the rich wildlife in the area.
Geography
Akwesasne territory incorporates part of the St. Lawrence River, the mouths of the
Raquette and
St. Regis rivers, and a number of islands in these three rivers. The eastern border of the southern portion is formed by the St. Regis River. The territory is divided between north–south by the
Canada–United States border
The border between Canada and the United States is the longest international border in the world. The terrestrial boundary (including boundaries in the Great Lakes, Atlantic, and Pacific coasts) is long. The land border has two sections: Can ...
. The northern portion is further divided by the Canadian provincial boundary between Ontario to the west and Quebec to the east.
The
Three Nations Crossing
__NOTOC__
The Three Nations Crossing is a border crossing on the Canada–US border, connecting the city of Cornwall, Ontario in Canada to Rooseveltown, New York, a neighborhood within the Town of Massena, in the United States. The crossing i ...
connects
Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario) to the City of Cornwall in the north and
Rooseveltown Rooseveltown is a hamlet in the town of Massena, New York, United States located in St. Lawrence County. It is near the eastern town line, by the Raquette River.
Rooseveltown was the site of a station on the New York and Ottawa Railway, and was or ...
, New York in the south.
Because of the St. Lawrence River to the north, New York State, United States, to the south, and the absence of a road link to the rest of Quebec, to the east, the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical
exclave
An enclave is a territory (or a small territory apart of a larger one) that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state or entity. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. ''Enclave'' is sometimes used improperly to deno ...
claimed by Canada. To travel by land from Tsi Snaihne (Snye or Chenail, Quebec) or Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec) to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State. In Canada, the territory within Ontario is called the
Akwesasne 59 Indian Reserve, and the territory within Quebec is called the Akwesasne Indian Reserve.
In the U.S. state of New York, the territory of ''Akwesasne'' coincides with what is called the federally recognized
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation is a Mohawk Indian reservation of the federally recognized tribe the St. Regis Mohawk Tribe, located in Franklin County, New York, United States. It is also known by its Mohawk name, Akwesasne. The population was ...
. This portion of Akwesasne is bisected by
New York State Route 37
New York State Route 37 (NY 37) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States, extending for on a west–east axis. The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 (US  ...
. This major state highway in the
North Country of New York, extends for on an east–west axis.
History
Beginning about 1000
AD, nomadic
indigenous people
Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
around the Great Lakes began adopting the cultivation of
maize
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
. By the 14th century,
Iroquoian
The Iroquoian languages are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking.
As of 2020, all surviving Iroquoian la ...
-speaking peoples, later called the
St. Lawrence Iroquoians
The St. Lawrence Iroquoians were an Iroquoian Indigenous people who existed from the 14th century to about 1580. They concentrated along the shores of the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario, Canada, and in the American states o ...
, had created
fortified
A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
villages along the fertile valley of what is now called the St. Lawrence River. Among their villages were ''
Stadacona
Stadacona was a 16th-century St. Lawrence Iroquoian village not far from where Quebec City was founded in 1608.
History
French explorer and navigator Jacques Cartier, while travelling and charting the Saint Lawrence River, reached the villag ...
'' and ''
Hochelaga'', visited in 1535-1536 by French
explorer
Exploration refers to the historical practice of discovering remote lands. It is studied by geographers and historians.
Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of convergence, and one of divergence. The first, covering most ...
Jacques Cartier
Jacques Cartier ( , also , , ; br, Jakez Karter; 31 December 14911 September 1557) was a French-Breton maritime explorer for France. Jacques Cartier was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of th ...
. While they shared certain culture with other Iroquoian groups, they were a distinctly separate people and spoke a branch of Iroquoian called
Laurentian.
[James F. Pendergast. (1998). "The Confusing Identities Attributed to Stadacona and Hochelaga"](_blank)
''Journal of Canadian Studies'', Volume 32, pp. 149-159, accessed 3 Feb 2010 But by the time
Samuel de Champlain
Samuel de Champlain (; Fichier OrigineFor a detailed analysis of his baptismal record, see RitchThe baptism act does not contain information about the age of Samuel, neither his birth date nor his place of birth. – 25 December 1635) was a Fre ...
explored the same area 75 years later in the early 1600s, the villages had disappeared.
Historians
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...
theorize that the stronger
Mohawk Mohawk may refer to:
Related to Native Americans
*Mohawk people, an indigenous people of North America (Canada and New York)
*Mohawk language, the language spoken by the Mohawk people
*Mohawk hairstyle, from a hairstyle once thought to have been t ...
from the South waged war against the St. Lawrence Iroquoians to get control of the
fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the mos ...
and hunting along the river valley. By 1600, the Mohawk used the valley for hunting grounds and as a path for war parties.
In the early 17th century, some Christian Iroquois (primarily Mohawk, but also some Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca) migrated from present-day New York to
Kahnawake
The Kahnawake Mohawk Territory (french: Territoire Mohawk de Kahnawake, in the Mohawk language, ''Kahnawáˀkye'' in Tuscarora) is a First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawá:ke on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, C ...
(formerly known as Caughnawaga, after their village along the Mohawk River), a Catholic mission village established by French Jesuits south of
Montreal
Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
. Kahnawake is a ''Kanienʼkehá꞉ka'' (Mohawk) word meaning "at the rapids". Here, additional First Nations joined the community, converting to
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
; the Mohawk dominated in number. During the
colonial
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
Architecture
* American colonial architecture
* French Colonial
* Spanish Colonial architecture
Automobiles
* Colonial (1920 au ...
years, this community participated in the
fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals have been the mos ...
. Some men regularly traveled to
Albany, New York
Albany ( ) is the capital of the U.S. state of New York, also the seat and largest city of Albany County. Albany is on the west bank of the Hudson River, about south of its confluence with the Mohawk River, and about north of New York City ...
for better prices from the English and Dutch than the French were willing to give.
In addition, warriors and families became involved in raiding and the traffic in captives during
Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War (1702–1713) was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought in North America involving the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Spain; it took place during the reign of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. In E ...
in the early 1700s between France and England. French and First Nations allies, including the
Abenaki
The Abenaki (Abenaki: ''Wαpánahki'') are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Eastern Abenaki language was predom ...
