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''Sămănătorul'' or ''Semănătorul'' (,
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
for "The Sower") was a
literary Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, plays, and poems. It includes both print and digital writing. In recent centuries, ...
and
political magazine Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power. Political journ ...
published in
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
between 1901 and 1910. Founded by poets
Alexandru Vlahuță Alexandru Vlahuță (; 5 September 1858 – 19 November 1919) was a Romanian writer. His best known work is '' România pitorească'', an overview of Romania's landscape in the form of a travelogue. He was also the main editor of ''Sămănătoru ...
and
George Coșbuc George Coșbuc (; 20 September 1866 – 9 May 1918) was a Romanian poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best remembered for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life, its many travails but also its occasions for joy. In 19 ...
, it is primarily remembered as a tribune for early 20th century traditionalism,
neoromanticism The term neo-romanticism is used to cover a variety of movements in philosophy, literature, music, painting, and architecture, as well as social movements, that exist after and incorporate elements from the era of Romanticism. It has been used ...
and
ethnic nationalism Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity, with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnostate/ethnocratic) approach to variou ...
. The magazine's ideology, commonly known as ''Sămănătorism'' or ''Semănătorism'', was articulated after 1905, when historian and literary theorist
Nicolae Iorga Nicolae Iorga (17 January 1871 – 27 November 1940) was a historian, politician, literary critic, memoirist, Albanologist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament ...
became editor in chief. While its
populism Populism is a essentially contested concept, contested concept used to refer to a variety of political stances that emphasize the idea of the "common people" and often position this group in opposition to a perceived elite. It is frequently a ...
, critique of
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
and emphasis on peasant society separated it from other
conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
groups, ''Sămănătorul'' shared views with its main conservative predecessor, the ''
Junimea ''Junimea'' was a Romanian literary society founded in Iași in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi. The foremost personali ...
'' society, particularly in expressing reserve toward
Westernization Westernization (or Westernisation, see spelling differences), also Europeanisation or occidentalization (from the ''Occident''), is a process whereby societies come under or adopt what is considered to be Western culture, in areas such as industr ...
. In parallel, its
right-wing Right-wing politics is the range of political ideologies that view certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable, typically supporting this position based on natural law, economics, authority, property ...
agenda made it stand in contrast to the Poporanists, a Romanian populist faction whose
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
-inspired ideology also opposed rapid
urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from Rural area, rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. ...
, but there was a significant overlap in membership between the two groups. ''Sămănătorul''s relationship with the dominant National Liberal Party was equally ambiguous, ranging from an alliance between ''Sămănătorul'' and National Liberal politician
Spiru Haret Spiru C. Haret (; 15 February 1851 – 17 December 1912) was a Romanian mathematician, astronomer, and politician. He made a fundamental contribution to the ''n''-body problem in celestial mechanics by proving that using a third degree approx ...
to Iorga's explicit condemnation of 20th century Romanian liberalism. Promoting an idealized interpretation of
local history Local history is the study of history in a geographically local context, often concentrating on a relatively small local community. It incorporates cultural history, cultural and social history, social aspects of history. Local history is not mer ...
, basing its aesthetic ideals on the work of
national poet A national poet or national bard is a poet held by tradition and popular acclaim to represent the identity, beliefs and principles of a particular national culture. The national poet as culture hero is a long-standing symbol, to be distinguished ...
and conservative essayist
Mihai Eminescu Mihai Eminescu (; born Mihail Eminovici; 15 January 1850 – 15 June 1889) was a Romanians, Romanian Romanticism, Romantic poet, novelist, and journalist from Moldavia, generally regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Emin ...
, the publication advertised itself as the voice of oppressed
Romanians Romanians (, ; dated Endonym and exonym, exonym ''Vlachs'') are a Romance languages, Romance-speaking ethnic group and nation native to Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Sharing a Culture of Romania, ...
in
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
and other areas controlled by
Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
prior to
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
. Its
irredentism Irredentism () is one State (polity), state's desire to Annexation, annex the territory of another state. This desire can be motivated by Ethnicity, ethnic reasons because the population of the territory is ethnically similar to or the same as the ...
, as well as its outspoken criticism of the political and cultural establishment, made ''Sămănătorul'' a popular venue for young Romanian intellectuals from both the
Kingdom of Romania The Kingdom of Romania () was a constitutional monarchy that existed from with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King of Romania, King Carol I of Romania, Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 wit ...
and the regions surrounding it. The traditionalist literary faction coalescing around the magazine was generally opposed to
modernist literature Modernist literature originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is characterised by a self-conscious separation from traditional ways of writing in both poetry and prose fiction writing. Modernism experimented with literary form a ...
and the aesthetics of
modern art Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the styles and philosophies of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with art in which the tradit ...
, but was more tolerant of
Symbolism Symbolism or symbolist may refer to: *Symbol, any object or sign that represents an idea Arts *Artistic symbol, an element of a literary, visual, or other work of art that represents an idea ** Color symbolism, the use of colors within various c ...
. In time, ''Sămănătorul'' became host to a subgroup of the local Symbolist movement. Although short-lived, ''Sămănătorul'' was a major influence on later
Romanian literature Romanian literature () is the entirety of literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in the Romanian language or by any authors native to Romania. Early Romanian literature inc ...
and
culture Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
in general. Its legacy stood at the center of cultural debates between traditionalism and modernism lasting throughout the 20th century. While Iorga personally tried to revive it with the magazines '' Drum Drept'' and '' Cuget Clar'', ''Sămănătorism'' was adopted by other traditionalist or agrarian currents, and was a contributing factor to the cultural tenets of local
far right Far-right politics, often termed right-wing extremism, encompasses a range of ideologies that are marked by ultraconservatism, authoritarianism, ultranationalism, and Nativism (politics), nativism. This political spectrum situates itself on ...
and
fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...
groups. During the
interwar period In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...
, it also made a significant impact in
Bessarabia Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Budjak region covering the southern coa ...
(a region since divided between
Moldova Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova, is a Landlocked country, landlocked country in Eastern Europe, with an area of and population of 2.42 million. Moldova is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. ...
and
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
). The ''Sămănătorist'' ideology itself was traditionally criticized for encouraging
isolationism Isolationism is a term used to refer to a political philosophy advocating a foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality an ...
and
xenophobia Xenophobia (from (), 'strange, foreign, or alien', and (), 'fear') is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-gr ...
, as well as for its flirtation with
antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
. In literary and art criticism, the term ''Sămănătorist'' acquired pejorative connotations, denoting specific
pastoral The pastoral genre of literature, art, or music depicts an idealised form of the shepherd's lifestyle – herding livestock around open areas of land according to the seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. The target au ...
and
patriotic Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and a sense of attachment to one's country or state. This attachment can be a combination of different feelings for things such as the language of one's homeland, and its ethnic, cultural, politic ...
clichés.


History


Origins

The establishment of ''Sămănătorul'' was linked by researchers to a set of significant events of ''
fin de siècle "''Fin de siècle''" () is a French term meaning , a phrase which typically encompasses both the meaning of the similar English idiom '' turn of the century'' and also makes reference to the closing of one era and onset of another. Without co ...
'' European economic history.
Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas **Spanish cuisine **Spanish history **Spanish culture ...
historian Francisco Veiga placed the emergence of ''Sămănătorul'' in direct connection to a European-wide evolution of
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
and related phenomena affecting the
middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...
: "In the traumatic circumstances of late 19th and early 20th century
imperialist Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power ( diplomatic power and cultural imperialism). Imperialism fo ...
crises ..and the rejection of urban-industrial society by the petty and medium
bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...
threatened by the crisis of capitalism, ''Sămănătorism'' can be identified with those groups of intellectual movements seeking to preserve national identity in front of threats, by resorting to an idealized past." Alongside the "identity crisis" provoked by "the traumatic advance of industrial
modernization Modernization theory or modernisation theory holds that as societies become more economically modernized, wealthier and more educated, their political institutions become increasingly liberal democratic and rationalist. The "classical" theories ...
inside a country with a majority peasant and
illiterate Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
population", researcher
Paul Cernat Paul Cernat (born August 5, 1972 in Bucharest) is a Romanian essayist and literary critic. He has a Ph.D. summa cum laude in philology. Cernat has been a member of the Writers' Union of Romania since 2009. As of 2013, he is lecturer of Romanian l ...
discusses the "decline" of local
boyar A boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal nobility in many Eastern European states, including Bulgaria, Kievan Rus' (and later Russia), Moldavia and Wallachia (and later Romania), Lithuania and among Baltic Germans. C ...
aristocracy as issues preparing the ground for ''Sămănătorul'' and like-minded journals. Likewise, Swedish art historian Tom Sandqvist views ''Sămănătorul''s focus on the peasant community as a source of legitimate culture as connected with economic change and "emerging
industrialization Industrialisation (British English, UK) American and British English spelling differences, or industrialization (American English, US) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an i ...
": "In the mid-1870s grain prices had declined catastrophically, and it became more and more obvious that the image of the grateful farmer and the 'natural' village community as bearer of true Romanian culture was false and did not correspond very well with a reality characterized by utmost poverty, misery, autocratic boyars, ruthless profiteers, moneylenders, and village
gendarmes A gendarmerie () is a paramilitary or military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to "men-at-arms" (). In France and som ...
".Sandqvist, p.60 The emergence of ''Sămănătorism'' and Poporanism, Sandqvist notes, happened "in spite of this—or rather because of it", since both still proclaimed "the special character of Romanian culture as deriving from the traditional village community." Researcher Rodica Lascu-Pop presents a similar perspective, discussing ''Sămănătorism'' as "an echo of mutations occurring in society at the beginning of the century: the acute crisis of the peasant issue .. the social gap between the urban and rural environments." The historical moment represented by ''Sămănătorism'' has also been linked by historians with various tendencies in
Western culture Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the Cultural heritage, internally diverse culture of the Western world. The term "Western" encompas ...
. Its rejection of industrial society was thus seen as equivalent to the sentiments expressed in the poems of
Robert Frost Robert Lee Frost (March26, 1874January29, 1963) was an American poet. Known for his realistic depictions of rural life and his command of American Colloquialism, colloquial speech, Frost frequently wrote about settings from rural life in New E ...
in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
or
Francis Jammes Francis Jammes (; 2 December 1868, in Tournay, Hautes-Pyrénées, Tournay – 1 November 1938, in Hasparren) was a French and European poet. He spent most of his life in his native region of Béarn and the Northern Basque Country, Basque Country ...
in
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. Comparatists John Neubauer and Marcel Cornis-Pope described the magazine as part of the larger phenomenon of "
populism Populism is a essentially contested concept, contested concept used to refer to a variety of political stances that emphasize the idea of the "common people" and often position this group in opposition to a perceived elite. It is frequently a ...
and agrarian nationalism" in East-Central Europe, together with
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
's '' Głos'' magazine and
Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...
's '' Naturizmu'' current, with the ideologies of
Hungary Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning much of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and ...
's Dezső Szabó or the '' Népi írók'', '' Válasz'' or '' Kelet Népe'' groups, as well as with the political program of
Estonia Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
's
Jaan Tõnisson Jaan Tõnisson ( – 1941?) was an Estonian statesman, serving as the Prime Minister of Estonia twice during 1919 to 1920, as State Elder (head of state and government) from 1927 to 1928 and in 1933, and as Foreign Minister of Estonia from 19 ...
. Commentators have also found specific similarities between ''Sămănătorul'' and various cultural or political movements in Poland, from the Galician intellectuals' interest in the local peasantry during the late 19th century ('' Chłopomania'') to the ideology of
Roman Dmowski Roman Stanisław Dmowski Polish: (9 August 1864 – 2 January 1939) was a Polish right-wing politician, statesman, and co-founder and chief ideologue of the National Democracy (abbreviated "ND": in Polish, "''Endecja''") political movement ...
's
National Democracy National Democracy may refer to: * National democratic state, a state formation conceived by the Soviet concept of national democracy * National Democracy (Czech Republic) * National Democracy (Italy) * National Democracy (Philippines) * National De ...
. Literary critic Mircea Anghelescu also places the ''Sămănătorist'' movement's beginnings in conjunction with intellectual fashions prevalent in
Romanian culture The culture of Romania is an umbrella term used to encapsulate the ideas, customs and social behaviours of the people of Romania that developed due to the country's distinct geopolitical history and evolution. It is theorized that Romanians an ...
during the national revival and before
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
: the
patriotic Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and a sense of attachment to one's country or state. This attachment can be a combination of different feelings for things such as the language of one's homeland, and its ethnic, cultural, politic ...
travel literature The genre of travel literature or travelogue encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs. History Early examples of travel literature include the '' Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' (generally considered a ...
of
Vasile Alecsandri Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
,
Grigore Alexandrescu Grigore Alexandrescu (; 22 February 1810, Târgoviște – 25 November 1885 in Bucharest) was a nineteenth-century Romanian poet and translator noted for his fables with political undertones. He founded a periodical, ''Albina Românească'' ...
and George Melidon; the Neo-Brâncovenesc style in
Romanian architecture Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
; and the rediscovery of national Romanian costume by Romanian Queen Elisabeth (Carmen Sylva). His colleague
Valeriu Râpeanu Valeriu is a Romanian-language masculine given name, and may refer to: * Valeriu Cosarciuc (born 1955), Moldovan politician * Valeriu Cotea (1926–2016), Romanian oenologist * Valeriu Traian Frențiu (1875–1952), Romanian Greek Catholic bishop ...
contrasts the initial rise of ''Sămănătorism'' with the moment of "crisis" experienced in Romanian letters, at a time when a generation of major writers—
Ion Luca Caragiale Ion Luca Caragiale (; According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184 – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as I. L. Caragiale, was a Romanians, ...
,
Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea; pen name of Barbu Ștefan; April 11, 1858 – April 29, 1918) was a Romanian writer and poet, considered one of the greatest figures in the National awakening of Romania. Early life and studies He was born on April ...
,
Alexandru Vlahuță Alexandru Vlahuță (; 5 September 1858 – 19 November 1919) was a Romanian writer. His best known work is '' România pitorească'', an overview of Romania's landscape in the form of a travelogue. He was also the main editor of ''Sămănătoru ...
etc.—were approaching the end of their careers. In large measure, the propagation of ''Sămănătorist'' ideas was also helped along by the sentiment that the conservative establishment had abandoned the cause of
Romanians Romanians (, ; dated Endonym and exonym, exonym ''Vlachs'') are a Romance languages, Romance-speaking ethnic group and nation native to Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Sharing a Culture of Romania, ...
living in
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
,
Bukovina Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
and other regions controlled by
Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
(particularly those who, the new intellectual leaders cautioned, were threatened by
Magyarization Magyarization ( , also Hungarianization; ), after "Magyar"—the Hungarian autonym—was an assimilation or acculturation process by which non-Hungarian nationals living in the Kingdom of Hungary, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, adop ...
policies). The group's protest against the political class' perceived lack of
patriotism Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and a sense of attachment to one's country or state. This attachment can be a combination of different feelings for things such as the language of one's homeland, and its ethnic, cultural, politic ...
was joined with what Veiga defines as "an offshoot of renewed Romanian agitation in Transylvania".Veiga, p.165 In parallel, Veiga notes, the group was also reacting against "an opportunistic international policy" and the penetration of foreign capital on the Kingdom's markets. At the time, however, the National Liberals were reluctantly committed to supporting
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Carol I Carol I or Charles I of Romania (born Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; 20 April 1839 – ), was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince (''Domnitor'') from 1866 to 1881, and as ...
's alliance with the
Central Powers The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,; ; , ; were one of the two main coalitions that fought in World War I (1914–1918). It consisted of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulga ...
, and, through it, with Austria-Hungary. According to literary historian Z. Ornea, the will to demonstrate "the unity of the Romanian population in matters of specific spiritual life" formed one of the characteristics of ''Sămănătorism''. Iulian Ciocan
"De la sămănătorism la postmodernism"
, in '' Revista Sud-Est'', Nr. 4/2002


