Sinclair BASIC

Sinclair BASIC is a dialect of the programming language BASIC used in the 8-bit home computers from Sinclair Research, Timex Sinclair and Amstrad. The Sinclair BASIC interpreter was written by Nine Tiles Networks Ltd.

Designed to run in only 1 KB of RAM, the system makes a number of decisions to lower memory usage. This led to one of Sinclair BASIC's most notable features, that the keywords were entered using single keystrokes; each of the possible keywords was mapped to a key on the keyboard, when pressed, the token would be placed into memory while the entire keyword was printed out on-screen. This made code entry easier whilst simplifying the parser.

The original ZX80 version supported only integer mathematics, which partially made up for some of the memory-saving design notes which had negative impact on performance. When the system was ported to the ZX81 in 1981, a full floating point implementation was added. This version was very slow, among the slowest BASICs on the market at the time, but given the limited capabilities of the machine, this was not a serious concern. The low speed was not mainly due to an inefficient interpreter though, it was an effect of the fact that 70-80% of the machine cycles were consumed by the video hardware. So the Z80 in the ZX81 clocked at 3.25 MHz was "in effect" running at well below 1 MHz from the perspective of the BASIC system.

Performance became a more serious issue with the release of the ZX Spectrum in 1982, which ran too slowly to make full use of the machine's new features. This led to an entirely new BASIC for the following Sinclair QL, as well as a number of 3rd-party BASICs for the Spectrum and its various clones. The original version continued to be modified and ported in the post-Sinclair era.

History

Clive Sinclair initially met with John Grant, the owner of Nine Tiles, in April 1979 to discuss a BASIC for Sinclair's new computer concept. Sinclair was inspired to make a new machine after watching his son enjoy their TRS-80, but that machine's £500 price tag appeared to be a serious limit on its popularity. He wanted a new kit that would expand on their previous MK14 and feature a built-in BASIC at the target price of £79.95. To meet this price point, the machine would ship with only 1 KB of RAM and 4 KB of ROM. Grant suggested using the Forth language instead, but the budget precluded this. Grant wrote the BASIC interpreter between June and July 1979, but the code initially came in at 5 KB and he spent the next month trimming it down. It was initially an incomplete implementation of the 1978 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Minimal BASIC standard with integer arithmetic only, termed 4K BASIC.

Even before the ZX80 was introduced in February 1980, the constant downward price-pressure in the industry was allowing the already inexpensive design to be further reduced in complexity and cost. In particular, many of the separate circuits in the ZX80 were re-implemented in a single uncommitted logic array from Ferranti, which allowed the price to be reduced to only £49.95 while increasing the size of the ROM to 8 KB. This work was assigned to Steve Vickers, who joined Nine Tiles in January 1980. Whilst Grant worked on the code interfacing with hardware, Vickers used the larger space to introduce floating-point arithmetic and a suite of trig functions, which were expected of any BASIC from that era, producing 8K BASIC. The initial version did not support the ZX Printer and had a bug in its square root function. Nine Tiles provided a new version to address these, but Sinclair was slow to include the new version in the ROMs. The new ROMs were eventually offered to owners of the earlier ZX80 as well.

When Sinclair lost the contest to build the BBC Computer, he moved ahead with plans to produce a low-cost colour-capable machine that emerged as the ZX Spectrum of April 1982. ROM space would once again be increased, this time to 16 KB. In keeping with his philosophy of making systems for the lowest possible expenditure, Sinclair wanted the absolute minimum changes to the existing 8K BASIC. Although Nine Tiles felt that something much better would be needed for the new machine, the schedule would not allow it, and yet another expansion of the original code was produced. Due to the RAM also being increased, to 48 KB, this version was known as 48K BASIC and eventually 48 BASIC with the introduction of the ZX Spectrum 128 at which time the 16 KB Spectrum was no longer sold and most existing ones in use had been upgraded to 48 KB. The new version was available near the end of 1981, but it was "depressingly slow" and "snail like". Additionally, as no prototypes were available until the end of the year, it lacked support for the new line of peripherals Sinclair was planning.

In February 1982, Nine Tiles began to have disagreements with Sinclair over owed royalties for the various manuals that Nine Tiles had produced. Around the same time, Vickers and his Sinclair counterpart, Richard Altwasser, left their respective companies to start the Jupiter Ace project. When the Spectrum was launched the ROM was still not complete, and although Nine Tiles continued working on it until April 1982, by that point 75,000 Spectrums had already been sold and the project was cancelled. The missing functionality was later added by additional code in the ZX Interface 1. After Nine Tiles and Sinclair went their own ways, several new versions of 48 BASIC were created.