, would bring captives back to Kahnawake from New England settlements, often to be ransomed. Younger English children and women were sometimes adopted by Mohawk families and assimilated into the tribe.
Due to exhaustion of land at Kahnawake and problems with traders' rum at the village, in the mid-1750s about 30 families migrated upriver about 20
leagues to set up a new community. Among the leaders were brothers and chiefs John and Zachariah Tarbell.
[John Demos, ''The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America'', New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994, pp. 186 and 224] Father Pierre-Robert-Jean-Baptiste Billiard accompanied the migrants as their priest.
[Darren Bonaparte, "The History of the St. Regis Catholic Church and the Early Pastors"](_blank)
in Rosemary Bonaparte, ''The History of the St. Regis Catholic Church,'' 1990s, article hosted at ''Wampum Chronicles'', accessed 3 Jun 2010 French officials supported the move, paying for a
sawmill
A sawmill (saw mill, saw-mill) or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber. Modern sawmills use a motorized saw to cut logs lengthwise to make long pieces, and crosswise to length depending on standard or custom sizes (dimensi ...
at the new mission. With tensions rising prior to the
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754 ...
(also known in North America as the
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the ...
), the French wanted to keep the Mohawk as allies, and away from English influence.
[Darren Bonaparte, "St. Regis Mission Established 250 Years Ago This Year"](_blank)
first published in ''The People's Voice'', 25 Mar 2005; reprinted ''The Wampum Chronicles'', accessed 9 Jun 2009
The Tarbell brothers were born to English colonists in
Groton, Massachusetts
Groton is a town in northwestern Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States, within the Greater Boston metropolitan area. The population was 11,315 at the 2020 census. It is home to two prep schools: Lawrence Academy at Groton, founded in 17 ...
. They had been taken captive as children in 1707 along with their older sister Sarah, then 14, during
Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War (1702–1713) was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought in North America involving the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Spain; it took place during the reign of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. In E ...
. John and Zachariah were 12 and 8, respectively. The three children were taken by the French and
Abenaki
The Abenaki (Abenaki: ''Wαpánahki'') are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Eastern Abenaki language was predom ...
raiders some 300 miles to Montreal. They all became Catholic and were renamed. Sarah/Marguerite was redeemed by a French couple and entered the
Congregation of Notre Dame
The Congrégation de Notre Dame (CND) is a religious community for women founded in 1658 in Ville Marie (Montreal), in the colony of New France, now part of Canada. It was established by Marguerite Bourgeoys, who was recruited in France to create ...
, a teaching order founded in Montreal by French women in 1653. Adopted by Mohawk families in Kahnawake, the two boys became thoroughly
assimilated: learning the language and ways, and being given Mohawk names. They later each married daughters of chiefs and reared their children as Mohawk. They each became chiefs, and some of their sons also became chiefs. They were examples of the multi-cultural community of the Mohawk, who absorbed numerous captives into their tribe.
Starting in 1755,
French-Canadian
French Canadians (referred to as Canadiens mainly before the twentieth century; french: Canadiens français, ; feminine form: , ), or Franco-Canadians (french: Franco-Canadiens), refers to either an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to Fr ...
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
priests founded the St. Regis Mission at Akwesasne.
The Tarbell brothers were listed among the founding chiefs, representing numerous clans as of 1759, in papers of Loran Kanonsase Pyke, the patriarch of Akwesasne's Pyke family.
[Darren Bonaparte, "First Families of Akwesasne"](_blank)
, ''The People's Voice,'' 15 April 2005, hosted at ''Wampum Chronicles'' website
The Jesuits first built a log and bark church at the mission, then a more formal log church. In 1795 the Mohawk completed construction of a stone church, which still stands.
Named after the French
priest
A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particu ...
St. Jean-François Regis, the mission was the source of the French name of the adjacent Saint Regis River, an island in the St. Lawrence River, and the nearby village. The church was long a landmark to ships on the river approaching the rapids. In New York, the name was later adopted to apply to the Saint Regis Mohawk Reservation. The villagers have since renamed their community ''Kana꞉takon'' ("the village", in Mohawk).
After victory in the
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754 ...
, the British took over Canada and New France east of the
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it f ...
. They allowed the ''Kanienʼkehá꞉ka'' to continue to have Catholic priests at their mission. The Jesuits helped preserve Mohawk culture, translating the Bible and liturgy into Mohawk. They observed Mohawk customs, for instance, refusing to marry individuals who belonged to the same
clan
A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship
and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...
. Through the 18th and 19th centuries, they maintained parish registers that recorded the Mohawk names of individuals for life events, even when the people had taken European names as well.
At the time of the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
, the Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca and Cayuga were allied with the British against the rebel American colonists. Forced to cede most of their remaining lands in New York to the new government after the colonists' victory, many of the Iroquois people migrated to Canada, where many settled at the
Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation
Six Nations (or Six Nations of the Grand River, french: Réserve des Six Nations, see, Ye:i’ Níónöëdzage:h) is demographically the largest First Nations reserve in Canada. As of the end of 2017, it has a total of 27,276 members, 12,848 of w ...
. Some Mohawk joined the growing community at Akwesasne. Under the
Jay Treaty
The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, and also as Jay's Treaty, was a 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted ...
, the Iroquois retained rights to cross the newly established borders between Canada and the United States in order to maintain their trade and tribal ties. In 1806, Catholic Cayuga, Oneida and Onondaga from
Ogdensburg, New York
Ogdensburg ( moh, Kaniatarahòn:tsi) is a city in St. Lawrence County, New York, United States. The population was 10,436 at the 2019 census. In the late 18th century, European-American settlers named the community after American land owner and de ...
joined the St. Regis band.
Battle of the Cedars
The Battle of the Cedars (french: Les Cèdres) was a series of military confrontations, early in the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
, which involved limited combat. The actions took place between May 19–27, 1776, at and around
Les Cèdres, Quebec
Les Cèdres is a municipality located north of the Saint Lawrence River in the Montérégie of Quebec, Canada, near Vaudreuil-Dorion. The population as of the Canada 2021 Census was 7,184. The name means "The Cedars" in French.