Establishment

Published in the capital
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
, ''Sămănătorul'' was co-founded by two already established writers, Alexandru Vlahuță, from the "
Old Kingdom In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynast ...
", and the Transylvanian-born
George Coșbuc George Coșbuc (; 20 September 1866 – 9 May 1918) was a Romanian poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best remembered for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life, its many travails but also its occasions for joy. In 19 ...
, in late 1901. Both of them were already known as editors of magazines with traditionalist agendas: Vlahuţă had founded and edited the magazine '' Vieața'', while Coșbuc had done the same with '' Vatra''. Among the original staff of writers were several formerly associated with ''Vieața'':
Ștefan Octavian Iosif Ștefan Octavian Iosif (; 11 October 1875 – 22 June 1913) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian poet and translator. Life Born in Brașov, Transylvania (part of Austria-Hungary at the time), he studied in his native town and in Sibiu befor ...
,
Dimitrie Anghel Dimitrie Anghel (; July 16, 1872 – November 13, 1914) was a Romanian poet. Anghel was of Aromanian descent from his father. His first poem was published in '' Contemporanul'' (1890). His debut editorial ''Traduceri din Paul Verlaine'' was publ ...
, Ion Gorun, Constanța Hodoș and
Vasile Pop Vasile Pop (1789 – March 6, 1842) was an Imperial Austrian ethnic Romanian physician. Born into an intellectual family in Chimitelnic, Mureș County, Transylvania, he began his education at the Greek-Catholic gymnasium in Târgu Mureș. He t ...
.Călinescu, p.61 The regular contributors included
Ion Agârbiceanu Ion Agârbiceanu (first name also Ioan, last name also Agărbiceanu and Agîrbiceanu; 12 September 1882 – 28 May 1963) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian writer, journalist, politician, theologian and Greek-Catholic priest. Born among the ...
, I. A. Bassarabescu,
Panait Cerna Panait Cerna (; Bulgarian: Панайот Черна, ''Panayot Cherna'', born Panayot Stanchov or Panait Staciov; August 26 or September 25, 1881 – March 26, 1913) was a Romanian poet, philosopher, literary critic and translator. A native ...
,
Elena Farago Elena Farago (born Elena Paximade; 29 March 1878 – 3 January 1954) was a Romanian poet and children's author. She also translated works by Ibsen, Nietzsche, Maeterlinck and numerous others into Romanian. Early life and education Born in Bârl ...
, Emil Gârleanu,
Octavian Goga Octavian Goga (; 1 April 1881 – 7 May 1938) was a Romanian far-right politician, poet, playwright, journalist, and translator. Biography Early life Octavian Goga was born on 1 April 1881 in the village of Rășinari, on the northern sl ...
, Constantin Sandu-Aldea, Ioan Slavici and I. E. Torouțiu. Other notable collaborators throughout the early years were Zaharia Bârsan,
Paul Bujor Paul Bujor (born Pavel Bujor;Mărghitan & Mancaș, p. 43 August 2, 1862 – May 17, 1952) was a Romanian zoologist, physiologist and marine biologist, also noted as a socialist writer and politician. Hailing from rural Covurlui County, he studied ...
, Ilarie Chendi, Virgil Cioflec, Alexandru Davila,
Sextil Pușcariu Sextil Iosif Pușcariu (4 January 1877 – 5 May 1948) was an Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian linguist and philologist, also known for his involvement in administrative and party politics. A native of Brașov educated in France ...
and Constantin Xeni, alongside the lesser known
Ion Ciocârlan Ion Ciocârlan (July 12, 1874–1942) was a Romanian prose writer. Born in Străoane, Vrancea County, he graduated from the normal school in Iași in 1895, becoming a schoolteacher. His published debut came in ''Sămănătorul'' in 1902, under ...
and Maria Cunțan. The new publication received support and funds from
Spiru Haret Spiru C. Haret (; 15 February 1851 – 17 December 1912) was a Romanian mathematician, astronomer, and politician. He made a fundamental contribution to the ''n''-body problem in celestial mechanics by proving that using a third degree approx ...
, the National Liberal
Education Minister An education minister (sometimes minister of education) is a position in the governments of some countries responsible for dealing with educational matters. Where known, the government department, ministry, or agency that develops policy and deli ...
, who saw in it an opportunity for improving the lifestyle of peasants, for raising the interest of intellectuals nationwide, and for endorsing planned changes to the state-sponsored education system. It is sometimes described as a successor to '' Semănătorul'', a magazine published in
Bârlad Bârlad () is a city in Vaslui County, Romania. It lies on the banks of the river Bârlad (river), Bârlad, which waters the high plains of Western Moldavia. At Bârlad the railway from Iași diverges, one branch skirting the river Siret (river ...
during the 1870s, and to a similarly titled magazine published in Galaţi during 1899.''Sămănătorul''
entry in the
Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava The Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava (, USV), also known as University of Suceava (), is a public university in Suceava, Suceava County, Bukovina, northeastern Romania, officially founded in 1990 and initially established in 1963 as the '' ...
Library database; retrieved October 30, 2009
In the years after it was set up, ''Sămănătorul'' inspired the creation of like-minded smaller journals published in provincial cities, from
Craiova Craiova (, also , ) is the largest city in southwestern Romania, List of Romanian cities, the seventh largest city in the country and the capital of Dolj County, situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia. It i ...
's ''
Ramuri ''Ramuri'' ("Twigs" or "Branches") is a Romanian literary magazine put out from Craiova, the regional center of Oltenia region. Its first edition appeared from December 1905, and was closely tied to Nicolae Iorga's ''Sămănătorul'', published i ...
'' to Bârlad's '' Făt Frumos''. Its doctrine was largely replicated in Transylvania by the publication '' Luceafărul'', founded in 1902 by Goga and his fellow activists Alexandru Ciura and
Octavian Tăslăuanu Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
. The new magazine's first-ever issue carried the date of December 2, 1901. Printed in cooperation with
Editura Minerva Editura Minerva is one of the largest publishing houses in Romania. Located in Bucharest, it is known, among other things, for publishing classic Romanian literature, children's books, and scientific books. The company was founded in Bucharest in ...
publishing company, it was financed and owned by Iosif, who also worked on the editorial staff.Călinescu, p.602 The editorial office itself was located at Regală Street, No. 6, near
Calea Victoriei Calea Victoriei (''Victory Avenue'') is a major avenue in central Bucharest. Situated in Sector 1, and having a length of , it leads from (which runs parallel to the Dâmbovița River) to the north and then northwest up to Piața Victoriei, w ...
(on present-day Ion Câmpineanu Street) and in the same building as Minerva's
printing press A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a printing, print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in whi ...
es. Ion Simuţ
"Centenarul debutului sadovenian"
, in ''
România Literară ''România Literară'' is a cultural and literary magazine from Romania. In its original edition, it was founded on 1 January 1855 by Vasile Alecsandri and published in Iași until 3 December 1855, when it was suppressed. The new series appeared ...
'', Nr. 41/2004
The editorial piece introducing the first-ever issue, written by the two main editors but left unsigned, carried the title ''Primele vorbe'' ("The First Words"), and expressed concern over the lack of positive messages in Romanian literature. This overview was completed in the second issue by Coșbuc's piece, ''Uniți'' ("United"), which condemned what he called "imported" and "sick" literature. The paper frequently alternated the spellings of its name over the following years: founded as ''Sămănătorul'', it became ''Semănătorul'' from 1901 to 1902, returned to the original spelling until 1909, and changed back to the ''e'' spelling in its final year. The two were literal synonyms for "the sower", but their metaphorical meaning was more complex. Historian Irina Livezeanu wrote: "The Romanian word and concept is not easy to translate. It derives from the verb ''a semăna'' or to sow, or plant (seeds), and suggests that literature should be fundamentally rural and agrarian, concerning itself with the life and customs of the 90 percent of the Romanian population who were indeed peasants or 'sowers'." The term also refers to the dispersion of ideas among the general public, in line with Haret's own agenda. Literary historian
George Călinescu George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
connects the programs of ''Vieața'' (whose name, an antiquated spelling for ''viața'', means "the life") and its successor by commenting on their titles: " 'Sămănătorul''was supposed to deal with 'life' and 'plant' ideas into the masses." He also notes that the notion had been highlighted by Vlahuţă in one of his poems, also titled ''Sămănătorul'': The finality of this program was seen by Râpeanu as comprised by the poem's final part, which reads:


Sadoveanu and Iorga's arrival

In 1903, ''Sămănătorul'' was joined by
Mihail Sadoveanu Mihail Sadoveanu (; occasionally referred to as Mihai Sadoveanu; 5 November 1880 – 19 October 1961) was a Romanian novelist, short story writer, journalist and political figure, who twice served as acting President of Romania, head of st ...
, the future novelist, who was described by critic
Tudor Vianu Tudor Vianu (; January 8, 1898 – May 21, 1964) was a Romanian literary criticism, literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translation, translator. He had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Liter ...
as the group's greatest asset. It was also that year when
Nicolae Iorga Nicolae Iorga (17 January 1871 – 27 November 1940) was a historian, politician, literary critic, memoirist, Albanologist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament ...
began publishing his first articles for the paper. In Sanqvist's definition, Iorga, "one of the most representatives of Romanian
ethno-nationalism Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity, with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnostate/ethnocratic) approach to variou ...
beside the philosopher and poet
Lucian Blaga Lucian Blaga (; 9 May 1895 – 6 May 1961) was a Romanians, Romanian philosopher, poet, playwright, poetry translator and novelist. He is considered one of the greatest philosophers and poets of Romania, and a prominent philosopher of the twenti ...
", was the publication's "most important contributor", while Neubauer and Cornis-Pope refer to him as "the most powerful and original thinker of the ast-Central Europeanregion." By 1904, Sadoveanu had achieved national fame with his debut volumes, published simultaneously by Minerva and praised by Iorga in his chronicles for the magazine (one of which proclaimed 1904 "the Sadoveanu year"). In parallel, Iorga's slowly introduced his own tenets, beginning with a May 1903 article titled ''O nouă epocă de cultură'' ("A New Cultural Epoch"), which called for setting up a national culture beyond
social class A social class or social stratum is a grouping of people into a set of Dominance hierarchy, hierarchical social categories, the most common being the working class and the Bourgeoisie, capitalist class. Membership of a social class can for exam ...
distinctions, and referred to the "wicked monkey business" and spiritual "corruption" arriving from the
Western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and state (polity), states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also const ...
. He later took charge of a permanent ''Sămănătorul'' column, carrying the title ''Cronică'' ("Chronicle"). Iorga's other contributions were polemical pieces, targeting various of his colleagues who opposed what he defined as a new direction in historiography (''școala critică'', "the critical school"):
Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu (; 26 February 1838 – ) was a Romanian writer and philologist who pioneered many branches of Romanian philology and history. Life He was born Tadeu Hâjdeu in Cristineștii Hotinului (now Kerstentsi in Chernivtsi ...
,
Grigore Tocilescu Grigore George Tocilescu (26 October 1850 – 18 September 1909) was a Romanian historian, archaeologist, epigrapher and folkorist, and member of the Romanian Academy. He was a professor of ancient history at the University of Bucharest, author ...
, V. A. Urechia and
A. D. Xenopol Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol (; March 23, 1847 – February 27, 1920) was a Romanian historian, philosopher, professor, economist, sociologist, and author. Among his many major accomplishments, he is credited with authoring the first major synthes ...
among them. One such piece read: "With all my powers, I follow a cultural and moral ideal for my country, and whoever shall stand in the way of this, my life's most cherished goal, is my enemy, an enemy I will never spare no matter what, however unpleasant or painful this may prove, no matter what troubles I may encounter as a result."Nastasă (2003), p.170 His position received endorsement from another ''Sămănătorul'' contributor, literary chronicler Ilarie Chendi, who alleged that, since
Romanian literature Romanian literature () is the entirety of literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in the Romanian language or by any authors native to Romania. Early Romanian literature inc ...
was facing "spiritual decadence", the main exponents of a moral consciousness were historians of the new directions (a reference to Iorga, Ion Bogdan and
Dimitrie Onciul Dimitrie Onciul (26 October / 7 November 1856 – 20 March 1923) was a Romanian historian. He was a member of the Romanian Academy and its president from 1920 until his death in 1923. Biography Onciul was born in Straja, at the time in the Duch ...
). Iorga's criticism of his older peers often focused on topical and personal issues, such as when he argued that Xenopol was a poor judge of literary value, who had promoted mediocre writers (from Xenopol's own wife Cornelia "Riria" Gatovschi to Victor Vojen). Elsewhere in his articles for the magazine, he called Tocilescu "a scholar of the least substantial species and a critic whose norm is the personal gain". In 1904, also involved in the polemic was Ion Găvănescul. Originally acknowledged by Iorga as a figure of importance on the academic scene, Găvănescul was referred to as "a scoundrel and a coward" in one of his new articles for ''Sămănătorul''. Another such piece criticized researcher George Ionescu-Gion, whose published work on the
history of Bucharest The history of Bucharest covers the time from the early settlements on the locality's territory (and that of the surrounding area in Ilfov County) until its modern existence as a city, capital of Wallachia, and present-day capital of Romania. ...
was judged inconsistent and poorly structured by Iorga (arguments he retracted decades later). In tandem, his articles for the magazine defended linguist Sextil Puşcariu, who had sided with his colleague's methods but was being himself exposed to criticism from ''Luceafărul''. In 1905, Iorga also used ''Sămănătorul'' to express some regret for the tension reached during the conflict between his generation and the older Hasdeu or Xenopol: "It was also the fault of the young men, all of us being too keen on advertising and enriching ourselves, at the expense of old men who had not been much focused on consuming, and were far from being satisfied." In 1905, editorial leadership over ''Sămănătorul'' was assumed by Iorga. This moment, Veiga argues, signified a change in policies and appeal: "''Sămănătorul'' only managed to acquire have its own force when it progressively transformed itself into a catalyst for a whole series of young discontent intellectuals". Integrated within such changes of discourse, Veiga writes, were Iorga's "fickle" opinions, which had turned into suspicions that the National Liberal Party was endorsing
clientelism Clientelism or client politics is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit ''quid-pro-quo''. It is closely related to patronage politics and vote buying. Clientelism involves an asymmetri ...
and a ''
camarilla A camarilla is a group of courtiers or favourites who surround a king or ruler. Usually, they do not hold any office or have any official authority at the Court (royal), royal court but power behind the throne, influence their ruler behind the sce ...
'' regime. Despite its growth in influence, the publication had a modest circulation by Romanian standards, reportedly publishing no more than 300 copies per issue. George Călinescu, who indicates that Iorga was trying to link the venue with "a clearer program" and "his own direction", assesses that such goals failed to introduce a fundamentally new approach, and contends that the magazine continued to maintain a "secondary role" when compared other platforms of its kind.


