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Śrāvaka (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
) or Sāvaka (
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
) means "hearer" or, more generally, "disciple". This term is used in
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
and
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
. In Jainism, a śrāvaka is any lay Jain so the term śrāvaka has been used for the
Jain community The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains. Sangha Jainism has a fourfold orde ...
itself (for example see
Sarak Saraks ( bn, সরাক) (from Sanskrit Śrāvaka) is a community in Jharkhand, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. They have been followers of some aspects of Jainism, such as vegetarianism, since ancient times, however, were isolated and separate ...
and
Sarawagi The Sarawagi or Saraogi or Sarawgi Jain community, meaning a Jain Śrāvaka, is also known as the Khandelwal. They originated from Khandela, a historical town in northern Rajasthan. The Sarawagi community owes its name to a strong historical as ...
). Śrāvakācāras are the lay conduct outlined within the treaties by Śvetāmbara or
Digambara ''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being ''Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing n ...
mendicants. "In parallel to the prescriptive texts, Jain religious teachers have written a number of stories to illustrate vows in practice and produced a rich répertoire of characters.". In Buddhism, the term is sometimes reserved for distinguished disciples of the Buddha.


Buddhism


Early Buddhism

In
early Buddhism The term Early Buddhism can refer to at least two distinct periods in the History of Buddhism, mostly in the History of Buddhism in India: * Pre-sectarian Buddhism, which refers to the teachings and monastic organization and structure, founded by Ga ...
, a śrāvaka or śrāvikā is a disciple who accepts: * the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
as their teacher * the Buddha's teaching (the
Dhamma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for ''d ...
), including understanding the
Four Noble Truths In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones". unreality of the phenomenal, and pursuing Nirvana (concept)">nirvana ( , , ; sa, निर्वाण} ''nirvāṇa'' ; Pali: ''nibbāna''; Prakrit: ''ṇivvāṇa''; literally, "blown out", as in an oil lampRichard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.' ...
. See, for instance, the ''Anguttara Nikaya''s second ''Metta Sutta'' (AN 4.126) when, taken in consideration of the first "Metta Sutta" (AN 4.125), a disciple is described as one who "regards whatever phenomena there that are connected with form, feeling, perception, fabrications, & consciousness, as inconstant, stressful, a disease, a cancer, an arrow, painful, an affliction, alien, a disintegration, an emptiness, not-self." * the community rules of conduct: the
Five Precepts The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...
for laypersons, the prātimokṣa for monastics. In the ''
Nikāya ''Nikāya'' () is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word '' āgama'' () to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit. It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist ...
'', depending on the context, a sāvaka can also refer to a disciple of a teacher other than the Buddha.


Theravada Buddhism

In Theravada Buddhism, a śrāvaka or śrāvikāt refers to one who followed in the tradition of the senior monks of the first Buddhist sangha and community. In the
Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During th ...
, the term "disciple" transcends monastic-lay divisions and can refer to anyone from the following "four assemblies": *
bhikkhu A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist ...
s ("monks") * s ("nuns") * upāsakas and upāsikā (laypersons of both sexes)
Buddhist texts Buddhist texts are those religious texts which belong to the Buddhist tradition. The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts a ...
further mention four types of disciples based on spiritual accomplishment: * "Chief Disciple" (Pāli: ''aggasāvaka''; Sanskrit: ''agraśrāvaka''): in the Pali canon, these are Sāriputta and (Mahā)moggallāna * "Foremost Disciple" (Pāli: ''etadaggasāvaka''; Sanskrit: ''etadagraśrāvaka''): referring to those disciples who are recognized as the best in their respective attribute * "Great Disciple" (Pāli: ''mahāsāvaka''; Sanskrit: ''mahāśrāvaka''): examples are Mahākassapa,
Ānanda Ānanda (5th4th century BCE) was the primary attendant of the Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Among the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda stood out for having the best memory. Most of the texts of the early Buddhist '' Sutta-Pi ...
,
Anuruddha Anuruddha ( pi, Anuruddhā) was one of the ten principal disciples and a cousin of Gautama Buddha. Early years Anuruddha was the son of Amitodana and brother to Mahanama and princess Rohini (Buddha's disciple). Since Amitodana was the broth ...
and Mahākaccāna. * "Ordinary Disciple" (Pāli: ''pakatisāvaka''; Sanskrit: '): constituting the majority of disciples, while devoted to the Buddha and his teaching and while having planted seeds for future liberation, they have not yet irreversibly entered the path to emancipation and are still subject to infinite rebirths.