There is an exte ...
(located west of Montreal), in the later stages of the American colonial
invasion of Quebec that began in September 1775. No casualties occurred.
Claude de Lorimier, a British Indian agent from Montreal, traveled west to ''
Oswegatchie'' (Ogdensburg, New York), where there was a
fort
A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
garrisoned by a company of the
8th Regiment of Foot
8 (eight) is the natural number following 7 and preceding 9.
In mathematics
8 is:
* a composite number, its proper divisors being , , and . It is twice 4 or four times 2.
* a power of two, being 2 (two cubed), and is the first number of t ...
under the command of British Captain George Forster.
[ Leighton (2000)] De Lorimier proposed recruiting some Indians to launch an attack on Montreal, then held by the American
Continental Army
The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies (the Thirteen Colonies) in the Revolutionary-era United States. It was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, and was establis ...
, from the west. When Forster agreed, Lorimier went to Akwesasne, where he recruited 100 warriors for battle. The British-allied forces took some American prisoners during the encounters, but these were later freed.
Dundee land claim
In the early 1800s, non-indigenous settlers leased a part of the Akwesnasne reserve located in mainland Quebec, known as
Dundee
Dundee (; sco, Dundee; gd, Dùn Dè or ) is Scotland's fourth-largest city and the 51st-most-populous built-up area in the United Kingdom. The mid-year population estimate for 2016 was , giving Dundee a population density of 2,478/km2 or ...
. In 1888, the
superintendent of Indian Affairs requested that the band surrender this land. A surrender was given, but the first nation always contested its validity, as it was not their intention to surrender the land. In December 2018, the First Nation of Akwesnasne accepted a
specific claim
Indigenous Specific Land Claims in Canada, also called specific claims, are long-standing land claims made by First Nations against the Government of Canada pertaining to Canada's legal obligations to indigenous communities.
They relate to the adm ...
settlement of $240M for the Dundee parcel, 37 years after the
claim was first filed with the
government of Canada
The government of Canada (french: gouvernement du Canada) is the body responsible for the federal administration of Canada. A constitutional monarchy, the Crown is the corporation sole, assuming distinct roles: the executive, as the ''Crown ...
.
20th-century institutions
Kana:takon School, originally called the Saint Regis Village School, was run by the Catholic
Sisters of Saint Anne
The Sisters of St. Anne (S.S.A.) is a Roman Catholic religious institute, founded in 1850 in Vaudreuil, Quebec, Canada, by the Blessed Marie Anne Blondin, S.S.A., to promote the education of the rural children of the Province of Canada. Their vi ...
until the 1970s. Today, the mission is still active and includes a rectory, the large stone
church
Church may refer to:
Religion
* Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities
* Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination
* Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship
* Chris ...
dating to 1795, and a cemetery. Parish records show that the Jesuits respected Mohawk traditions, recording their Mohawk names through the 18th and 19th centuries, even after they had also taken European names.
The Roman Catholic parish at Akwesasne falls under three
diocese
In Ecclesiastical polity, church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided Roman province, pro ...
s because of international borders and provincial boundaries: the
Diocese of Alexandria-Cornwall and the
Diocese of Valleyfield
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Valleyfield ( la, Dioecesis Campivallensis) is a Catholic diocese in Quebec and a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Montreal. It was erected in 1892.
The diocese, which is based in the western suburbs of Montreal, f ...
in Canada, and the
Diocese of Ogdensburg
The Diocese of Ogdensburg ( la, Dioecesis Ogdensburgensis) is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in New York. It was founded on February 15, 1872. It comprises the entirety of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, Jeff ...
in New York.
Following passage of the
Indian Reorganization Act
The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of June 18, 1934, or the Wheeler–Howard Act, was U.S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of American Indians in the United States. It was the centerpiece of what has been often called the "Indian ...
of 1934, the United States federal government encouraged the tribe to adopt a constitution and elected government. The Mohawk chose to retain their traditional system of hereditary chiefs.
In the 1940s,
Ernest Benedict
Ernest M. Kaientaronkwen Benedict (July 14, 1918 – January 8, 2011) was an educator, activist, and chief of the Mohawk Council.
Early life
Benedict was born on 14 July 1918 to Charles and Julia Jandreau Benedict, members of the Mohawk Nat ...
founded Akwesasne's first newspaper, ''Kawehras!'' ("It Thunders!"). Benedict covered the resistance of many Mohawk to the system of elections imposed by the federal government on the "American" side of Akwesasne; it insisted on representative elections. On May 24, 1948, a vote was held in which "The Six Nations Chiefs," based on historic
clan
A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship
and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...
s and hereditary office, received 83 votes. "The Elected Chiefs" received only one vote, and "The Seven Nations Chiefs" did not receive any votes. The elected chiefs resigned from office, but the federal government continued to require the tribe to hold elections.
[Darren Bonaparte, "The History of Akwesasne"](_blank)
, ''Wampum Chronicles''
Both the federal government and New York State encouraged the tribe to adopt representative elected government, but they resisted. They were put on the congressional list for
termination
Termination may refer to:
Science
*Termination (geomorphology), the period of time of relatively rapid change from cold, glacial conditions to warm interglacial condition
*Termination factor, in genetics, part of the process of transcribing RNA ...
in the 1950s, as part of a policy assuming that assimilation was best for Native Americans, but Congress did not approve the termination of the St. Regis Reservation.
In 1969, Benedict founded the North American Indian Travelling College (now known as the Native North American Travelling College), which serves as a cultural centre, publishing house, and resource for classes and lectures at Akwesasne and beyond. It operates an art gallery and theatre at Akwesasne.
In the late 1960s, a period of heightened Native American activism, Benedict also started ''
Akwesasne Notes.'' The newspaper became highly influential and the largest native newspaper in the world. Among its noted features were a series of posters included as centrefolds. A supporter gave the newspaper
Edward Curtis
Edward Sherriff Curtis (February 19, 1868 – October 19, 1952) was an American photographer and ethnologist whose work focused on the American West and on Native American people. Sometimes referred to as the "Shadow Catcher", Curtis traveled ...
photographs, which editors combined with quotes from Native American authors for the popular poster series.