1906 campaign, successive splits and Iorga's departure

Iorga's form of campaigning produced significant results in March 1906, when, incited by the Bucharest National Theater's decision to host a performance in French (instead of translating the play into
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
), he organized a
boycott A boycott is an act of nonviolent resistance, nonviolent, voluntary abstention from a product, person, organisation, or country as an expression of protest. It is usually for Morality, moral, society, social, politics, political, or Environmenta ...
and mass student rallies which degenerated into street battles. Later in 1906, Iorga had ended his association with the magazine.Victor Iova, "Tabel cronologic", in N. Iorga, ''Istoria lui Mihai Viteazul'', Vol. I,
Editura Minerva Editura Minerva is one of the largest publishing houses in Romania. Located in Bucharest, it is known, among other things, for publishing classic Romanian literature, children's books, and scientific books. The company was founded in Bucharest in ...
, Bucharest, 1979, p.xxxix.
On October 22 of that year, ''Sămănătorul'' announced that the split occurred in amiable terms: "Mr. N. Ioga ..announces us that his many duties prevent him from carrying on as the magazine's ditorialdirector, but that he wishes us best of luck and wants us to triumph". However, according to one account, he had decided to leave after his editorial policy had made him the target of criticism in other magazines. Iorga went on to publish a new journal, '' Neamul Românesc'', and created, together with the
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
-based agitator
A. C. Cuza Alexandru C. Cuza (8 November 1857 – 3 November 1947), also known as A. C. Cuza, was a Romanian far-right politician and economist. Early life Cuza was born in Iași into a family of mixed Armenian-Greek origins. He was the grandson of Moldav ...
, the Democratic Nationalist Party, which stood for a similar agenda but added explicitly
antisemitic Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
content targeting the Jewish Romanian community. Ovidiu Morar
"Intelectualii români și 'chestia evreiască' "
, in ''
Contemporanul ''Contemporanul'' (''The Contemporary'') was a Romanian literary magazine published in Iaşi, Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukrain ...
'', Nr. 6/2005 (republished b
''România Culturală''
)
That same year, a
left-wing Left-wing politics describes the range of Ideology#Political ideologies, political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole or of certain social ...
dissident group, comprising Sadoveanu, parted with ''Sămănătorul'' to affiliate with ''
Viața Românească ''Viața Românească'' (, "The Romanian Life") is a monthly literary magazine published in Romania. Formerly the platform of the left-wing traditionalist trend known as poporanism, it is now one of the Writers' Union of Romania's main venues. ...
'' journal, newly founded by the Poporanists
Constantin Stere Constantin G. Stere or Constantin Sterea (Romanian language, Romanian; , ''Konstantin Yegorovich Stere'' or Константин Георгиевич Стере, ''Konstantin Georgiyevich Stere''; also known under his pen name ''Șărcăleanu''; ...
and
Garabet Ibrăileanu Garabet Ibrăileanu (; May 23, 1871 – March 11, 1936) was a Romanian-Armenian literary critic and theorist, writer, translator, sociologist, University of Iași professor (1908–1934), and, together with Paul Bujor and Constantin Stere, fo ...
. A third dissident wing emerged at the same stage: Chendi, Iorga's former associate, left the circle in 1906 to create the rival periodical ''Viața Literară'' (set up and disestablished in 1907). Ion Simuţ
"''Viaţa literară'' în 1907"
in ''
România Literară ''România Literară'' is a cultural and literary magazine from Romania. In its original edition, it was founded on 1 January 1855 by Vasile Alecsandri and published in Iași until 3 December 1855, when it was suppressed. The new series appeared ...
'', Nr. 12/2004
According to Cernat, ''Sămănătorul'' itself experienced "
reactionary In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...
ideologization" following the breakups.Cernat, p.20 The paper steadily declined over the following four years. This phenomenon is described by Râpeanu as owed to a loss of direction: " 'Sămănătorul''no longer enjoyed the same impact, no longer sparked the interest or the polemics of 1903–1906. It brought nothing new to the landscape of Romanian literature. One could say that, in parting with ''Sămănătorul'', N. Iorga took its soul with him." Among the last major issues affecting the journal's history was the peasants' revolt of 1907, which aired the social tensions of the Kingdom and was met with violence by the National Liberal cabinet of
Dimitrie Sturdza Prince Dimitrie Sturdza (, in full Prince Dimitrie Alexandru Sturdza-Miclăușanu; 10 March 183321 October 1914) was a Romanian statesman and author of the late 19th century, and president of the Romanian Academy between 1882 and 1884. He is an a ...
. According to Sandqvist, traditionalist perspectives "clashed badly with reality" during the events, leading "almost immediately to a regressive approach among many intellectuals ..who had previously encouraged and endorsed Romania's turn to the West".


Political outlook


General principles

A dominant portion of ''Sămănătorul''s outlook sought to define and preserve the notion of Romanian specificity through the lens of
Romantic nationalism Romantic nationalism (also national romanticism, organic nationalism, identity nationalism) is the form of nationalism in which the state claims its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes ...
. This vision, Veiga notes, was "the first systematic attempt" of its kind in Romania, and implied recourse to "intellectual myths." Attached to the portrayal of peasants as models of excellence was Iorga's own scholarly perspective on Romanian history and the
origin of the Romanians Several theories, in great extent mutually exclusive, address the issue of the origin of the Romanians. The Romanian language descends from the Vulgar Latin dialects spoken in the Roman provinces north of the "Jireček Line" (a proposed notion ...
. By that moment in his career, Iorga had come to construct a theory according to which Romanian peasants living in the Early and
High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history between and ; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended according to historiographical convention ...
had organized themselves into communal
republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...
s ruled by
representative democracy Representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy or electoral democracy, is a type of democracy where elected delegates represent a group of people, in contrast to direct democracy. Nearly all modern Western-style democracies func ...
, and was arguing that the Romanian state itself had grown organically around an unattested
uncodified constitution An uncodified constitution is a type of constitution where the fundamental rules often take the form of customs, usage, precedent and a variety of statutes and legal instruments.Johari, J. C. (2006) ''New Comparative Government'', Lotus Press, N ...
. This went in tandem with his suggestion that there was an ancient solidarity between the traditional
social class A social class or social stratum is a grouping of people into a set of Dominance hierarchy, hierarchical social categories, the most common being the working class and the Bourgeoisie, capitalist class. Membership of a social class can for exam ...
es of free peasants and
boyar A boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal nobility in many Eastern European states, including Bulgaria, Kievan Rus' (and later Russia), Moldavia and Wallachia (and later Romania), Lithuania and among Baltic Germans. C ...
s. Veiga, who views this concept as a major component of ''Sămănătorism'', interprets it as the "model of ''
Volksgemeinschaft ''Volksgemeinschaft'' () is a German expression meaning "people's community", "folk community", Richard Grunberger, ''A Social History of the Third Reich'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971, p. 44. "national community", or "racial community" ...
''—real or fictitious". In order to recover that cohesion, the historian was proposing a specific set of institutions, from political bodies representing the villages (''obști'') to
credit union A credit union is a member-owned nonprofit organization, nonprofit cooperative financial institution. They may offer financial services equivalent to those of commercial banks, such as share accounts (savings accounts), share draft accounts (che ...
s working for the benefit of peasants. A figure who inspired much of ''Sămănătorul''s outlook was the deceased
national poet A national poet or national bard is a poet held by tradition and popular acclaim to represent the identity, beliefs and principles of a particular national culture. The national poet as culture hero is a long-standing symbol, to be distinguished ...
and
cultural critic A cultural critic is a critic of a given culture, usually as a whole. Cultural criticism has significant overlap with social and cultural theory. While such criticism is simply part of the self-consciousness of the culture, the social positions o ...
Mihai Eminescu Mihai Eminescu (; born Mihail Eminovici; 15 January 1850 – 15 June 1889) was a Romanians, Romanian Romanticism, Romantic poet, novelist, and journalist from Moldavia, generally regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Emin ...
, who, as both a conservative and nationalist, had been a maverick member of the ''
Junimea ''Junimea'' was a Romanian literary society founded in Iași in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi. The foremost personali ...
'' literary club. Researcher Ioana Both describes the "reactionary" circle formed around the magazine as a main source for the "cult of Eminescu", as well as for some of the earliest Eminescu anthologies. In a 1903 article for the magazine, Iorga welcomed the publication of his posthumous writings as the revelation of a "new Eminescu", or "a complete man" opposed to the modern times which had "shattered" mankind. The same author deemed Eminescu's activism an "
Annunciation The Annunciation (; ; also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady, or the Annunciation of the Lord; ) is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement made by the archangel Gabriel to Ma ...
" for the new ideology of a "healthy race". According to Iorga's rival, cultural historian and
classical liberal Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics and civil liberties under the rule of law, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, eco ...
thinker
Eugen Lovinescu Eugen Lovinescu (; 31 October 1881 – 16 July 1943) was a Romanian modernist literary historian, literary critic, academic, and novelist, who in 1919 established the ''Sburătorul'' literary club. He was the father of Monica Lovinescu, and the ...
, the historian shared in particular the "
reactionary In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...
" attitudes of Eminescu: a "hatred" of the bourgeoisie who endorsed Romanian liberalism, support for "
protectionism Protectionism, sometimes referred to as trade protectionism, is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations ...
" and the nostalgia for "
patriarchal Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term ''patriarchy'' is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in fem ...
life". Ioan Stanomir
"Despre canon, critică și revizuiri: o recapitulare lovinesciană"
, in ''
Cuvântul ''Cuvântul'' (, meaning "The Word") was a daily newspaper, published by philosopher Nae Ionescu in Bucharest, Romania, from 1926 to 1934, and again in 1938. It was primarily noted for progressively adopting a far-right and fascist agenda, an ...
'', Nr. 378
Another main element of ''Sămănătorul''s preoccupations was
didacticism Didacticism is a philosophy that emphasises instructional and informative qualities in literature, art, and design. In art, design, architecture, and landscape, didacticism is a conceptual approach that is driven by the urgent need to explain. ...
, twinned with calls for
education reform Education reform is the goal of changing public education. The meaning and educational methods have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Historically, the motivations for ...
: the magazine urged the
education system The educational system generally refers to the structure of all institutions and the opportunities for obtaining education within a country. It includes all pre-school institutions, starting from family education, and/or early childhood education ...
to actively and primarily dedicate itself to the cause of peasants. This closely followed the National Liberal agenda, which had facilitated innovation in the field after 1898, and was in tune with the wide-ranging reforms pushed by
Spiru Haret Spiru C. Haret (; 15 February 1851 – 17 December 1912) was a Romanian mathematician, astronomer, and politician. He made a fundamental contribution to the ''n''-body problem in celestial mechanics by proving that using a third degree approx ...
. In Veiga's account, the interest in educating the lower classes was partly owed to European precedents: the
Jules Ferry laws The Jules Ferry laws are a set of French laws which established free education in 1881, then mandatory and ''laic'' (secular) education in 1882. Jules Ferry, a lawyer holding the office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely c ...
in France and the ''
Realschule Real school (, ) is a type of secondary school in Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. It has also existed in Croatia (''realna gimnazija''), the Austrian Empire, the German Empire, Denmark and Norway (''realskole''), Sweden (''realskola''), F ...
'' system in the
German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...
, as well as the efforts of Romanian Transylvanian teachers to compete with the officially-endorsed
Hungarian-language Hungarian, or Magyar (, ), is an Ugric language of the Uralic language family spoken in Hungary and parts of several neighboring countries. It is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Out ...
institutions of learning.Veiga, p.166 In parallel, the policy reflected Iorga's belief that spreading awareness of
Romanian culture The culture of Romania is an umbrella term used to encapsulate the ideas, customs and social behaviours of the people of Romania that developed due to the country's distinct geopolitical history and evolution. It is theorized that Romanians an ...
would cement the unity of Romanians on either side of the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Ural Mountains, Urals at and the Scandinav ...
. According to historian and comparatist Ștefan Borbély, an additional reflection of the group's educational theory was its encouragement of a "public fantasy" by depicting children as "nasty" human beings who need to be kept in tight check. Ștefan Borbély, "A Psychohistorical Insight into Past and Present Romania", i
''The New Europe College Yearbook 1996–1997''
, New Europe College, Bucharest, 2000, p.35.