Ariyasāvaka

In the Pali commentaries, the term ''ariyasāvaka'' is explained as "the disciple of the Noble One (i.e. Buddha)". Accordingly,
Soma Thera Kotahene Soma Maha Thera (December 23, 1898 - February 23, 1960), born as Victor Emmanuel Perera Pulle in Kotahena, Colombo,The Path Of Freedom (Vimuttimagga) of Arahant Upatissa' Translated from the Chinese by Rev. N. R. M. Ehara, Soma Thera, Khe ...
and Thanissaro Bhikkhu translate this term as "The disciple of the Noble Ones" However Bhikkhu Bodhi interprets this term as "noble disciple", and according to him, in the Pali suttas, this term is used in two ways: # broadly: any lay disciple of the Buddha; # narrowly: one who is at least on the path to
enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...
(Pāli: ''sotāpatti maggattha''). In this sense, "ordinary people" (''puthujjana'') can be contrasted with this narrow definition of "noble disciple" (''ariyasāvaka'').
Nyanatiloka Ven. Nyanatiloka Mahathera (19 February 1878, Wiesbaden, Germany – 28 May 1957, Colombo, Ceylon), born as Anton Walther Florus Gueth, was one of the earliest Westerners in modern times to become a Bhikkhu, a fully ordained Buddhist monk. Ea ...
writes, "sāvaka ..refers, in a restricted sense (then mostly ariya-sāvaka, 'noble disciple'), only to the eight kinds of noble disciples (ariya-puggala, q.v.)." The canon occasionally references the "four pairs" and "eight types" of disciples. This refers to disciples who have achieved one of the
four stages of enlightenment The four stages of awakening in Early Buddhism and Theravada are four progressive stages culminating in full awakening ('' Bodhi'') as an Arahant (SN 22.122). These four stages are Sotāpanna, Sakadāgāmi, Anāgāmi, and Arahant. The oldest B ...
: *
Sotāpanna In Buddhism, a sotāpanna (Pali), śrotāpanna (Sanskrit; , , Burmese: သောတာပန်, Tibetan: རྒྱུན་ཞུགས་, Wylie: ''rgyun zhugs''), "stream-enterer", "stream-winner", or "stream-entrant" is a person who has see ...
* Sakadāgāmin *
Anāgāmi In Buddhism, an ''anāgāmin'' (Sanskrit; Pāli: ''anāgāmī'', lit. "non-returning") is a partially enlightened person who has cut off the first five fetters that bind the ordinary mind. ''Anāgāmins'' are the third of the four aspirants. ...
n *
Arahat In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
In regards to disciples achieving arahantship,
Bhikkhu Bodhi Bhikkhu Bodhi (born December 10, 1944), born Jeffrey Block, is an American Theravada Buddhist monk, ordained in Sri Lanka and currently teaching in the New York and New Jersey area. He was appointed the second president of the Buddhist Publica ...
writes: For each of these stages, there is a "pair" of possible disciples: one who is on the stage's path (Pāli: ''magga''); the other who has achieved its fruit (Pāli: ''phala''). Thus, each stage represents a "pair" of individuals: the path traveler (Pāli: ''maggattha'') and the fruit achiever (Pāli: ''phalattha''). Hence, the community of disciples is said to be composed of four pairs or eight types of individuals (Pāli: ''cattāri purisayugāni attha purisapuggalā'').


Foremost disciples

In the "Etadaggavagga" ("These are the Foremost Chapter," AN 1.188-267), the Buddha identifies 80 different categories for his "foremost" (Pāli: ''etadagga'') disciples: 47 categories for monks, 13 for nuns, ten for laymen and ten for laywomen. While the disciples identified with these categories are declared to be the Buddha's "foremost" or "chief" (Pāli: ''etadagga''), this is different from his "Chief Disciples" (Pāli: ''aggasāvaka'') who are consistently identified solely as Sāriputta and Mahāmoggallāna. In addition, in SN 17.23, SN 17.24 and AN 4.18.6, the Buddha identifies four pairs of disciples "who have no compare" and who should thus be emulated. These four pairs are a subset of the 80 foremost disciples listed above, identified in the sub-section 14 of AN 1 (i.e. AN 1.188-267). These four pairs of disciples to be most emulated are: * monks: Sāriputta and Mahāmoggallāna * nuns: Khemā and Uppalavaṇṇā * laymen:
Citta ''Citta'' (Pali and Sanskrit: चित्त; pronounced ''chitta''; IAST: ''citta)'' is one of three overlapping terms used in the '' nikaya'' to refer to the mind, the others being '' manas'' and '' viññāṇa''. Each is sometimes used in ...
and
Hatthaka of Alavi Hastaka Āṭavaka (Sanskrit; Pali: Hatthaka Ālavaka), also known as Hastaka of Āṭavī (Sanskrit; Pali: Hatthaka of Ālavī), was one of the chief lay male disciples of the Buddha, along with Citta. He was enlightened as an Anāgāmi or ...
* laywomen: Kujjuttara and Veḷukaṇḍakiyā