In 1987, the
Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment
The Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment (ATFE) is a community-based grassroots activist organization developed to address issues of environmental justice and contamination within the Akwesasne, Mohawk Nation of Akwesasne. The mission of the A ...
was founded in response to environmental concerns, including PCB contamination from industries located along the St. Lawrence River.
In the 1990s, the people of Akwesasne raised money in a variety of ways to fund a renovation of their St. Regis Church. They wrote a history of the church and its priests.
Communities, hamlets and villages
The three main areas:
*
Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario)
* Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec)
* Tsi Snaihne (Snye, Quebec or Chenail, Quebec)
Others:
* Raquette Point, New York
*
Rooseveltown Rooseveltown is a hamlet in the town of Massena, New York, United States located in St. Lawrence County. It is near the eastern town line, by the Raquette River.
Rooseveltown was the site of a station on the New York and Ottawa Railway, and was or ...
, New York (disputed)
*
Hogansburg, New York
* Frogtown, New York
* Pilon Island, Ontario
* Yellow Island, Quebec
* St. Regis Island, Quebec
* Sugarbush Island, Quebec
* Outlying islands
Surrounding communities
Akwesasne borders the towns of Brasher, New York,
Fort Covington
Fort Covington ( moh, Kentsia’kowáhne) is a town in Franklin County, New York. The population was 1,676 at the 2010 census. The name is derived from a War of 1812 fortification. The original name of the town was ''French Mills''.
The town i ...
, New York and
Bombay
Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second- ...
, New York. Sections of the southeastern portion of Akwesasne are considered by the Town of Bombay to be within the town's jurisdiction but the tribe disputes this. To the west is the Town of
Massena, New York
Massena is a town in St. Lawrence County, New York, United States. Massena is along the county's northern border, just south of the St. Lawrence River and the Three Nations Crossing of the Canada–United States border. The population was 12,8 ...
. Many islands in the St. Lawrence River are part of Akwesasne. Generally the ''Akwesasro꞉non'' are majority English-speaking in daily use.
Government
Akwesasne is governed by three bodies: the Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (traditional government), the elected Mohawk Council of Akwesasne in the North, and Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe in the South. The latter are the two recognized by the governments of Canada and the United States, respectively, as well as by lower-level jurisdictions such as provinces and states.
Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs
The Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (MNCC, colloquially "the Longhouse") is the "traditional" governing and religious body of the Mohawk (Kahniakehaka) people. The MNCC operates as a member nation of the
Iroquois Confederacy
The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
or ''Haudenosaunee''.
Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
The Mohawk Council of Akwesasne (MCA) is a government whose representatives are elected within the northern districts of the territory on the Canadian side of the border. The MCA was developed from the Indian Bands system introduced by the
Indian Act of Canada
Indian or Indians may refer to:
Peoples South Asia
* Indian people, people of Indian nationality, or people who have an Indian ancestor
** Non-resident Indian, a citizen of India who has temporarily emigrated to another country
* South Asia ...
and the Act's historical and legal predecessors. They are known to Canada as ''Mohawks of Akwesasne Bands 59 and 15''.
The MCA operates as a
non-partisan
Nonpartisanism is a lack of affiliation with, and a lack of bias towards, a political party.
While an Oxford English Dictionary definition of ''partisan'' includes adherents of a party, cause, person, etc., in most cases, nonpartisan refers sp ...
,
representative democracy
Representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy, is a type of democracy where elected people represent a group of people, in contrast to direct democracy. Nearly all modern Western-style democracies function as some type of represen ...
, divided into three geographic and administrative districts. The districts are Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec), Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario) and Tsi Snaihne (Snye, Quebec).
The several islands of the St. Lawrence River within the jurisdiction of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne are generally counted as being a part of the nearest mainland.
General elections are held triennially, with 12 representatives (Chiefs) chosen from the districts and one Grand Chief. Each district elects four Chiefs, and all districts vote at-large to elect a Grand Chief. Thus the council is 12 plus 1.
A
by-election
A by-election, also known as a special election in the United States and the Philippines, a bye-election in Ireland, a bypoll in India, or a Zimni election (Urdu: ضمنی انتخاب, supplementary election) in Pakistan, is an election used to f ...
may also be held if one or more of the seats become vacant.
Chiefs of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
;
Grand Chief:
* Abram Benedict
;
;Kana
:takon District Chiefs:
* Cindy Francis-Mitchell
* Ryan Jacobs
* Julie Phillips-Jacobs
* Timothy "Dooley" Thompson
;
;
Tsi Snaihne District Chiefs:
* April Adams-Phillips
* Sarah Lee Sunday-Diabo
* JoAnn Swamp
* Dwayne Thomas
;
;Kawehno
:ke District Chiefs:
* Vanessa Adams
* Jackie Benedict
* Edward Roundpoint
* Vince Thompson
Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
![Flag of the St Regis Mohawk Tribe](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Flag_of_the_St_Regis_Mohawk_Tribe.PNG)
The Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (SRMT) is a government elected by Mohawk Tribal citizens of the
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation
St. Regis Mohawk Reservation is a Mohawk Indian reservation of the federally recognized tribe the St. Regis Mohawk Tribe, located in Franklin County, New York, United States. It is also known by its Mohawk name, Akwesasne. The population was ...
, a southern district of the territory within the border of the United States. The SRMT operates as a Constitutional republic. The Tribal Council is composed of three Chiefs, three Sub-Chiefs, and a Tribal Clerk. Elections are held each year on the first Saturday of June to choose one Chief and one Sub-Chief for a three-year term. The Tribal Clerk is chosen every third year.
Council of the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
* Chief Beverly Cook
* Chief Ronald LaFrance, Jr.
* Chief Michael L. Conners
* Sub-Chief Benjamin J. Herne
* Sub-Chief Agnes 'Sweets' Jacobs
* Sub-Chief Kenneth Jock
* Tribal Clerk Summer Bero
* Chief Judge Carrie Garrow
* Traffic Court Judge #1 Lois Terrance
* Traffic Court Judge #2 Victor Martin
*Chief Legal Counsel Dale White
Governance: Canada and the United States
In 1960,
First Nations
First Nations or first peoples may refer to:
* Indigenous peoples, for ethnic groups who are the earliest known inhabitants of an area.