Radical nationalism

The rejection of
cosmopolitanism Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all human beings are members of a single community. Its adherents are known as cosmopolitan or cosmopolite. Cosmopolitanism is both prescriptive and aspirational, believing humans can and should be " world citizen ...
by ''Sămănătorul'' implied the recourse to arguments that many cultural historians have described as samples of "
xenophobia Xenophobia (from (), 'strange, foreign, or alien', and (), 'fear') is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-gr ...
". Historian of ideas
Lucian Boia Lucian Boia (born 1 February 1944) is a Romanian historian. He is mostly known for his debunking of historical myths about Romania, for purging mainstream Romanian history of deformations arising from ideological propaganda, and as a fighter ag ...
discusses ''Sămănătorism'' among the earliest nationalist currents which promoted
isolationism Isolationism is a term used to refer to a political philosophy advocating a foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality an ...
and promoting the Romanians' "own specific genius", rather than trying to remedy Romanian marginality on the world stage by accepting
Westernization Westernization (or Westernisation, see spelling differences), also Europeanisation or occidentalization (from the ''Occident''), is a process whereby societies come under or adopt what is considered to be Western culture, in areas such as industr ...
.Boia, p.221 He paraphrases this view as: " omaniansare not Western and nor should they try to become Western." Cultural historian Lucian Nastasă refers to ''Sămănătorul''s attitudes as an attempt to impose "defensive
prophylaxis Preventive healthcare, or prophylaxis, is the application of healthcare measures to prevent diseases.Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental health a ...
" on Western ideas, and "a sort of spiritual
autarky Autarky is the characteristic of self-sufficiency, usually applied to societies, communities, states, and their economic systems. Autarky as an ideology or economic approach has been attempted by a range of political ideologies and movement ...
". In criticizing the "old school" of historians, Nastasă notes, Iorga was in large part reacting against historians who did not value
ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism in social science and anthropology—as well as in colloquial English discourse—means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead o ...
in history, as well as airing professional and personal grievances. The 1906 campaign against cultural
Francophilia A Francophile is a person who has a strong affinity towards any or all of the French language, French history, French culture and/or French people. That affinity may include France itself or its history, language, cuisine, literature, etc. The te ...
was nevertheless explained by Iorga himself not as hostility toward
French culture The culture of France has been shaped by Geography of France, geography, by History of France, historical events, and by foreign and internal forces and groups. France, and in particular Paris, has played an important role as a center of high ...
, but mainly as a belief that Romania needed to emancipate itself from foreign influence. Iorga had maintained a poor impression of
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
ian society (in particular its
Latin Quarter The Latin Quarter of Paris (, ) is an urban university campus in the 5th and the 6th arrondissements of Paris. It is situated on the left bank of the Seine, around the Sorbonne. Known for its student life, lively atmosphere, and bistros, t ...
) from the early 1890s, when he had first visited the city. His claim, echoing the sentiments expressed decades earlier by Eminescu, was that France's influence stood for two distinct models: a negative one, of "coffeehouses and taverns" which had wrongly been perceived as factors of civilization by "our youth"; and a positive one, represented by "the French literary and scientific societies", and supported by "the sacred family of French bourgeoisie, which is the nation's foundation." He also claimed that the upper class' preference for French was tantamount to a loss of national character, "the history of a ruling class' decline and a people's straying away from the natural path indicated by its past and leading into its future." Some of these views were echoed by other key affiliates of ''Sămănătorul'', such as Coșbuc (who believed that the commonplace use of foreign languages among the cultivated was expanding the gap between the elite and the mass of the people). Primarily focused on condemning the perceived
pessimism Pessimism is a mental attitude in which an undesirable outcome is anticipated from a given situation. Pessimists tend to focus on the negatives of life in general. A common question asked to test for pessimism is "Is the glass half empty or half ...
of other currents, ''Primele vorbe'' editorial also stated the goal of doing away with the "mockery" and "sullying" of Romanian language by "those who scatter empty phrases". The attack on foreign influence was nevertheless limited, being contained by the ambiguous stances of its leaders. According to
Valeriu Râpeanu Valeriu is a Romanian-language masculine given name, and may refer to: * Valeriu Cosarciuc (born 1955), Moldovan politician * Valeriu Cotea (1926–2016), Romanian oenologist * Valeriu Traian Frențiu (1875–1952), Romanian Greek Catholic bishop ...
: "There was talk of orga'sopacity and the fight against translations and literature in general. N. Iorga was nevertheless demanding ..the expansion of the translated works area to all sets of
European literature Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent weste ...
:
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
, English,
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, a Romance ethnic group related to or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance languag ...
,
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
, Nordic." Boia also notes that Iorga was not an isolationist, having already pioneered research into Romania's traditional links with the
Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by the Ural Mountain ...
an sphere. Iorga's contributions for ''Sămănătorul'' occasionally stood as manifestations of his antisemitism, as was the case with a November 1904 article. The text was structured around the allegation that
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
city had been taken over by the non-emancipated Jews and the policies of
Zionism Zionism is an Ethnic nationalism, ethnocultural nationalist movement that emerged in History of Europe#From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914), Europe in the late 19th century that aimed to establish and maintain a national home for the ...
: "Iaşi is three-quarter Jewish. They own its wealth, its life, its activity. The flame of Zionism was lit and burns more brightly over there. We omaniansonly have two things in Iaşi: the school and the church. And the
King of Romania The King of Romania () or King of the Romanians () was the title of the monarch of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947, when the Romanian Workers' Party proclaimed the Romanian People's Republic following Michael I's forced abdication. ...
arrives into he citypersecuted by the filthy business-minded existence of another nation. Through his acts and his deeds, our past and present are again inextricably linked in opposition to the pagan and hostile alien. For no matter how long the polluted wave of the gain-seeking ones shall be sweeping over us, the land is ours. And the wind shall at once take with it the chaff it brought upon us, and we shall endure." A leading presence among the political theorists contributing to ''Sămănătorul'' was the Transylvanian Aurel Popovici. Political scientist and literary critic Ioan Stanomir notes a paradox in the synthesis of platforms endorsed by Popovici: a proponent of
federalization Federalism is a mode of government that combines a general level of government (a central or federal government) with a regional level of sub-unit governments (e.g., provinces, states, cantons, territories, etc.), while dividing the powers ...
in Austria-Hungary rather than an advocate of the irredentist cause (inventor of the ''
United States of Greater Austria The United States of Greater Austria () was an unrealised proposal made in 1906 to federalize Austria-Hungary to help resolve widespread ethnic and nationalist tensions. It was conceived by a group of scholars surrounding Archduke Franz Ferdinand ...
'' concept), but a conservative voice in line with those of his ''Sămănătorul'' colleagues, the intellectual leader was also a vocal supporter of
scientific racism Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the pseudoscience, pseudoscientific belief that the Human, human species is divided into biologically distinct taxa called "race (human categorization), races", and that empirical evi ...
and
racial antisemitism Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews based on a belief or assertion that Jews constitute a distinct Race (human categorization), race that has inherent traits or characteristics that appear in some way abhorrent or inherently inferior ...
. Popovici's essay ''Naționalism sau democrație'' ("Nationalism or Democracy"), serialized by ''Sămănătorul'' from 1909 to 1910, outlined its author's growing admiration for
authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...
. While the conservative tone was preserved by references to the 18th century theorist
Edmund Burke Edmund Burke (; 12 January ew Style, NS1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish Politician, statesman, journalist, writer, literary critic, philosopher, and parliamentary orator who is regarded as the founder of the Social philosophy, soc ...
and by an outspoken critique of
social contract In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment, it ...
philosophy, ''Naționalism sau democrație'' mirrored other theories about the organic, popular, nature of Romanian statehood, and borrowed from the racial theories of Eminescu,
Arthur de Gobineau Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (; 14 July 1816 – 13 October 1882) was a French writer and diplomat who is best known for helping introduce scientific race theory and "racial demography", and for developing the theory of the Aryan master race and N ...
and
Houston Stewart Chamberlain Houston Stewart Chamberlain (; 9 September 1855 – 9 January 1927) was a British-German-French philosopher who wrote works about political philosophy and natural science. His writing promoted German ethnonationalism, antisemitism, scientific r ...
. The approach, Stanomir writes, was "counterfactual". The essay also depicted Jews in general as anti-Romanian, profiteering and manipulative, while claiming that they exercised their power by controlling the
Cisleithania Cisleithania, officially The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council (), was the northern and western part of Austria-Hungary, the Dual Monarchy created in the Compromise of 1867—as distinguished from ''Transleithania'' (i.e., ...
n and Romanian press (''
Neue Freie Presse ''Neue Freie Presse'' ("New Free Press") was a Viennese newspaper founded by Adolf Werthner together with the journalists Max Friedländer and Michael Etienne on 1 September 1864 after the staff had split from the newspaper ''Die Presse''. It ...
'', '' Neues Wiener Tagblatt'', ''
Adevărul (; meaning "The Truth", formerly spelled ''Adevĕrul'') is a Romanian daily newspaper, based in Bucharest. Founded in Iași, in 1871, and reestablished in 1888, in Bucharest, it was the main left-wing press venue to be published during the Kingd ...
'', '' Dimineața''). Its title alluded to its central theme, which is Popovici's belief that democracy was an enemy of national identity (coupled with his claim that Romania had an opportunity to choose between the two systems).


''Sămănătorul'', ''Junimism'' and mainstream conservatism

While ''Sămănătorul'' had emerged from a partnership with the National Liberals, Iorga's background made him close to Romania's
traditionalist conservatism Traditionalist conservatism, often known as classical conservatism, is a political philosophy, political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of transcendent moral principles, manifested through certain posited natural laws t ...
, represented at the time by the ''Junimea'' and the Conservative Party (the National Liberal's competitor within the Kingdom's
two-party system A two-party system is a political party system in which two major political parties consistently dominate the political landscape. At any point in time, one of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is usually referr ...
). The main point of contention between him and the other groups was irredentist policy: like
Nicolae Filipescu Nicolae Filipescu (December 5, 1862 – September 30, 1916) was a Romanian politician. Filipescu was the Mayor of Bucharest between February 1893 and October 1895. It was during his term the first electric tramways circulated in Bucharest. Betwe ...
and other dissenting Conservative, Iorga objected to the political current's inclination toward preserving the ''
status quo is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, economic, legal, environmental, political, religious, scientific or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the curren ...
'' on the Transylvanian issue. Discussing this ideological transition, Ioan Stanomir noted: "The hybridization f Iorga's discourseallows for the integration of a nationalist and populist seam." In addition to referencing the ''Junimist'' Eminescu, the arguments put forth by Iorga owed much to the ''Junimea'' doyen and Conservative Party politician
Titu Maiorescu Titu Liviu Maiorescu (; 15 February 1840 – 18 June 1917) was a Romanian literary critic and politician, founder of the ''Junimea'' Society. As a literary critic, he was instrumental in the development of Culture of Romania, Romanian culture in ...
. Like Maiorescu, Eminescu and Iorga both cautioned against the National Liberal version of
modernization Modernization theory or modernisation theory holds that as societies become more economically modernized, wealthier and more educated, their political institutions become increasingly liberal democratic and rationalist. The "classical" theories ...
and Westernization, which they viewed as too imitative and fast-pace to be naturally absorbed by Romanian society ("forms without substance"). However, Stanomir notes, the newer discourse, with its references to a supposedly ancient legislation and radical criticism of the 1866 Constitution, was a radical break with the ''Junimea'' worldview: "The distance between Iorga's critique and the ''Junimist'' hypothesis is obvious and can be identified in the weight that national tradition is assigned with the ideological discourse. At no moment in its evolution did ''Junimism'', as an ideal form of
conservative liberalism Conservative liberalism, also referred to as right-liberalism, is a variant of liberalism combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or simply representing the right wing of the liberal movement. In the case of modern con ...
, intend to correlate constitutional deconstruction with the praise of an ancient constitution that would have preceded modernity. The fundamental flaw of the 1866 Constitution n ''Junimea''s opinionwas most of all its inadequacy, and this inadequacy could be gradually corrected by stimulating a bourgeois environment and by increasing the constitutional norm's very efficiency." Overall, Stanomir proposes, ''Sămănătorism'' stood for a break with ''Junimist'' " Victorianism" by the "imposition of a Romantic paradigm", a process in which "the stem of ' reactionarism' roduceda form of heterodox conservatism". While Maiorescu and his circle of followers generally upheld the values of
art for art's sake Art for art's sake—the usual English rendering of (), a French slogan from the latter half of the 19th century—is a phrase that expresses the philosophy that 'true' art is utterly independent of all social values and utilitarian functions, b ...
and
neoclassicism Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative arts, decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiq ...
in front of
didacticism Didacticism is a philosophy that emphasises instructional and informative qualities in literature, art, and design. In art, design, architecture, and landscape, didacticism is a conceptual approach that is driven by the urgent need to explain. ...
, there was a measure of overlap with traditionalist currents in Maiorescu's theories about the inspirational value of
Romanian folklore The folklore of Romania is the collection of traditions of the Romanians. A feature of Romanian culture is the special relationship between folklore and the learned culture, determined by two factors. First, the rural character of the Romania ...
, as well as in his endorsement of the ''poporan'' ("people's") and realist literature illustrated by the work of ''Junimists'' such as Ion Creangă or Ioan Slavici. There followed numerous rapprochements, made possible by the measure to which ''Junimism'' was opening itself to traditionalism and nationalism shortly after 1900. ''Sămănătorul''s existence coincided with a final transition in ''Junimist'' ideology, during which the club's magazine, '' Convorbiri Literare'', came to be led by scientist
Simion Mehedinţi Simion is a Romanian-language masculine given name. Notable people with this name include: * Simion Bărnuțiu * Simion Bughici * Simion Coman * Simion Cuciuc *Simion Cuţov * Simion Furdui * Simion Galeţchi *Simion Ghimpu * Simion Grişciuc * Sim ...
, who adopted an agenda closer to that of nationalist groups. According to Z. Ornea, the aged founder of ''Junimea'' had, for reasons unknown, chosen not to enter a fight with a didacticist current he would have otherwise been likely to reject. Before Maiorescu's retirement, Mehedinţi had even contributed to Iorga's journal and, Ornea notes, remained "a ''Sămănătorist'' of strict observance who only lacked the gifts of an apostle." In highlighting the closeness between '' Convorbiri Literare'' and the traditionalist venue,
George Călinescu George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
also notes that they shared contributors between them, citing the cases of short story writers I. A. Bassarabescu and Nicolae Gane. These developments had as their side effect a schism within ''Junimea'' itself, provoked when Maiorescu's disciple
Mihail Dragomirescu Mihail Dragomirescu (March 22, 1868 – November 25, 1942) was a Romanian aesthetician, literary theorist and critic. Born in Plătărești, Călărași County, he completed primary school in his native village in 1881, followed by Bucharest's ...
created his own magazine, '' Convorbiri Critice''. Opposed to ''Convorbiri Literare'', the new publication sought to reinstate and closely follow Maiorescu's early theories, seeking to extend their application into the 20th century. However, Dragomirescu's own ideological approach was also relatively close to that of ''Sămănătorul'', accepting some of its nationalist and didacticist guidelines. ''Convorbiri Critice'' therefore became the center of a club comprising various authors formerly affiliated with either ''Sămănătorul'' or '' Făt Frumos''. Another isolated ''Junimist'' to resist ''Sămănătorist'' literature was novelist
Duiliu Zamfirescu Duiliu Zamfirescu (; 30 October 1858 – 3 June 1922) was a Romanian novelist, poet, short story writer, lawyer, nationalist politician, journalist, diplomat and memoirist. In 1909, he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy, and, for a whi ...
, who spoke out against the views on peasantry promoted by current, as well as against Maiorescu's views on ''poporan'' works, and who promoted his own form of conservatism. Reviewing these choices, Ornea argued that there were still essential links between Zamfirescu's views and those of his ''Sămănătorist'' adversaries.