The community of disciples

In Buddhism, there are two main communities (Pāli: ''
sangha Sangha is a Sanskrit word used in many Indian languages, including Pali meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community"; Sangha is often used as a surname across these languages. It was historically used in a political context t ...
''): * The "community of monks and nuns" (Pāli: ''
bhikkhu A ''bhikkhu'' (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, ''bhikṣu'') is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics ("nun", ''bhikkhunī'', Sanskrit ''bhikṣuṇī'') are members of the Sangha (Buddhist ...
-sangha''; '' bhikkhuni-sangha'') refers to a community of four or more monks or nuns who are living in a permanent or semi-permanent single-sex community (in the contemporary West monks and nuns may live within the same monastery but in separate living quarters). Within this community of monks and nuns there is a further sub-division containing practitioners (who are nonetheless still living among their fellow renunciates) possessed of some substantive level of realization (namely, those who have at least gained stream-entry). This core group is called the "noble sangha" (''ariya-sangha''). * The "community of disciples" (Pāli: ''sāvaka-sangha'') refers to the broad community of
monks A monk (, from el, μοναχός, ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a person who practices religious asceticism by monastic living, either alone or with any number of other monks. A monk may be a person who decides to dedicat ...
,
nuns A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is o ...
, and
male Male (symbol: ♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete (sex cell) known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilization. A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to ...
and female layfollowers. For an example of a traditional stock reference to the ''sāvaka-sangha'' in the Pali canon, in "The Crest of the Standard" discourse ( SN 11.3), the Buddha advises his monks that, if they experience fear, they can
recollect The Recollects (french: Récollets) were a French reform branch of the Friars Minor, a Franciscan order. Denoted by their gray habits and pointed hoods, the Recollects took vows of poverty and devoted their lives to prayer, penance, and spirit ...
the Buddha or the Dhamma or the Sangha; and, in recollecting the Sangha they should recall: : "The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples 'sāvaka-sangha''is practising the good way, practising the straight way, practising the true way, practising the proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals...." A similar phrase can also be found in the lay disciple's daily
chant A chant (from French ', from Latin ', "to sing") is the iterative speaking or singing of words or sounds, often primarily on one or two main pitches called reciting tones. Chants may range from a simple melody involving a limited set of notes ...
, "Sangha Vandanā" ("Salutation to the Sangha").


Mahāyāna view

In
Mahayana Buddhism ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
, śrāvakas or
arhat In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
s are sometimes contrasted negatively with
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s. In the 4th century
abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...
work ''Abhidharmasamuccaya'',
Asaṅga Asaṅga (, ; Romaji: ''Mujaku'') ( fl. 4th century C.E.) was "one of the most important spiritual figures" of Mahayana Buddhism and the "founder of the Yogachara school".Engle, Artemus (translator), Asanga, ''The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpasse ...
describes those who follow the
Śrāvakayāna Śrāvakayāna ( sa, श्रावकयान; pi, सावकयान; ) is one of the three '' yānas'' known to Indian Buddhism. It translates literally as the "vehicle of listeners .e. disciples. Historically it was the most common te ...
. These people are described as having weak faculties, following the Śrāvaka Dharma, utilizing the Śrāvaka Piṭaka, being set on their own liberation, and cultivating detachment in order to attain liberation. Those in the
Pratyekabuddhayāna Pratyekabuddhayāna (Sanskrit: प्रत्येकबुद्धयान; ) is a Buddhist term for the mode or vehicle of enlightenment of a pratyekabuddha or paccekabuddha (Sanskrit and Pali respectively), a term which literally means "so ...
are portrayed as also utilizing the Śrāvaka Piṭaka, are said to have medium faculties, to follow the Pratyekabuddha Dharma, and to be set on their own personal enlightenment. Finally, those in the Mahāyāna "Great Vehicle" are portrayed as utilizing the
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
Piṭaka, as having sharp faculties, following the Bodhisattva Dharma, and set on the perfection and liberation of all beings, and the attainment of complete enlightenment. According to Vasubandhu's
Yogacara Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through t ...
teachings, there are four types of śrāvakas: # The fixed # The arrogant # The transformed # The converted (to "Bodhi" or Buddhism) The transformed and the converted (Buddhist) are assured of eventual Nirvana in the ''
Lotus Sutra The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
''. According to
Je Tsongkhapa Tsongkhapa ('','' meaning: "the man from Tsongkha" or "the Man from Onion Valley", c. 1357–1419) was an influential Tibetan Buddhist monk, philosopher and tantric yogi, whose activities led to the formation of the Gelug school of Tibetan Budd ...
, founder of the
Gelug file:DalaiLama0054 tiny.jpg, 240px, 14th Dalai Lama, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya, Bodhgaya (India). The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous ...
school of
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
:


Jainism

A śrāvaka in
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
is a lay Jain. He is the hearer of discourses of
monastics Monasticism (from Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), also referred to as monachism, or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role ...
and scholars,
Jain literature Jain literature (Sanskrit: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the ca ...
. In Jainism, the
Jain community The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains. Sangha Jainism has a fourfold orde ...
is made up of four sections: monks, nuns, śrāvakas (laymen) and śrāvikās (laywomen). The term śrāvaka has also been used as a shorthand for the community itself. For example, the
Sarawagi The Sarawagi or Saraogi or Sarawgi Jain community, meaning a Jain Śrāvaka, is also known as the Khandelwal. They originated from Khandela, a historical town in northern Rajasthan. The Sarawagi community owes its name to a strong historical as ...
are a Jain community originating in Rajasthan, and sometimes śrāvaka is the origin of surnames for Jain families. The long-isolated Jain community in
East India East India is a region of India consisting of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal and also the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The region roughly corresponds to the historical region of Magadh ...
is known as the
Sarak Saraks ( bn, সরাক) (from Sanskrit Śrāvaka) is a community in Jharkhand, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. They have been followers of some aspects of Jainism, such as vegetarianism, since ancient times, however, were isolated and separate ...
. The conduct of a śrāvaka is governed by texts called ''śrāvakācāra''s,Jaina yoga: a survey of the mediaeval śrāvakācāras By R. Williams the best known of which is the ''
Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is a Jain text composed by Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy (second century CE), an ''acharya'' of the Digambara sect of Jainism. Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy was originally from Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. Ratnakaranda ś ...
'' of Samantabhadra. A śrāvaka rises spiritually through the eleven pratimas. After the eleventh step, he becomes a monk. Jains follow six obligatory duties known as avashyakas: '' samayika'' (practising serenity), chaturvimshati (praising the tirthankara), vandan (respecting teachers and monks), ''
pratikramana ''Pratikramana'' ( sa, प्रतिक्रमण; also spelled ''Pratikraman'') (lit. "introspection"), is a ritual during which Jains repent (''prayaschit'') for their sins and non-meritorious activities committed knowingly or inadverten ...
'' (introspection), ''
kayotsarga Kayotsarga ( , pka, काउस्सग्ग ) is a yogic posture which is an important part of the Jain meditation. It literally means "dismissing the body". A tirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the kayo ...
'' (stillness), and pratyakhyana (renunciation).


See also

* Sāvakabuddha *
Śrāvakayāna Śrāvakayāna ( sa, श्रावकयान; pi, सावकयान; ) is one of the three '' yānas'' known to Indian Buddhism. It translates literally as the "vehicle of listeners .e. disciples. Historically it was the most common te ...
*
Arhat In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...


Notes


Bibliography

* Acharya, Kala (2002). '': A Glossary of Buddhist Terms''. Mumbai, New Delhi:Somaiya Publications. . Available on-line at: http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/DBLM/resource/ebooks/102946/102946.htm. * * * Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2005). ''In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon''.Boston: Wisdom Pubs. . * *Hecker (2003) NO CITATION * Indaratana Maha Thera, Elgiriye (2002). ''Vandana: The Album of Pali Devotional Chanting and Hymns''. Penang, Malaysia:Mahindarama Dhamma Publication. Available on-line at: http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/vandana02.pdf. * * *
Pali Text Society The Pali Text Society is a text publication society founded in 1881 by Thomas William Rhys Davids "to foster and promote the study of Pāli texts". Pāli is the language in which the texts of the Theravada school of Buddhism are preserved. The Pā ...
(PTS) (1921–1925). ''The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary''. London: Chipstead. Available on-line at: http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/. * Prayudh Payutto (1986). ''Sangha: The Ideal World Community''. ''in'' * Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans., 2006a). ''Metta Sutta: Good Will (1)'' (AN 4.125). Available on-line at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.125.than.html. * Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans., 2006b). ''Metta Sutta: Good Will (2)'' (AN 4.126). Available on-line at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.126.than.html. * Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans., 1997). ''Sabbasava Sutta: All the Fermentations'' ( MN 2). Available on-line at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.002.than.html. * Uppalavanna, Sister (trans.) (n.d.-a). ''Aayācanāsuttam: Wishing'' (AN 4.18.6). Retrieved from "MettaNet" at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara2/4-catukkanipata/018-sacetaniyavaggo-e.html. * Uppalavanna, Sister (trans.) (n.d.-b). ''Etadaggavagga: These are the foremost'' (AN 1.14). Retrieved from "MettaNet" at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara1/1-ekanipata/014-Etadaggapali-e.html. A Romanized Pali version of this chapter is available from this same site at http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara1/1-ekanipata/014-Etadaggapali-p.html. * Webu Sayadaw & Roger Bischoff (trans.) (1995). "A Happiness that Ever Grows" in ''The Essential Practice (Part II)''. Available on-line at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/webu/wheel384.html#happy.


External links

*
Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
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