Indigenous groups
*First Nations is commonly used to describe some Indigenous groups including:
**First Natio ...
people were enfranchised in Canada. In 1985,
Status Indian
The Indian Register is the official record of people registered under the ''Indian Act'' in Canada, called status Indians or ''registered Indians''. People registered under the ''Indian Act'' have rights and benefits that are not granted to othe ...
s who voted in a Canadian election were allowed to retain their status. Previously they would have become non-Status, as per the
Indian Act
The ''Indian Act'' (, long name ''An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians'') is a Canadian act of Parliament that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves. First passed in 1876 and still ...
. It is uncertain how many Akwesasronon participate in Canadian elections.
Akwesasne is currently represented in Canada's
Parliament
In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
by:
*
Claude DeBellefeuille -
Bloc Québécois
The Bloc Québécois (BQ; , "Québécois people, Quebecer Voting bloc, Bloc") is a list of federal political parties in Canada, federal political party in Canada devoted to Quebec nationalism and the promotion of Quebec sovereignty movement, Que ...
(
Salaberry—Suroît
Salaberry—Suroît is a federal electoral district in Quebec. It encompasses a portion of Quebec formerly included in the electoral districts of Beauharnois—Salaberry (76%) and Vaudreuil-Soulanges (24%).
Salaberry—Suroît was created by ...
, Quebec)
*
Eric Duncan
Eric Anthony Duncan (born December 7, 1984) is an American former professional baseball second baseman and quality control coach for the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball (MLB). Considered an excellent high school baseball player, Duncan ...
-Conservative (
Stormont-Dundas-South Glengarry, Ontario)
In 1924, Native Americans were
enfranchised
Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise, is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote). In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to v ...
in the United States if they had not been previously; by that time, two-thirds were already citizens. During the era of
Indian Removal
Indian removal was the United States government policy of forced displacement of self-governing tribes of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands in the eastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi Riverspecifically, to a de ...
of the 1830s, Native Americans who chose to stay in historic territories became state and federal citizens; those who moved with their tribes to
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United St ...
were not considered citizens. As Native American lands were purchased during the nineteenth century and Native land claims were extinguished, more were classified as US citizens as they moved to reservations.
Akwesasne is represented in the
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower chamber. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the United States.
The composition and pow ...
by:
* United States Senator
Charles Schumer
Charles Ellis Schumer ( ; born November 23, 1950) is an American politician serving as Senate Majority Leader since January 20, 2021. A member of the Democratic Party, Schumer is in his fourth Senate term, having held his seat since 1999, and ...
(D- NY)
* United States Senator
Kirsten Gillibrand
Kirsten Elizabeth Gillibrand (; ; born December 9, 1966) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the junior United States senator from New York since 2009. A member of the Democratic Party, she served as member of the U.S. House of Re ...
(D- NY)
Akwesasne is represented in the:
*
United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives, often referred to as the House of Representatives, the U.S. House, or simply the House, is the Lower house, lower chamber of the United States Congress, with the United States Senate, Senate being ...
by Representative
Elise Stefanik
Elise Marie Stefanik (; born July 2, 1984) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative for since 2015. As chair of the House Republican Conference since 2021, she is the third-ranking House Republican. Stefanik's district cover ...
(R-21st, NY)
*
New York State Assembly
The New York State Assembly is the lower house of the New York State Legislature, with the New York State Senate being the upper house. There are 150 seats in the Assembly. Assembly members serve two-year terms without term limits.
The Assem ...
by Representative
Billy Jones
*
New York Senate
The New York State Senate is the upper house of the New York State Legislature; the New York State Assembly is its lower house. Its members are elected to two-year terms; there are no term limits. There are 63 seats in the Senate.
Partisan compo ...
by Senator
Dan Stec
Daniel George Stec (born February 21, 1969) is an American politician serving as a member of the New York State Senate for the 45th district. He represents all of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, and Warren Counties, and parts of St. Lawrence County a ...
Legal system
In 2016, Akwesasne established an independent indigenous legal system and court to deal with non-criminal offenses within the reserve.
The 32 new laws cover civil matters handled by an indigenous legal team director of public prosecution, public prosecutor and two justices.
The system does not rely on jail terms but uses restorative justice to bring resolution between the accused and plaintiff. The members of the legal team are not required to have a law degree but are required to complete training and are approved by a review commission.
Education
Akwesasne has five elementary schools on the territory. Three schools are under the direction of the Ahkwesasne Mohawk Board of Education:
* Ahkwesahsne Mohawk School - K-4, K-5, grades 1-8
* Kana:takon School - K-4, K-5, grades 1-5
* Tsi Snaihne School - K-4, K-5, grades 1-8
One school is under the direction of the Salmon River Central School District of New York:
* St. Regis Mohawk School - Pre-K to grade 6
One school is run independently:
* Akwesasne Freedom School - Pre-K to grade 8, featuring Kanienʼkehá immersion to strengthen language and culture on the reserve. With children learning Kanienʼkehá, many parents and other adults are now taking language classes, too. The Akwesasne model of language and cultural revival is being followed by other communities.
Generally, Akwesasnro:non travel off the reservation for secondary education.
Post-secondary education is offered on the reservation through Iohahi:io Akwesasne Education & Training Institute and
State University of New York
The State University of New York (SUNY, , ) is a system of public colleges and universities in the State of New York. It is one of the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States. Led by c ...
(SUNY) extension programs with the SRMT.
Media
Radio
97.3
CKON-FM
CKON-FM is a private radio station located in Akwesasne, a Mohawk nation territory that straddles the Canada–United States border (and also, on the Canadian side, the interprovincial border between Quebec and Ontario). The station's studios are ...
is the community radio station. It first went on air on September 29, 1984. CKON is owned and operated by the Akwesasne Communication Society, a community-based non-profit group.
[A LONG Time Ago]
It has a
country music
Country (also called country and western) is a genre of popular music that originated in the Southern and Southwestern United States in the early 1920s. It primarily derives from blues, church music such as Southern gospel and spirituals, ...
format
Format may refer to:
Printing and visual media
* Text formatting, the typesetting of text elements
* Paper formats, or paper size standards
* Newspaper format, the size of the paper page
Computing
* File format, particular way that informatio ...