''Sămănătorul'', socialist groups and Poporanism

On the
left-wing Left-wing politics describes the range of Ideology#Political ideologies, political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole or of certain social ...
of the political spectrum, the ''Sămănătorists'' met the advocates of
socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
, who had survived the fall of the
Romanian Social Democratic Workers' Party The Social Democratic Workers' Party of Romania (, PSDMR), established in 1893, was the first modern socialist political party in Romania. A Marxist organization, the PSDMR was part of the Second International and sent its representatives to the f ...
. Although the two currents disagreed over central issues, they also held a set of common beliefs, particularly in matters of literary theory. While he had entered a polemic with '' Vieața'', the leading socialist figure and literary critic
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea (born Solomon Katz; 21 May 1855 – 7 May 1920) was a Romanian Marxist theorist, politician, sociologist, literary critic, and journalist. He was also an entrepreneur in the city of Ploiești. Constantin Dobroge ...
admired (and probably inspired) Vlahuţă's branch of didacticism, preferring it to early ''Junimism''.
"De la Marx citire"
in ''
România Literară ''România Literară'' is a cultural and literary magazine from Romania. In its original edition, it was founded on 1 January 1855 by Vasile Alecsandri and published in Iași until 3 December 1855, when it was suppressed. The new series appeared ...
'', Nr. 37/2009
According to Călinescu, the entire ''Sămănătorist'' movement was a mutation of Dobrogeanu-Gherea's ideology, which "subordinated art to a social goal": "The nationalists kept the central point which suited them, that is art as a means, and only replaced the goal .. Even some of the ideals are shared between them. The socialists display interest in the peasants, this being our
proletarian The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian or a . Marxist philo ...
class for the time being; the nationalists, as the peasants they themselves are, are of course revolutionary peasantists." Critic , who notes that Dobrogeanu-Gherea was by then blending his
Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
into a "more autochthonous" perspective on politics, also argues that he and his colleagues at ''
Contemporanul ''Contemporanul'' (''The Contemporary'') was a Romanian literary magazine published in Iaşi, Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukrain ...
'' review were by then becoming aware that Romanian socialist literature was failing their expectations. In his assessment, the local product of Marxist guidelines was "sub-mediocre", the theorist himself being "perfectly aware" of such inadequacies. Zamfir concludes that "the more and more vociferous nationalists around ''Sămănătorul''" were one of the factors to replace "socially-themed" currents, and that their success prompted Dobrogeanu-Gherea to part with literature. Likewise, Râpeanu notes that, contrary to the Marxist leader's expectations, ''Contemporanul'' and its 1890s satellite '' Literatură și Știință'' had not "managed to set up a current", and that they compensated by publishing traditional authors such as Vlahuță. ''Sămănătorul'' also competed for the public's attention with the left-leaning populist movement,
Poporanism Poporanism is a Romanian version of nationalism and populism. The word is derived from ''popor'', meaning "people" in Romanian language, Romanian. Founded by Constantin Stere in the early 1890s, Poporanism is distinguished by its opposition to Ma ...
—the latter owing some inspiration for its rural socialism to the
Narodnik The Narodniks were members of a movement of the Russian Empire intelligentsia in the 1860s and 1870s, some of whom became involved in revolutionary agitation against tsarism. Their ideology, known as Narodism, Narodnism or ,; , similar to the ...
movement of the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
. Alexandru George
"După un faliment (V)"
in ''
Ramuri ''Ramuri'' ("Twigs" or "Branches") is a Romanian literary magazine put out from Craiova, the regional center of Oltenia region. Its first edition appeared from December 1905, and was closely tied to Nicolae Iorga's ''Sămănătorul'', published i ...
'', June 24, 2006
Despite the generic disagreements, the two groups shared views on a number of topical issues, and even a number of partisans.
Lucian Boia Lucian Boia (born 1 February 1944) is a Romanian historian. He is mostly known for his debunking of historical myths about Romania, for purging mainstream Romanian history of deformations arising from ideological propaganda, and as a fighter ag ...
identified the main difference as one between the "
patriarchal Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term ''patriarchy'' is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in fem ...
" views of the ''Sămănătorists'' and the "more social" perspective of Poporanism. A similar point was earlier made by Călinescu, who noted that the Poporanists were "nationalist democrats" rather than socialists, and that they advocated amending the traditionalist pronouncements for reaching the same basic goals. Historian Ion Ilincioiu describes both movements as being rooted in "Romantic philosophy", ''Sămănătorul''s "aggressive"
anti-capitalism Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. Anti-capitalists seek to combat the worst effects of capitalism and to eventually replace capitalism with an alternati ...
being opposed to the Poporanists' attempt at reforming the system from within.


Literary and artistic credo


Aesthetics

''Sămănătorul''s views on aesthetics,
Romanian literature Romanian literature () is the entirety of literature written by Romanian authors, although the term may also be used to refer to all literature written in the Romanian language or by any authors native to Romania. Early Romanian literature inc ...
and Romanian art were closely connected to its discourse about Romanian specificity, the peasant class and didacticism. Discussing the ''Sămănătorist'' stage of Iorga's career, Sandqvist notes: "In Iorga's opinion literature and culture in general must be oriented toward the specific nature of the Romanian people and ..bring forth a love for the Romanian village and its people. To him art has a specific ethical-ethnic function, a mission to stimulate and to express the Romanian farmer, in accordance with the notion of the need for the artist and the poet to unite in a 'holy' union with the woods, the rivers and the whole of nature in a constant uprising against a civilization that has alienated man from his natural, original existence." Such pronouncements on the matter were reported with critical detachment by historians: Veiga writes that the peasant promoted by ''Sămănătorul'' was "archaic and eternal, very 'decorative' and
bucolic The pastoral genre of literature, art, or music depicts an idealised form of the shepherd's lifestyle – herding livestock around open areas of land according to the seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. The target aud ...
", while Sandqvist refers to both ''Sămănătorists'' and Poporanists as producing "nationalistic anthems", "unctuous songs of praise to the Romanian peasant and the Romanian village", as well as "pathetic glorifying of the past". According to
Paul Cernat Paul Cernat (born August 5, 1972 in Bucharest) is a Romanian essayist and literary critic. He has a Ph.D. summa cum laude in philology. Cernat has been a member of the Writers' Union of Romania since 2009. As of 2013, he is lecturer of Romanian l ...
, the ''Sămănătorist'' worldview favored, instead of both modernity and art for art's sake, "an idyllic, rudimentary-populist,
picturesque Picturesque is an aesthetic ideal introduced into English cultural debate in 1782 by William Gilpin in ''Observations on the River Wye, and Several Parts of South Wales, etc. Relative Chiefly to Picturesque Beauty; made in the Summer of the Year ...
-
ethnographic Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. It explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnography is also a type of social research that involves examining ...
and sentimental
moralism Moralism is a philosophy that arose in the 19th century that concerns itself with imbuing society with a certain set of morals, usually traditional behaviour, but also "justice, freedom, and equality". It has strongly affected North American and ...
." Other researchers have also described ''Sămănătorist'' writings as being primarily characterized by excessive patriarchal nostalgia. One essential theme of ''Sămănătorist'' literary theory was the imagery of urban alienation. In Călinescu's definition, the group reacted against what it perceived as "the neuroses ndthe putrefaction of the urban class", and was demanding instead "a 'healthy' literary production, which could only be rural." Art and literary critic
Dan Grigorescu Dan or DAN may refer to: People * Dan (name), including a list of people with the name ** Dan (king), several kings of Denmark * Dan people, an ethnic group located in West Africa **Dan language, a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivoir ...
notes in this nationalist guideline the opposition between "the 'tentacular' city, the 'killer' city, ndthe patriarchal image of rustic life." On the margin of the ''Sămănătorul'' circle, this ''Sămănătorist'' sensibility was specifically identified in some poems written by
Octavian Goga Octavian Goga (; 1 April 1881 – 7 May 1938) was a Romanian far-right politician, poet, playwright, journalist, and translator. Biography Early life Octavian Goga was born on 1 April 1881 in the village of Rășinari, on the northern sl ...
during the same years. In matters of style, the ''Sămănătorist'' circle was also interested in prolonging the legacy of ''Junimist'' writers, starting with Vlahuţă (who adhered closely to or imitated Eminescu's
poetics Poetics is the study or theory of poetry, specifically the study or theory of device, structure, form, type, and effect with regards to poetry, though usage of the term can also refer to literature broadly. Poetics is distinguished from hermeneu ...
). The ''Junimist'' affiliate and folk writer Ion Creangă was one of ''Sămănătorul''s recommended sources of inspiration for prose writers. However,
Tudor Vianu Tudor Vianu (; January 8, 1898 – May 21, 1964) was a Romanian literary criticism, literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translation, translator. He had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Liter ...
notes, this was questionable, since Creangă's uncomplicated "rural authenticity" made him "the least ''Sămănătorist'' among our writers." Committed to preserving the legacy of painter
Nicolae Grigorescu Nicolae Grigorescu (; 15 May 1838 – 21 July 1907) was one of the founders of modern Romanian painting. He is considered by Romanians the greatest Romanian painter, and one of the founders of modern Romanian art. He is most known for paintin ...
as a mainstay of Romanian visual arts, ''Sămănătorism'' also touched the field of art criticism. Vlahuţă, a great admirer of Grigorescu, had already dedicated him a
monograph A monograph is generally a long-form work on one (usually scholarly) subject, or one aspect of a subject, typically created by a single author or artist (or, sometimes, by two or more authors). Traditionally it is in written form and published a ...
in which he stated his special appreciation for the painter's pastoral themes: "And how handsome the shepherds guarding Grigorescu's flocks! And how proud. It's as if they were kings, monarchs of the mountains, that is how they walk, how they stand, how they gaze upon their realms." Such praise of Grigorescu was regularly featured in the magazine's art column, signed by writer and collector Virgil Cioflec, and in Iorga's art essays, which describe Grigorescu as a discoverer of Romania's ''
genius loci In classical Roman religion, a ''genius loci'' (: ''genii locorum'') was the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted in religious iconography as a figure holding attributes such as a cornucopia, patera (libation bowl), or snake. Man ...
''. The magazine hailed the painter as the model to follow, but only selected those aspects of his work which it could fit within its approach, largely ignoring his urban-themed works.Drăguț ''et al.'', p.169–172; Grigorescu, p.427 ''Sămănătorism'' directly encouraged visual artists occasionally described as "Grigorescu's epigones", who concentrated on rural, pastoral and picturesque subjects. The category notably includes two
genre painters Genre art is the pictorial representation in any of various media of scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, work, and street scenes. Such representations (also called genre works, ...
, the Transylvanian Ipolit Strâmbu and the
Brăila Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The Sud-Est (development region), ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila. According to the 2021 Romanian ...
native
Arthur Verona Arthur is a masculine given name of uncertain etymology. Its popularity derives from it being the name of the legendary hero King Arthur. A common spelling variant used in many Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages is Artur. In Spanish and Ital ...
, followed closely by Ștefan Popescu. The '' Tinerimea Artistică'' society, which grouped some of the ''Sămănătorist''-inspired painters alongside older and younger artists, upheld Nicolae Grigorescu's style as an alternative to the
academic art Academic art, academicism, or academism, is a style of painting and sculpture produced under the influence of European academies of art. This method extended its influence throughout the Western world over several centuries, from its origins i ...
of the day, and borrowed elements from newer European-wide manifestations of
Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( ; ; ), Jugendstil and Sezessionstil in German, is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and ...
, but did not articulate an aesthetic program.


Cultural confrontations

The rise of ''Sămănătorism'' was hotly contested by cosmopolitan or
decadent Decadence was a late-19th-century movement emphasizing the need for sensationalism, egocentricity, and bizarre, artificial, perverse, and exotic sensations and experiences. By extension, it may refer to a decline in art, literature, science, ...
trends, which were inspired by French-imported
Symbolism Symbolism or symbolist may refer to: *Symbol, any object or sign that represents an idea Arts *Artistic symbol, an element of a literary, visual, or other work of art that represents an idea ** Color symbolism, the use of colors within various c ...
and set the ground for
avant-garde In the arts and literature, the term ''avant-garde'' ( meaning or ) identifies an experimental genre or work of art, and the artist who created it, which usually is aesthetically innovative, whilst initially being ideologically unacceptable ...
and
modernist literature Modernist literature originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is characterised by a self-conscious separation from traditional ways of writing in both poetry and prose fiction writing. Modernism experimented with literary form a ...
. The magazine found one of its main rivals in poet and theorist
Alexandru Macedonski Alexandru Macedonski (; also rendered as Al. A. Macedonski, Macedonschi or Macedonsky; 14 March 1854 – 24 November 1920) was a Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism (arts ...
, recognized as the doyen of the Romanian Symbolist school and an enemy of traditionalist literature even before the year 1900, who put out the magazine '' Literatorul''. The controversy was taken to the public sphere: a regular of the
Kübler Coffeehouse Kubler or Kübler may refer to: People with the surname ''Kubler'' * Françoise Kubler (born 1958), French operatic soprano * George Kubler (1912–1996), American art historian * Ida Ivanka Kubler (born 1978), visual artist * Jason Kubler (born ...
, Macedonski is reported to have publicly mocked the ''Sămănătorists'' who had reserved the table opposite him. By 1908, criticism of traditionalist currents was taking the forefront in the activities of other Symbolist figures: the rebellious poet Ion Minulescu and the professional critic Ovid Densusianu, who openly suggested a literature based on urban models. As early as 1905, Densusianu had begun a polemic with ''Sămănătorul'' and the Poporanists by means of his own publication, '' Vieața Nouă'', accusing his adversaries of hopelessly trying to cut Romania from the worldwide context and from progress itself. Despite such heated exchanges, the magazine stressed the importance of a writers' solidarity: Iorga's articles on this topic are credited by some with having helped in the 1909 establishment of a
Romanian Writers' Society The Romanian Writers' Society () was a professional association based in Bucharest, Romania, that aided the country's writers and promoted their interests. Founded in 1909, it operated for forty years before the early Communist Romania, communist re ...
. By then, ''Sămănătorul'' was itself acquiring a Symbolist section (albeit one more akin to the neoromantic school), primarily illustrated by Iosif and fellow poet
Dimitrie Anghel Dimitrie Anghel (; July 16, 1872 – November 13, 1914) was a Romanian poet. Anghel was of Aromanian descent from his father. His first poem was published in '' Contemporanul'' (1890). His debut editorial ''Traduceri din Paul Verlaine'' was publ ...
(who also used the magazine as a testing ground for their
collaborative poetry Collaboration (from Latin ''com-'' "with" + ''laborare'' "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. The f ...
experiments, which were signed with the common pen name ''A. Mirea''). Also included in this faction were other young authors, such as Ştefan Petică, Al. T. Stamatiad, Alice Călugăru and
Elena Farago Elena Farago (born Elena Paximade; 29 March 1878 – 3 January 1954) was a Romanian poet and children's author. She also translated works by Ibsen, Nietzsche, Maeterlinck and numerous others into Romanian. Early life and education Born in Bârl ...
. According to Cernat, such collaborations evidenced the "identity break among the 'conservative' wing of autochthonous Symbolism." Another paradox was the presence of writers with modernist tendencies among the occasional contributors to ''Sămănătorul'', including the radical Minulescu and the moderate Densusianu.
Eugen Lovinescu Eugen Lovinescu (; 31 October 1881 – 16 July 1943) was a Romanian modernist literary historian, literary critic, academic, and novelist, who in 1919 established the ''Sburătorul'' literary club. He was the father of Monica Lovinescu, and the ...
, who moved between currents and later became a figure of eclectic modernism, is also known to have tried his hand at becoming a ''Sămănătorul'' contributor
Nicolae Manolescu Nicolae Manolescu (; 27 November 1939 – 23 March 2024) was a Romanian literary critic. Elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1997, he was upgraded to titular member in 2013. Life and career Manolescu was born in Râmnicu ...

"Lovinescu şi Tabla de valori a modernităţii româneşti interbelice"
, in ''
Cuvântul ''Cuvântul'' (, meaning "The Word") was a daily newspaper, published by philosopher Nae Ionescu in Bucharest, Romania, from 1926 to 1934, and again in 1938. It was primarily noted for progressively adopting a far-right and fascist agenda, an ...
'', Nr. 351
and even to have supported the 1906 campaign against French influence. For part of its existence, the magazine even hosted translations of texts by French Symbolists, decadents or Parnassians. While these associations were seen by George Călinescu as additional proof that ''Sămănătorul'' lacked a coherent program, Cernat discusses them as part of a wider transition at the end of which Symbolism reemerged as classical and assimilable. The internalized Symbolist tendency irritated Iorga, who, in 1905, used ''Sămănătorul'' to condemn the floral imagery of Anghel's writings as having been inspired by an urban and "boyar" garden.Ornea (1998), p.77 Five years later, when both had ended their association with the magazine, Iorga returned with an article in '' Neamul Românesc'', explaining that he considered Anghel's poems to be a form of "contempt" for a traditionalist venue. In Călinescu's opinion, Iorga was by then giving a disproportionately positive reception to writers of little value, which he held to mean that, under Iorga's direction, ''Sămănătorul'' was transforming itself into a venue for the least important traditionalist authors. Râpeanu also writes: "Like any critic, orgacould be mistaken, particularly in cases where he did not take into consideration the aesthetic criterion and expressed words of sympathy ..for minor writers who endeavored, with no calling, to apply the magazine's principles." A similar assessment was provided by literary critic Ion Simuţ, who noted that Iorga tended to promote all his followers in the literary world, regardless of value, failing to see an actual difference between
Vasile Pop Vasile Pop (1789 – March 6, 1842) was an Imperial Austrian ethnic Romanian physician. Born into an intellectual family in Chimitelnic, Mureș County, Transylvania, he began his education at the Greek-Catholic gymnasium in Târgu Mureș. He t ...
and Sadoveanu. Sadoveanu had also noticed this trait, and recalled not having been flattered by Iorga's explicit comparison between his works and those of Pop. Objections to ''Sămănătorist'' attitudes were also being expressed outside the modernist circles. Romania's celebrated dramatist and comediographer
Ion Luca Caragiale Ion Luca Caragiale (; According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184 – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as I. L. Caragiale, was a Romanians, ...
, although himself a former ''Junimist'' somewhat close to traditionalist circles such as '' Vatra'', found ''Sămănătorist'' literature amusing, and made it a target of his sarcasm. The left-leaning Henri Sanielevici, a pioneer of sociological criticism, was also known for setting up in 1905 the
Galați Galați ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names) is the capital city of Galați County in the historical region of Western Moldavia, in eastern Romania. Galați is a port town on the river Danube. and the sixth-larges ...
-based review ''Curentul Nou'', which was in large part dedicated to anti-''Sămănătorism''. Among the main points of contention between Sanielevici and Iorga were the latter's didacticism and its application: Sanielevici claimed that, by endorsing Sadoveanu's early works, which depicted scenes of
adultery Adultery is extramarital sex that is considered objectionable on social, religious, moral, or legal grounds. Although the sexual activities that constitute adultery vary, as well as the social, religious, and legal consequences, the concept ...
and
rape Rape is a type of sexual assault involving sexual intercourse, or other forms of sexual penetration, carried out against a person without consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person ...
, Iorga had effectively contradicted his own views about morality in art. One of the most prominent conflicts was that between Ilarie Chendi and his former colleagues, even though Chendi was still being inspired by ''Sămănătorist'' aesthetics. Chendi and the "Chendists" (among them Zaharia Bârsan,
George Coșbuc George Coșbuc (; 20 September 1866 – 9 May 1918) was a Romanian poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best remembered for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life, its many travails but also its occasions for joy. In 19 ...
, Ion Gorun and Andrei Naum) are said to have been avoiding their ''Sămănătorist'' rivals at the Kübler, where the ''Sămănătorists'' only held session during mornings.


Legacy


Early influence

Among the first direct ideological successors of ''Sămănătorul'' was Iorga's own Democratic Nationalist Party. According to Veiga: "In this new phase, Iorga did not resort to very different arguments, but merely sought to render a more politically explicit expression to the literary aesthetics of ''Sămănătorul''." In Stanomir's account, the "avatars" represented by the Democratic Nationalist program and ''Neamul Românesc'' are, like ''Sămănătorul'', episodes in a "series marked by the recovery and valorization of the Eminescian assets". Despite its intention of addressing the peasantry, ''Sămănătorul'' is thought to have mostly appealed to
white-collar worker A white-collar worker is a person who performs professional service, desk, managerial, or administrative work. White-collar work may be performed in an office or similar setting. White-collar workers include job paths related to government, co ...
s. Călinescu, who contrasted its approach with the
elitism Elitism is the notion that individuals who form an elite — a select group with desirable qualities such as intellect, wealth, power, physical attractiveness, notability, special skills, experience, lineage — are more likely to be construc ...
and
professionalization Professionalization or professionalisation is a social process by which any tradesman, trade or occupation transforms itself into a true "profession of the highest integrity and competence." The definition of what constitutes a profession is often ...
advocated by ''Junimea'', concluded: " 'Semănătorul''primarily gathered writers of little culture, officers, young men who did not complete their education nd autodidacts .. The magazine made itself well liked by schoolteachers, provincial professors, Romanians outside the borders, and, in spreading throughout these environments, it educated the masses in view of accepting proper literature. It is true that the very same readers were left with horror for all things 'alien', 'unhealthy', but when did it ever happen that the multitudes reach a level required for the understanding of more refined art? One could say that ''Semănătorul'' and all the other like-minded publications assumed the thankless mission of promoting ''Junimist'' ideas all around, while renouncing the rt for art's sake principleat the risk of compromising themselves in front of literary historians less sympathetic to a magazine's goals." Sandqvist also notes that the main group to be attracted by traditionalism, particularly after the 1907 revolt, mostly comprised "underpaid classicists, historians, and lawyers who composed the nation's overstaffed bureaucracy". Before and during
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, ''Sămănătorism'' (like Poporanism) became a favorite target of ridicule for the young modernist or avant-garde writers and artists. In Sandqvist's opinion, this answered to "a certain exclusivism" of the two established currents, which, he notes, only served to provoke "an avant-garde reaction." One of the first avant-garde magazines to host articles specifically aiming the traditionalist currents was '' Simbolul'', published by
Tristan Tzara Tristan Tzara (; ; ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock, also known as S. Samyro; – 25 December 1963) was a Romanian and French avant-garde poet, essayist and performance artist. Also active as a journalist, playwright, literary and art critic, c ...
,
Ion Vinea Ion Vinea (born Ioan Eugen Iovanaki, sometimes Iovanache; April 17, 1895 – July 6, 1964) was a Romanian poet, novelist, journalist, literary theorist, and political figure. He became active on the Modernist literature, modernist scene during hi ...
and
Marcel Janco Marcel Janco (, ; common rendition of the Romanian language, Romanian name Marcel Hermann Iancu ; 24 May 1895 – 21 April 1984) was a Romanian and Israeli visual artist, architect and art theorist. He was the co-inventor of Dadaism and a leading ...
in 1912. Vinea in particular followed up with attacks on the ''Sămănătorist'' legacy by means of other publications, primarily ''
Facla ''Facla'' ("The Torch") was a Romanian political and literary magazine. ''Facla'' was published weekly in Bucharest between 13 March 1910 and 15 June 1913, daily from 5 October 1913 to 5 March 1914, weekly from 1 January to 7 August 1916 and daily ...
'' and '' Chemarea'', while his colleague in
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
, dramatist and future critic
Benjamin Fondane Benjamin Fondane () or Benjamin Fundoianu (; born Benjamin Wechsler, Wexler or Vecsler, first name also Beniamin or Barbu, usually abridged to B.; November 14, 1898 – October 2, 1944) was a Romanian and French poet, critic and existentialist ph ...
, vocally rejected ''Sămănătorists'' and Poporanists as "talentless writers" destined to be "forgotten". According to
Dan Grigorescu Dan or DAN may refer to: People * Dan (name), including a list of people with the name ** Dan (king), several kings of Denmark * Dan people, an ethnic group located in West Africa **Dan language, a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivoir ...
, ''Sămănătorul'' magazine and its affiliates had a paradoxical role as a "catalyst" for
Expressionism Expressionism is a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Northern Europe around the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it rad ...
, which manifested itself in Romanian art beginning in the 1910s, and which contemplated urban life as a tragic experience: "However odd it may seem, ''Sămănătorism'' created a favorable atmosphere for ideas akin to those which would lead to the revelation of Expressionist attitudes in the Occident." Some former ''Sămănătorists'' migrated toward Symbolist or post-Symbolist publications, as in the cases of traditionalist-inspired prose writers I. Dragoslav (who began collaborating with ''Insula'', a magazine published by Minulescu in 1912) and
Gala Galaction Gala Galaction (; the pen name of Grigore or Grigorie Pișculescu ; April 16, 1879—March 8, 1961) was a Romanian Orthodox clergyman, theologian, writer, journalist, left-wing activist, as well as a political figure of the People's Republic ...
(who joined poet
Tudor Arghezi Ion Nae Theodorescu (21 May 1880 – 14 July 1967) was a Romanian writer who wrote under the pen name Tudor Arghezi (. He is best known for his unique contribution to poetry and children's literature. Biography Early life He graduated from Sai ...
and socialist journalist
N. D. Cocea N. D. Cocea (common rendition of Nicolae Dumitru Cocea, , also known as Niculae, Niculici or Nicu Cocea; November 29, 1880 – February 1, 1949) was a Romanian journalist, novelist, critic and left-wing political activist, known as a major but c ...
in editing a succession of leftist and modernist reviews). By the 1920s, ''Sămănătorism'' had firmly established itself as a tendency in Romanian academia, and, according to Lucian Nastasă, held back innovative approaches and promoted conformity. Iorga himself, convinced that the ''Sămănătorist'' tenets were still applicable, set up a series of journals which advertised themselves as reincarnations of the defunct publication; in addition to '' Neamul Românesc''s literary supplement, these were: '' Drum Drept'' (1913–1947, merged with ''
Ramuri ''Ramuri'' ("Twigs" or "Branches") is a Romanian literary magazine put out from Craiova, the regional center of Oltenia region. Its first edition appeared from December 1905, and was closely tied to Nicolae Iorga's ''Sămănătorul'', published i ...
'' in 1914) and '' Cuget Clar'' (or ''Noul Sămănător'', "The New Sower", 1936–1940). Among the disciples who followed him in this attempt was the journalist
Pamfil Șeicaru Pamfil is a Romanian given name and surname. Notable people with the name include: * Pamfil Polonic (1858–1943), Romanian archaeologist and topographer * Pamfil Yurkevich Pamfil Danilovich Yurkevich (; 28 February 1826 – 16 October 1874) w ...
, noted for his more radical political opinions. The new venues prolonged ''Sămănătorism'' (or "neo-''Sămănătorism''") as a phenomenon of the
interwar period In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...
, that is after the Transylvania's union and the creation of
Greater Romania Greater Romania () is the Kingdom of Romania in the interwar period, achieved after the Great Union or the related pan-nationalist ideal of a nation-state which would incorporate all Romanian speakers.Irina LivezeanuCultural Politics in Greate ...
, based on Iorga's belief that the movement had survived its political context and was still relevant in setting cultural norms.Ghemeș, p.147 Cultural historian Ileana Ghemeș notes that Iorga's claim was debatable: "At the beginning of the 1920s, when modernist artistic formulas where progressively making their offensive ..felt, Nicolae Iorga was convinced that the '
anarchy Anarchy is a form of society without rulers. As a type of stateless society, it is commonly contrasted with states, which are centralized polities that claim a monopoly on violence over a permanent territory. Beyond a lack of government, it can ...
' could be quelled by restating the ethical and ethnic factors as ones subordinating the aesthetic. The times were nevertheless different, and the recovery of old ''Sămănătorist'' themes and motifs had less and less powerful effects with a public that was more visibly aligned with the European values of the day."