, and also has
adult contemporary music
Adult contemporary music (AC) is a form of radio-played popular music, ranging from 1960s vocal and 1970s soft rock music to predominantly ballad-heavy music of the present day, with varying degrees of easy listening, pop, soul, R&B, quiet ...
during evenings, a free format on Fridays, and
oldies
Oldies is a term for musical genres such as pop music, rock and roll, doo-wop, surf music (broadly characterized as classic rock and pop rock) from the second half of the 20th century, specifically from around the mid-1950s to the 1980s, as we ...
on Sundays. CKON also broadcasts
coverage
Coverage may refer to:
Filmmaking
* Coverage (lens), the size of the image a lens can produce
* Camera coverage, the amount of footage shot and different camera setups used in filming a scene
* Script coverage, a short summary of a script, wri ...
of home and away games of the
Cornwall Colts
The Cornwall Colts are a Canadian junior ice hockey team from Cornwall, Ontario, Canada. They are a part of the Central Canada Hockey League. Before 1992, they were known as the Massena Americans, and moved to Cornwall in 1992 when the Cornwall ...
and
Akwesasne Wolves hockey teams, and of the
Akwesasne Lightning
The Akwesasne Indians are Junior "B" box lacrosse team from Akwesasne (the borderlands between Ontario, Quebec, and New York). The Indians compete in the OLA Junior B Lacrosse League.
History
The Akwesasne Lightning joined the OJBLL in 1996. They ...
lacrosse team.
WICY
WICY (1490 AM) is an American radio station broadcasting a country music format. Licensed to Malone, New York, United States, the station is owned by the Martz Communications Group. WICY is known on-air as ''102.7 103.5 WICY'' (after its FM trans ...
, a radio station in
Malone, New York
Malone ( moh, Tekanatà:ronhwe) is a town in Franklin County, New York, United States. The population was 14,545 at the 2010 census. The town contains a village also named Malone. The town is an interior town located in the north-central part ...
, has an FM transmitter in Akwesasne, 103.5 W278CS.
''87.9 FM Karennaon:we'' transmits at 87.9 MHz on the FM dial. Karennaon:we went on the air on December 21, 2017. It is owned and operated by Equal Skies Media and broadcasts the music and language of the Haudenosaunee confederacy and other first nations. Karennaon:we Radio is a positive resource for the children of the Mohawk community making available the language and culture 24 hours a day. Karennaon:we Radio is not for profit and receives no funding from federal, provincial or tribal governments.
Online and print media
*''Akwesasne Notes''
*''
Indian Time Newspaper''
*
Akwesasne TV
The Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne ( ; french: Nation Mohawk à Akwesasne; moh, Ahkwesáhsne) is a Mohawk Nation (''Kanienʼkehá:ka'') territory that straddles the intersection of international (United States and Canada) borders and provincial (Ont ...
Attractions
* Akwesasne Annual International
Pow-wow
A powwow (also pow wow or pow-wow) is a gathering with dances held by many Native American and First Nations
First Nations or first peoples may refer to:
* Indigenous peoples, for ethnic groups who are the earliest known inhabitants of an ...
*
Akwesasne Cultural Center
*
Akwesasne Mohawk Casino
The Akwesasne Mohawk Casino (AMC) is a Native American gambling enterprises, Native American gambling enterprise run by the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe in Akwesasne, New York. It has for 1,800+ slot machines and 30 table games. The casino is located ...
* Annual Akwesasne Winter Carnival
Iohahi:io Akwesasne Education & Training Institute* Mohawk International Raceway - formerly known as Frogtown International Speedway; a
dirt track racing
Dirt track racing is a form of motorsport held on clay or dirt surfaced oval race tracks often used for thoroughbred horse racing. Dirt track racing started in the United States before World War I and became widespread during the 1920s and 1930s ...
oval and host of outdoor concerts
* Ronathahon:ni Cultural Centre - formerly known as th
Native North American Traveling College* Strawberry Music Festival
Political activism
1969 border crossing dispute
In the winter of 1969, Cornwall City Police were confronted by a demonstration by Akwesasro꞉non at the North Channel Bridge of what is now called the
Three Nations Crossing
__NOTOC__
The Three Nations Crossing is a border crossing on the Canada–US border, connecting the city of Cornwall, Ontario in Canada to Rooseveltown, New York, a neighborhood within the Town of Massena, in the United States. The crossing i ...
. By blocking traffic on the bridge, Akwesasro꞉non sought to call attention to their grievance that they were prohibited by Canadian authorities from
duty-free
A duty-free shop (or store) is a retail outlet whose goods are exempt from the payment of certain local or national taxes and duties, on the requirement that the goods sold will be sold to travelers who will take them out of the country, w ...
passage of personal purchases across the border. They claimed this right by the 1795
Jay Treaty
The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, and also as Jay's Treaty, was a 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted ...
, which allowed indigenous free passage across the border that separated their established territory.
2001 "anti-globalization" direct action
The
NYC Ya Basta Collective
The NYC Ya Basta Collective was a group of anti-globalization activists, based primarily in NYC, active from roughly October, 2000 through October, 2001, inspired by the Ya Basta Association.
Initiated in October, 2000 by L Fantoni and TFG Ca ...
was a group of
anti-globalization
The anti-globalization movement or counter-globalization movement, is a social movement critical of economic globalization. The movement is also commonly referred to as the global justice movement, alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist m ...
activists, based primarily in New York City, active from roughly October 2000 through October 2001.
Initiated in October 2000 by L. Fantoni and Casper on the heels of the anti-
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution, headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 190 countries. Its stated mission is "working to foster globa ...
/
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. The World Bank is the collective name for the Interna ...
protests in
Prague
Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate ...
, a collective soon formed and developed its own variation of the ''
Tute Bianche
Tute Bianche was a militant Italian social movement, active from 1994 to 2001.
Activists covered their bodies with padding so as to resist the blows of police, to push through police lines, and to march together in large blocks for mutual protectio ...