Interwar neo-''Sămănătorism'' and the far right

Among the main purposes of Iorga's new magazines was a campaign against its opponents on the cultural scene, particularly modernism and the new avant-garde. ''Drum Drept'', which stated its respect for the other surviving platforms of traditionalism (including the Poporanist ''Viaţa Românească''), was noted for its rejection of literary critics who viewed ''Sămănătorist'' aesthetics with dislike or reserve: Densusianu, Dragomirescu, Lovinescu. The anti-modernist campaign was taken to a new level by ''Cuget Clar'', noted for its claim that Lovinescu and Arghezi had together turned Romanian literature into what Iorga deemed "monstrosities". It heralded a nationalist offensive, which accused various Romanian writers, usually modernists, of having promoted and endorsed "
pornography Pornography (colloquially called porn or porno) is Sexual suggestiveness, sexually suggestive material, such as a picture, video, text, or audio, intended for sexual arousal. Made for consumption by adults, pornographic depictions have evolv ...
". At the time, Iorga and his followers were also stating that the local avant-garde had an alien, primarily Jewish, source. In the 1930s, the campaign against non-traditionalist literary works made its way into the pages of Iorga's own synthesis of literary history, ''Istoria literaturii româneşti contemporane'' ("The History of Contemporary Romanian Literature"), which partly consisted of excerpts from his earlier articles. In tandem, his rival Lovinescu was developing criticism of the neo-''Sămănătorist'' agenda into an ideology, which fused urban-themed modernism,
classical liberalism Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics and civil liberties under the rule of law, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited governmen ...
and literary impressionism with direct references to some of Maiorescu's art for art's sake principles. His essays described ''Sămănătorul'' and its descendants as factors preventing cultural development, and named ''Sămănătorism'' "the cemetery of Romanian poetry". Neo-''Sămănătorism'' had a special impact in
Bessarabia Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Budjak region covering the southern coa ...
, a former province of the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
which formed part of Greater Romania: soon after the political union, traditionalism acquired a special force, but its position was challenged by young writers who followed Symbolism or Expressionism ( Alexandru Robot among them). Alexandru Burlacu
"Poezia basarabeană: Arcadia în negativ (I)"
in '' Convorbiri Literare'', March 2002
Alexandru Burlacu
"Poezia basarabeană: Arcadia în negativ (II)"
in '' Convorbiri Literare'', April 2002
Although motivated by nationalist didacticism and supportive of ''Cuget Clar'', writer Nicolai Costenco and his ''
Viața Basarabiei ''Viaţa Basarabiei'' (Romanian for "Bessarabia's Life", ) is a Romanian-language periodical from Chişinău, Moldova. Originally a literary and political magazine, published at a time when the Bessarabia region was part of Romania, it was foun ...
'' review were more receptive of innovation, and even pioneered a symbiosis between the two cultural extremes. In tandem, echoes of ''Sămănătorist'' ideology were fueling some of the new movements aiming to reconfigure Romania's political scene. One such current was the version of
agrarianism Agrarianism is a social philosophy, social and political philosophy that advocates for rural development, a Rural area, rural agricultural lifestyle, family farming, widespread property ownership, and political decentralization. Those who adhere ...
represented, in a post-
land reforms Land reform (also known as agrarian reform) involves the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership, land use, and land transfers. The reforms may be initiated by governments, by interested groups, or by revolution. Lan ...
age, by the Peasants' Party and the
National Peasants' Party The National Peasants' Party (also known as the National Peasant Party or National Farmers' Party; , or ''Partidul Național-Țărănist'', PNȚ) was an Agrarianism, agrarian political party in the Kingdom of Romania. It was formed in 1926 throu ...
(both of which represented mutations of Poporanism). In tandem, the magazine was also a reference point for the
far right Far-right politics, often termed right-wing extremism, encompasses a range of ideologies that are marked by ultraconservatism, authoritarianism, ultranationalism, and Nativism (politics), nativism. This political spectrum situates itself on ...
or
fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...
movements which emerged during the late 1920s and early 1930s. The first among such groups was one formed around the poet-philosopher
Nichifor Crainic Nichifor Crainic (; pseudonym of Ion Dobre ; 22 December 1889, Bulbucata, Giurgiu County – 20 August 1972, Mogoșoaia) was a Romanian writer, editor, philosopher, poet and theologian famed for his traditionalist activities. Crainic was ...
, a sporadic contributor to Iorga's magazines, after he took over leadership of ''
Gândirea ''Gândirea'' ("The Thinking"), known during its early years as ''Gândirea Literară - Artistică - Socială'' ("The Literary - Artistic - Social Thinking"), was a Romanian literary, political and art magazine. Overview Founded by Cezar P ...
'' journal. Crainic's main innovation was in linking
ethnic nationalism Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity, with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnostate/ethnocratic) approach to variou ...
and
ethnocracy An ethnocracy is a type of political structure in which the state apparatus is controlled by a dominant ethnic group (or groups) to further that group's interests, power, dominance, and resources. Ethnocratic regimes in the modern era typically ...
with the notion that the
Romanian Orthodox Church The Romanian Orthodox Church (ROC; , ), or Romanian Patriarchate, is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox Christian denomination, Christian churches, and one of the nine patriarchates in the East ...
was the guarantee of Romanian identity, therefore discarding the implicit
secularism Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on naturalistic considerations, uninvolved with religion. It is most commonly thought of as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state and may be broadened ...
of ''Sămănătorist'' thought. Crainic's "Orthodoxist" views, Veiga notes, were closely related to the ideas of Russian ''émigré'' authors, from the Christian existentialism of Nikolai Berdyaev to the political radicalism of the Eurasianism, Eurasianist theorists. Defining his group's exact relation to ''Sămănătorism'' in one of his ''Gândirea'' articles, Crainic stated: "Over the land that we have learned to love from ''Sămănătorul'' we see arching itself the azure tarpaulin of the Orthodox Church. We see this substance of this Church blending in with the ethnic substance." His own literary style was seen as a more robust form of neo-''Sămănătorism'' by Lovinescu, and deemed "Orthodoxism with ''Semănătorist'' modulations" by literary historian Mircea A. Diaconu. In tandem, Crainic's rival on the far right, ''Trăirism, Trăirist'' philosopher Nae Ionescu, paid homages to ''Sămănătorul'' and Iorga's thought. The ''Gândirist'' claim to ''Sămănătorul'' lineage was received with reserve by Iorga. While ''Istoria literaturii româneşti contemporane'' included Crainic and his magazines with the "signs of improvement" from modernism, it also made a point of criticizing "Othodoxism" as unrealistic and undesirable, and openly stated a secularist approach to politics. On the other side, the lack of religious ideals in the literature promoted by Iorga's neo-''Sămănătorist'' magazines was discussed as a negative trait by Crainic and by Petre Pandrea, at the time a colleague and disciple of Nae Ionescu, who also noted that "the only exception" to this literary secularism was poet Vasile Voiculescu (published by both ''Cuget Clar'' and ''Gândirea'').Ghemeş, p.154 At the end of this succession was the Iron Guard organization, established and led by
A. C. Cuza Alexandru C. Cuza (8 November 1857 – 3 November 1947), also known as A. C. Cuza, was a Romanian far-right politician and economist. Early life Cuza was born in Iași into a family of mixed Armenian-Greek origins. He was the grandson of Moldav ...
's former disciple Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. Evolving into one of Romania's most notorious fascist groups, the Guard also took inspiration from several other sources, among which ''Sămănătorism'' was present: Codreanu, like his father Ion Zelea Codreanu, Ion Zelea, had been convinced by Iorga's views on the peasantry, and, according to Veiga, his propaganda campaigns were ultimately set up in accordance with ''Sămănătorist'' and, to a certain degree, Poporanist models. Like the defunct magazine, Codreanu and his followers referenced Eminescu or borrowed selectively from the ideas of 19th century conservatism or ''Junimism''. Codreanu is also known to have publicly praised Iorga for having first talked about "the Jewish peril". As another link with the ''Sămănătorists'', the Iron Guard developed a complex but often close relationship with Crainic's movement, as well as with Nae Ionescu, and supported with them the "Orthodoxist" program. Nevertheless, one other group of Guard affiliates, formed by writer Mircea Streinul and ''Iconar'' review, promoted an alternative rural-themed literature which took its distance from ''Sămănătorul''. While he had a degree of sympathy for Italian fascism and corporatism, Iorga viewed the Iron Guard as dangerous for Romania. Having parted with Cuza by the 1920s, he was briefly co-opted by the National Peasants' Party, went on to serve as Prime Minister of Romania, Premier, and, in the years leading up to World War II, joined those who advocated the Authoritarianism, authoritarian politics of Codreanu's bitter rival, Carol II of Romania, Carol II. His publicized criticism of Codreanu's methods and the Iron Guard leader's answer played a part in escalating the entire conflict, and, after Codreanu's killing on Carol's orders, made Iorga a potential target for the movement's violent retribution. In November 1940, during the interval when the Guard set up the National Legionary State, National Legionary regime (''see Romania during World War II''), Iorga became a victim of its assassins. This final action, was seen by Lovinescu, as well as by Stanomir and Veiga, as the equivalent of a political patricide.