'' tactic of the
padded bloc. The collective organized several actions and events highlighting the inadequacy of borders, in support of
immigrant
Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or naturalized citizens. Commuters, tourists, and ...
rights and against
racism
Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism ...
and racialist hate groups.
In April 2001, this collective, along with the
Direct Action Network
Direct Action Network (DAN) was a North American confederation of anti-corporate, anti-authoritarian and anarchist affinity groups, collectives, and organizations. It grew out of the Seattle chapter which had been formed to coordinate the nonviol ...
, was active in organizing a US / Canada border crossing over the
Three Nations Crossing
__NOTOC__
The Three Nations Crossing is a border crossing on the Canada–US border, connecting the city of Cornwall, Ontario in Canada to Rooseveltown, New York, a neighborhood within the Town of Massena, in the United States. The crossing i ...
. This event preceded demonstrations surrounding the
3rd Summit of the Americas
The 3rd Summit of the Americas was a summit held in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, on April 20–22, 2001.
This international meeting was a round of negotiations regarding a proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas. The talks are perhaps bette ...
, a
summit
A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. The topography, topographic terms acme, apex, peak (mountain peak), and zenith are synonymous.
The term (mountain top) is generally used ...
held in
Quebec City, Quebec
Quebec City ( or ; french: Ville de Québec), officially Québec (), is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. As of July 2021, the city had a population of 549,459, and the metropolitan area had a population of 839,311. It is th ...
, Canada. An estimated 500 anti-globalists, along with a few Akwesasro꞉non, challenged the legitimacy of the US/Canada border. Although the Collective peacefully crossed into Cornwall, Ontario, Canada, they never made it to Quebec City. Most of the activists who participated in the action at the border and attempted to enter Canadian territory were turned away by Canada Border Service agents and prevented from attending the protests in Quebec City.
2009 border crossing dispute
On 1 June 2009,
Canada Border Services Agency
The Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA; french: Agence des services frontaliers du Canada, ''ASFC'') is a federal law enforcement agency that is responsible for border control (i.e. protection and surveillance), immigration enforcement, and cu ...
(CBSA) border services officers at the Cornwall Port of Entry walked off the job in response to encampments of Akwesasro꞉non across the road from the customs facility. The latter were protesting Canada's arming of CBSA border services officers. The encampment, styled as a "unity rally", was branded as a campaign to bring awareness to complaints of alleged
human rights
Human rights are Morality, moral principles or Social norm, normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for ce ...
abuses committed against Akwesasro꞉non by the CBSA border services officers.
The protest continued for several days but reached its peak at midnight of 1 June, when the new policy of arming border services officers with
Beretta Px4 Storm sidearms went into effect. The border services officers left at the end of their shift. A new shift did not arrive, leaving the port of entry vacant.
Cornwall City Police blockaded the north terminus of the Three Nations Bridge to deny travelers entry into Canada. At the request of Canada, the
New York State Police
The New York State Police (NYSP) is the state police of the state of New York in the United States. It is part of the New York State Executive Department, and employs over 5,000 sworn state troopers and 711 civilian members.
History
The State ...
likewise blocked access from the United States onto the bridge. Akwesasne was cut off from its major access point into Canada and from free travel within the territory until a temporary border post was erected on July 13, 2009.
Police, border patrol, state troopers, RCMP, and various government agents blocked the road leading to the homes on Cornwall Island, Ontario, from May 2009 until July 2009. Each time any Mohawk attempted to leave their homes or return to their homes in Akwesasne, they were interrogated by government agents. Some Mohawk moved out of their homes because of the stress of this situation. Other residents were ordered to pay costs of $1000 each time CBSA agents chose to impound their vehicles, sometimes more than once per day when residents needed to use their vehicles for several trips. Some residents traveled instead by boat to seek medical attention, or purchase water, and groceries.
History of disputes
The area has been the scene of several disputes on the rights of the residents to cross the border unimpeded. These issues have been a concern for Canadian authorities, as the area is alleged to be a large-scale, cigarette-smuggling route from the U.S.
There have been arrests and seizure of goods in the past. There are also concerns about smuggling of drugs, liquor, and migrants.
Residents of Akwesasne differ over reserve governance and which political factions they support. Political rivalries were expressed after one group brought casino gambling onto the reserve. It brought huge economic returns to casino owners and some benefits to the First Nation, but members also worried about how the enterprise would affect their culture. In 1989 unidentified suspects threw firebombs at a chartered bus. In a separate incident, someone fired a shotgun at a bus in the customs area.
The political feuds have resulted in violence: two Mohawk men were killed at Akwesasne in 1990, and thousands of residents left their homes in that period because of attacks on houses and vehicles, and general unrest. The Warrior Society, a self-appointed security force, used
assault rifles and bats to break up anti-gambling roadblocks at the reservation entrances. They threatened to shoot any outside law enforcement officials if they entered the reservation.
Arms trafficking
According to police sources, the cross-border conduit in Akwesasne is being used by organized crime to smuggle marijuana back into the United States and harder drugs and firearms to Canada. According to a TVA News investigation, the weapons are purchased in the states of Texas, Alabama, Georgia and Florida to be transported via Highway 95 North and then Highway 91 North and stored in warehouses on the reserve. On winter nights, smugglers illegally cross the border on snowmobiles along the frozen St. Lawrence River. In the summer, they use motorboats.
In June 2022, the Quebec government announced it will provide $6.2 million over 5 years to the Akwesasne Mohawk Police Service (AMPS) to combat illegal firearm trafficking.
In popular culture
*''
You Are on Indian Land
''You Are on Indian Land'' is a 1969 documentary film directed by Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell about the 1969 Akwesasne border crossing dispute and the confrontation between police and Mohawk of the St. Regis Reservation on a bridge between Canada ...
'' (2006) is a Canadian documentary written and directed by
Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell
Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell (or simply Mike Mitchell) is a longtime Canadian Mohawk politician, pioneering First Nations film director and a leading figure in First Nations lacrosse. First elected to the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne in 1982, he be ...
(Mohawk). A member of the
National Film Board of Canada
The National Film Board of Canada (NFB; french: Office national du film du Canada (ONF)) is Canada's public film and digital media producer and distributor. An agency of the Government of Canada, the NFB produces and distributes documentary f ...
's pioneering Indian Film Crew unit, he directed this documentary about the 1969 protest at Akwesasne.
He later was elected as a Grand Chief of Akwesasne.
*''
Frozen River
''Frozen River'' is a 2008 American crime drama film written and directed by Courtney Hunt. The screenplay focuses on two working-class women who smuggle illegal immigrants from Canada to the United States. The film received two Oscar nominations: ...
'' (2008) is an American drama film written and directed by
Courtney Hunt
Courtney Hunt (born 1964) is an American director and screenwriter. Her debut feature film, ''Frozen River'', won the Grand Jury Prize at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival.
Early life and education
Hunt was raised in Memphis and Nashville, Tenness ...
. Set in the
North Country (north of Upstate) New York, near Akwesasne and the Canada–US border, it explored an alliance between a Mohawk woman and a white single mother, who both struggle to survive economically. ''Frozen River'' was nominated for two
Academy Award
The Academy Awards, better known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit for the American and international film industry. The awards are regarded by many as the most prestigious, significant awards in the entertainment ind ...
s: Best Actress (Melissa Leo) and Best Original Screenplay (Courtney Hunt).
Misty Upham
Misty Anne Upham (July 6, 1982 – October 5, 2014) was a Blackfeet actress. She attracted critical acclaim for her performance in the 2008 film ''Frozen River'', for which she was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Fem ...
was nominated for an
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female
The Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female was an award presented annually by Film Independent. It is given in honor of an actress who has delivered an absolutely outstanding performance in a supporting role while working in an indepe ...
.
*''KANIENʼKEHÁ꞉KA: Living The Language'' (2008) is a two-part documentary about the work of the Akwesasne Freedom School and the community in teaching and preserving the Mohawk language. It was produced by Mushkeg Productions Inc. in association with APTN (
Aboriginal Peoples Television Network
The Aboriginal Peoples Television Network (APTN, stylized aptn) is a Canadian specialty channel. Established in 1992 and maintained by governmental funding to broadcast in Canada's northern territories, APTN acquired a national broadcast lice ...
).
*''Skydancer'' (2011), written and directed by Katja Esson, is a full-length documentary about life in Akwesasne and the careers of some of its men in ironworking. The Mohawk of Akwesasne have been among steel workers in New York City and other parts of the US, where they are renowned for their high work in building skyscrapers and bridges. The US/German production was aired on
PBS
The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcasting, public broadcaster and Non-commercial activity, non-commercial, Terrestrial television, free-to-air television network based in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is a publicly fu ...
in its ''America Reframed'' series, October 2012. The Canadian broadcast premiere was on
APTN, part of its ''Reel Insights'', October 2012.
''Skydancer''
Penelope Productions
*''Mohawk Ironworkers'' (2016) is a 13-part half-hour documentary series that celebrates the skills of Mohawk ironworkers of Kahnawake, Akwesasne and Six Nations, who are said to be "the best ironworkers on the planet." It is available on APTN.
* Akwesasne was the location of season 2, episode 5, "The Line", for the television series '' FBI: Most Wanted'' on CBS. The episode aired on January 26, 2021.
Notable residents
* Brandon Oakes
Brandon A. Oakes (born July 03, 1972) is an Akwesasne actor, artist, and dancer. He is a member of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation.
Career
Oakes is known for his role in the film '' Through Black Spruce'', for which he was nominated for Best Actor ...
, actor, artist, and dancer
* Kiawentiio
Kiawenti:io Tarbell (, born 28 April 2006), known mononymously as Kiawentiio, is a Canadian actress from Akwesasne, a reserve located along the Ontario–Quebec– New York border. She is best known for her role as Ka'kwet, a Mi'kmaq girl, in th ...
, actress, singer, and artist
* Levi Oakes
Louis Levi Oakes (January 23, 1925 – May 28, 2019) was a Canadian-born Mohawk code talker who served in the United States Army and member of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation. He was the last living Mohawk code talker.
Early years and military service ...
, code talker
* Margaret Jacobs
Margaret Davis Jacob. b. Jan. 31, 1963) is an American historian. She is the Chancellor's Professor of History and Charles Mach Professor at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln.
Early life and education
Jacobs was born on January 31, 1963. She ...
, artist
* Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell
Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell (or simply Mike Mitchell) is a longtime Canadian Mohawk politician, pioneering First Nations film director and a leading figure in First Nations lacrosse. First elected to the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne in 1982, he be ...
, politician
See also
* Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP or DOTROIP) is a legally non-binding resolution passed by the United Nations in 2007. It delineates and defines the individual and collective rights of Indigenous peoples, including th ...
* Ganienkeh
Ganienkeh (meaning ''Land of the Flint'' Mohawk), is a Mohawk community located on about near Altona, New York in the far northeast corner of the North Country. Established by an occupation of Mohawk warriors in the late 1970s, it is a rare case ...
* Haudenosaunee
The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian Peoples, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Indigenous confederations in North America, confederacy of First Nations in Canada, First Natio ...
* Indian Act
The ''Indian Act'' (, long name ''An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians'') is a Canadian act of Parliament that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves. First passed in 1876 and still ...
* Kanesatake
Kanesatake (''Kanehsatà:ke'' in Mohawk) is a Mohawk (''Kanien'kéha:ka'' in Mohawk) settlement on the shore of the Lake of Two Mountains in southwestern Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Ottawa and Saint Lawrence rivers and about west of ...
* Kahnawake
The Kahnawake Mohawk Territory (french: Territoire Mohawk de Kahnawake, in the Mohawk language, ''Kahnawáˀkye'' in Tuscarora) is a First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawá:ke on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, C ...
* Tyendinaga
* Wahta
References
External links
Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
Akwesasne
Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
''Skydancer''
IMDb
Akwesasne Notes (1969-1987) newspaper
from the American Indian Digital History Project.
{{Authority control
Divided regions
Mohawk reserves in Quebec
Quebec populated places on the Saint Lawrence River
Native American tribes in New York (state)
Border irregularities of the United States
Canada–United States border