World War II and communism

A new chapter of the clash between modernists and ''Sămănătorists'' was played out in the post-National Legionary era, following the Guard's clash with its nominal partner, ''Conducător'' Ion Antonescu, who set up a new authoritarian and Axis Powers, Axis-aligned regime (''see Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom''). Braving the censorship imposed on modernism by Antonescu's rule, and holding Lovinescu as their example, the Sibiu Literary Circle publicized its own critique of ''Sămănătorist'' ideals. Bogdan Crețu
"Tînărul Ion Negoițescu: devenirea unui mare critic (I)"
in '' Convorbiri Literare'', December 2007
Formulated as part of a manifesto drafted by young essayist Ion Negoițescu, it popularized the disparaging term ''pășunism'' (from ''pășune'', "pasture") to define neo-''Sămănătorist'' literature, and alleged that its exponents were Demagogy, demagogues who glorified peasant values without themselves leaving "the comfortable armchairs of the city". Shortly after the King Michael's Coup, Royal Coup of 1944, which brought Romania under Allies of World War II, Allied supervision, voices condemning ''Sămănătorism'' again made themselves heard publicly. Writing for the National Peasants' Party ''Dreptatea'' newspaper, literary critic Vladimir Streinu paid homage to Lovinescu, Densusianu and Dragomirescu for their previous role in bringing up for discussion the negative aspects of the current, and noted that their objections only had to be slightly adapted when reviewing "Orthodoxism" or other local nationalist currents. The use of the term ''Sămănătorist'' as a pejorative for the far right's aesthetics was also present in the discourse of Romanian-born modernist essayist and dramatist Eugène Ionesco, better known as a founding figure for the Theatre of the Absurd. Ionesco discussed interwar and wartime ''Sămănătorism'' and other traditionalist trends as symptoms of "a deep-seated intellectual affliction: the refusal of culture." The negative assessments were later endorsed by literary historian Georgeta Ene, who noted: "Iorga's magazines have drawn around them a significantly large 'constellation' of minor writers and have produced a dull, edulcorated, inconsistent literature, which only went as far as to obstinately perpetuate themes originating in ''Sămănătorism'', demonstrating their fundamental inability of aesthetically reaching the grandeur and sublime contained by Iorga's concept". According to Ileana Ghemeș: "Certainly, when compared with the modernist offensive, neo-''Sămănătorist'' literature could appear anchored in entirely antiquated clichés. The section of the reading public to which this literature was addressed, situated far from the debates between ideas addressing the Romanian culture's paths of development after [World War I], ill-prepared for receiving the innovative tendencies supported by the modernist publications which had a very limited degree of propagation in the world of Romanian villages, continued to enjoy those traditionalist literary productions furiously defended by Nicolae Iorga." New assessments of ''Sămănătorism'' and traditionalism followed the 1947–1948 imposition of a Communist Romania, Romanian communist regime. During its first stage, when they created a local Socialist realism in Romania, socialist realist current, the new cultural authorities imposed selective censorship on Romania's literary trends. There were, however, several meeting points with the aesthetics and policies promoted by ''Sămănătorul'' in matters of social and cultural discourse. Mihai Sorin Rădulescu
"Skansen și muzeele etnografice din București"
in ''
România Literară ''România Literară'' is a cultural and literary magazine from Romania. In its original edition, it was founded on 1 January 1855 by Vasile Alecsandri and published in Iași until 3 December 1855, when it was suppressed. The new series appeared ...
'', Nr. 36/2009
The partial liberalization allowed by the Nicolae Ceaușescu in the late 1960s made room for a new aesthetic reaction to both communist guidelines and neo-''Sămănătorism'', leading from the recovery of interwar modernism and Western influences to the birth of local postmodern literature and the ''Optzeciști'' generation. During the following decades, as Ceaușescu's ''July Theses'' confirmed national communism and opened the path of
isolationism Isolationism is a term used to refer to a political philosophy advocating a foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality an ...
, traditionalist and nationalist currents came to be officially reconsidered as ideological precedents.
Nicolae Manolescu Nicolae Manolescu (; 27 November 1939 – 23 March 2024) was a Romanian literary critic. Elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1997, he was upgraded to titular member in 2013. Life and career Manolescu was born in Râmnicu ...

preface to Z. Ornea, ''Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească'' (2009 edition)
(republished by Editura LiterNet, April 8, 2009; retrieved October 19, 2009)
However, the period also saw the publishing of Z. Ornea's influential overview of ''Sămănătorist'' ideology, first printed in 1970. It took critical distance from the trend, and, literary historian
Nicolae Manolescu Nicolae Manolescu (; 27 November 1939 – 23 March 2024) was a Romanian literary critic. Elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1997, he was upgraded to titular member in 2013. Life and career Manolescu was born in Râmnicu ...
suggests, thus stood against the renewed official endorsement for the ''Sămănătorist'' program. According to Ghemeș, the work also played an essential part in stimulating other such assessments on the current to be published in later decades, including Georgeta Ene's 1984 study of Iorga's neo-''Sămănătorist'' periodicals. A parallel recovery of ''Sămănătorist'' views is argued to have taken place in the Soviet Union's Moldavian SSR, formed from the bulk of the Bessarabia upon the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, 1940 breakup of Greater Romania. While the local population's cultural identification with Romania was officially discouraged and repressed during the adoption of Moldovenism, Moldovenist ideology, the rural aesthetics of ''Sămănătorism'' were adapted to the
proletarian The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian or a . Marxist philo ...
themes favored by official culture. Iulian Ciocan
" 'Colosul' cu picioare de lut (reflecţii despre proza lui Ion Druță după o relectură)"
in ''Contrafort'', Nr. 3–4/2003
This phenomenon was later described by literary critic Iulian Ciocan in terms of cultural synthesis: "''Sămănătorism'' was harnessed to the rumbling wagon of proletkultism. The original ideology was, of course, retouched. 'National specificity' was replaced with 'social class specificity', subordinated to 'proletarian internationalism', and the contrast between the idyllic village and the dehumanized city ..is supplanted by the animosity between the agricultural proletariat and the (petty) bourgeoisie. The working class, attenuating the rift between village and city, is called to the forefront." According to Ciocan, the reaction against this merger was less significant than in Romania, even though postmodern authors also emerged in the Moldavian SSR.


Post-communist developments

A critical evaluation of ''Sămănătorism'' and its impact was still an important factor in cultural and political developments after the Romanian Revolution of 1989 succeeded in toppling communism. During the cultural debates of the early 1990s, literary historian and social critic Adrian Marino argued that the European integration of post-Revolution Romania was being held back by issues relating to its "fundamental social structure" and "the psychology specific to all shut-in traditional communities", since: "A rural and inescapably ethnicist, conservative, isolationist, traditionalist, ''Sămănătorist'', populist Romania will never feel the need for 'Europe'. On the contrary, it will perceive in it a grave danger for the preservation of the 'national being'." In contrast to this situation, he placed his hopes for change with the young, educated and urban
middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...
familiarizing itself directly with Western culture or pre-communist cultural alternatives to ''Sămănătorism''. Similarly, writer and critic Gheorghe Crăciun negatively assessed that ''Sămănătorul'', alongside other defunct traditionalist publications, continued to dominate the standard reception of Romanian culture, particularly in matters of the Education in Romania, Romanian curriculum after the year 2000. Gheorghe Crăciun
"Cultura română de azi pe mîine"
in ''Observator Cultural'', Nr. 276, July 2005
State-sponsored education, he assessed, rated Coșbuc and Goga higher than their modernist counterparts Ion Barbu and George Bacovia, and, overall, favored the "parochial, peasant, epic,
ethnographic Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. It explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnography is also a type of social research that involves examining ...
and dazed-metaphysical" elements in Romanian literature. In contrast,
Valeriu Râpeanu Valeriu is a Romanian-language masculine given name, and may refer to: * Valeriu Cosarciuc (born 1955), Moldovan politician * Valeriu Cotea (1926–2016), Romanian oenologist * Valeriu Traian Frențiu (1875–1952), Romanian Greek Catholic bishop ...
listed ''Sămănătorul'' and ''Gândirea'' among the magazines with "essential contributions to asserting Romanian thought", and argued: "Speaking disparagingly about ''Sămănătorism'', and in particular by deeming ''Sămănătorism'' an obsolete, backward vision lacking any literary value, has even become an act by means of which one invokes one's own aesthetic high ground." Criticism of ''Sămănătorist'' traditionalism and its presence in various contexts was also voiced in later years. In one such case, historian Mihai Sorin Rădulescu argued that such tendencies had made their way into Romanian museology: "the Museum of the Romanian Peasant ..and the Village Museum both show Romanians in accordance with ''Semănătorist'' tradition". In a 2007 article critical of Romania's educational policy, textbook author Dumitriţa Stoica described as an anachronism the presence of topics on ''Sămănătorism'' within the standard Romanian Baccalaureate, baccalaureate examination, noting that such subjects had already been stripped from the regular curriculum. In his 2008 book ''Iluziile literaturii române'' ("Illusions in Romanian Literature"), literary historian and theorist Eugen Negrici linked the perpetuation of neo-''Sămănătorist'' guidelines with another nationalist current, protochronism, discussing them as equally negative phenomena: "Even though I feel no pleasure, I must admit that the ideological-literary movements of a ''Sămănătorist'' and Protochronist type appear to be durable, being strictly motivated by the ways in which Romanian society has evolved. They stand for both the protective impulse and the Compensation (psychology), compensatory one .. At the first sign of a major peril, we shall be hearing the magmatic rumble of myths rising up again from the deep".Dan C. Mihăilescu, "Iluziile unei bresle în derivă", in ''Idei în Dialog'', July 2008 Following the History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991), Soviet collapse of 1991 and the emergence of independent
Moldova Moldova, officially the Republic of Moldova, is a Landlocked country, landlocked country in Eastern Europe, with an area of and population of 2.42 million. Moldova is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. ...
within the Moldavian SSR's borders, the area witnessed a similar conflict of ideas. Discussing the phenomenon as an attempt to link the emergent Unification of Moldova and Romania, unionist movement with traditionalist aesthetics still present on the Literature of Moldova, Moldovan literary scene, Iulian Ciocan argued: "Unfortunately, the great majority of those Bessarabian ''Sămănătorists'' who 'cultivate' the masses are themselves uncultured persons. They view themselves as defenders of national values, but, in reality, nurture and exacerbate technophobia and autochthonism .. A large part of those who describe in their books the opposition between the (Moldovan) village and the (Russian diaspora, Russian) city, and who warn that Russification threatens our national identity have been faithfully serving the preceding Soviet proletkultism." A central element of the neo-''Sămănătorist'' literary trend in Moldova, Ciocan argues, is the importance it assigns to the traditionalist writer Ion Druţă.


Notes


References

*
Lucian Boia Lucian Boia (born 1 February 1944) is a Romanian historian. He is mostly known for his debunking of historical myths about Romania, for purging mainstream Romanian history of deformations arising from ideological propaganda, and as a fighter ag ...
, ''Istorie și mit în conștiința românească'', Humanitas publishing house, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2000. * Ioana Both, " 'Mihai Eminescu – Poète National Roumain.' Histoire et Anatomie d'un Mythe Culturel", i
''The New Europe College Yearbook 1997-1998''
New Europe College, Bucharest, 2000, pp. 9–70. *Mircea Braga, preface to Ion Minulescu, ''Într-un bazar sentimental'', Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1977, p. 5-17. *
George Călinescu George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
, ''Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent'',
Editura Minerva Editura Minerva is one of the largest publishing houses in Romania. Located in Bucharest, it is known, among other things, for publishing classic Romanian literature, children's books, and scientific books. The company was founded in Bucharest in ...
, Bucharest, 1986 *
Paul Cernat Paul Cernat (born August 5, 1972 in Bucharest) is a Romanian essayist and literary critic. He has a Ph.D. summa cum laude in philology. Cernat has been a member of the Writers' Union of Romania since 2009. As of 2013, he is lecturer of Romanian l ...
, ''Avangarda românească și complexul periferiei: primul val'', Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 2007. *Vasile Drăguț, Vasile Florea,
Dan Grigorescu Dan or DAN may refer to: People * Dan (name), including a list of people with the name ** Dan (king), several kings of Denmark * Dan people, an ethnic group located in West Africa **Dan language, a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivoir ...
, Marin Mihalache, ''Pictura românească în imagini'', Editura Meridiane, Bucharest, 1970. * Ileana Ghemeș
"Aspecte ale neosămănătorismului iorghist interbelic"
in the 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Alba Iulia, December 1 University of Alba Iulia'
''Philologica Yearbook''
2003, pp. 147–155 *Dan Grigorescu, ''Istoria unei generații pierdute: expresioniștii'', Editura Eminescu, Bucharest, 1980. *Ion Ilincioiu, preface to Vasile Niculae, Ion Ilincioiu, Stelian Neagoe, ''Doctrina țărănistă în România. Antologie de texte'', Editura Noua Alternativă & Social Theory Institute of the Romanian Academy, Bucharest, 1994, p. 7-35. *Rodica Lascu-Pop, "La revue littéraire ''Vieața Nouă'' et le symbolisme belge", in Jan Herman, Lieven Tack, Koenraad Geldof (eds.), ''Lettres ou ne pas lettres. Mélanges de littérature française de Belgique offerts à Roland Beyen'', Leuven University Press, Louvain, 2001, pp. 565–572. * Irina Livezeanu, "After the Great Union: Generational Tensions, Intellectuals, Modernism, and Ethnicity in Interwar Romania", i
''Nation and National Ideology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at New Europe College, Bucharest. April 6–7, 2001''
Babeș-Bolyai University Center for the Study of the Imaginary & New Europe College, 2002, Bucharest, pp. 110–127. *Adrian Marino, ''Pentru Europa. Integrarea României: Aspecte ideologice și culturale'', Polirom, Iaşi, 2005. *Lucian Nastasă, *
''Intelectualii și promovarea socială (pentru o morfologie a câmpului universitar)''
Editura Nereamia Napocae, Cluj-Napoca, 2003; e-book version at the Romanian Academy's George Bariț Institute of History *
''"Suveranii" universităților românești. Mecanisme de selecție și promovare a elitei intelectuale''
Vol. I, Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2007. ; e-book version at the George Bariţ Institute of History *John Neubauer, Marcel Cornis-Pope etc., "Part I. Publishing and Censorship", in ''History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe'', Vol. 3, John Benjamins, Amsterdam & Philadelphia, 2004, pp. 39–61. * Z. Ornea, **''Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească'', Editura Fundației Culturale Române, Bucharest, 1995. **''Junimea și junimismul'', Vol. II, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1998. * Tom Sandqvist, ''Dada East. The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire'', MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, 2006. * Ioan Stanomir, ''Spiritul conservator. De la Barbu Catargiu la Nicolae Iorga'', Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2008. *Francisco Veiga, ''Istoria Gărzii de Fier, 1919–1941: Mistica ultranaționalismului'', Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993. *
Tudor Vianu Tudor Vianu (; January 8, 1898 – May 21, 1964) was a Romanian literary criticism, literary critic, art critic, poet, philosopher, academic, and translation, translator. He had a major role on the reception and development of Modernism in Liter ...
, ''Scriitori români'', Vols. II-III, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1970–1971. *George Voicu
"The 'Judaisation' of the Enemy in the Romanian Political Culture at the Beginning of the 20th Century"
in the Babeș-Bolyai University's
Studia Judaica
', 2007, pp. 138–150


External links


Google Books: ''Sămănătorul'', Volume 4, 1905Google Books: ''Sămănătorul'', Volume 5, 1906Google Books: ''Sămănătorul'', Volumes 6–7, 1907Google Books: ''Sămănătorul'', Volumes 7–8, 1908
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