In 1983, as part of introducing the Spectrum to the US market as the TS2068, Timex modified it as T/S 2000 BASIC. The new version was incapable of running many Spectrum programs due to the memory location of machine's functions moving. A similar, but somewhat more compatible version, was introduced as part of the Spanish Spectrum 128 of 1985, 128 BASIC.

Amstrad purchased Sinclair Research in 1986. As Sinclair had never owned the copyright to the language, Amstrad had to arrange a new license with Nine Tiles. Several other versions also appeared in this period as various extensions and clones of the Spectrum were introduced. These included +3 BASIC, BASIC64 and Timex Extended Basic.

As of 2015, interpreters exist for modern operating systems, and older systems, that allow Sinclair Basic to be used easily.

Description

Program editing

Like most home-computer BASICs, Sinclair BASIC is anchored around its line editor. When the machine is booted, it runs BASIC and displays an inverse video "K" at the bottom of the screen to indicate the entry point. When a line is entered and the key is pressed, it either runs immediately if it does not have a line number prefix, or clears the screen and performs the equivalent of a command, placing a ">" cursor after the line number in the most recently entered line.

In contrast to most machines of the era, the editor does not allow freeform editing at any point on the screen. Instead, when the user presses , the current line of code is copied back to the bottom of the screen. The user can move horizontally through this line using the cursor keys and commits their changes by pressing again. In contrast, on machines like the Commodore 64 or Atari 8-bit computers, the up and down keys can be used to move among the lines in the program and edit them in-place.

The most notable feature of the editor is that keywords are entered using single keystrokes. For instance, on the ZX81, the key on the keyboard would cause the entire keyword to be entered into the currently editing line. Once a keyword has been entered, the cursor changes to an "L" to indicate what follows will be interpreted as normal text. For instance, pressing again at this point would enter a single letter "P".

Keys generally had two separate keywords assigned to them one above it and one below. Pressing the key in "K" mode would enter the keyword above the key, like for . If the system was in "L" mode, one could return to "K" by pressing the shift key the systems did not initially support lowercase text, so the shift was not otherwise needed. The keywords below the keys required a second keystroke, , which put the editor into "function mode", changing the cursor to an "F". Entering common code often resulted in a significant number of keystrokes.

The system has the advantage of representing all multi-character keywords as a single character in memory, which was a significant savings in the early machines that shipped with only 1 KB of RAM. This single-character representation included multi-character items like . This has the added advantages of simplifying the runtime, as it can immediately determine whether a character in the source code is a keyword or text, and also means that keywords are never entered directly, meaning that one can, for instance, have a variable named "PRINT", as the system can determine that it is not the same as the keyword.

As the systems evolved and added new keywords, the entry system became increasingly difficult to use. 48 BASIC in the Spectrum required every key to host up to four keywords. Entering keywords was a time-consuming process of looking over the relatively small type on the keyboard for the appropriate key, and then correctly entering the multiple keystrokes needed to enter it properly. For instance, entering required one to type to access extended mode (later models include a separate key), keeping held down, and then and pressing . To improve the complex entry on the Spectrum, the keywords were colour-coded to indicate the required mode:
* : key only
* on the key itself: plus the key
* above the key: followed by the key
* below the key: followed by plus the key

This concept had run its course, and later machines running 128 BASIC (ZX Spectrum 128, +2, +3, +2A, and +2B) featured a more traditional editor where the user typed-in the keyword as individual characters, similar to other home computers of the era. This required a new tokenizer to convert the line into a similar internal format.

The resulting in-memory storage of the program was otherwise similar to Microsoft BASIC, in that only the keywords are presented as tokens, while non-keywords like string and numeric constants and variable names are left in their original typed-in format. However, that typed-in format was not ASCII, but an internal character code that contains both printable characters and the keyword tokens. Although portions of the table, the capital letters A to Z, for instance, are in the same order as in ASCII, their characters correspond to different numeric values, i.e. their code points' offset from zero is different from ASCII's offset of 65. Other characters, like punctuation, may have been moved about even more. The ZX Spectrum character set is the most prominent example of such a character code. Related computers running Sinclair BASIC used similar variants, e.g. the ZX80 or ZX81 character sets. All of these different but related character sets included Sinclair BASIC tokens.

Data types

One uncommon feature of Sinclair BASIC is the way it stores variables in memory. Typically, interpreters use a fixed-size entry to hold data, making it easy to scan the variable table. Due to the extremely limited memory of the ZX series, any wasted space had to be avoided, and this led to the use of a variable-length format. The data types included numbers stored in a 5-byte values, strings with a length and then the characters, and arrays of both of those types. The data was stored in the table itself, which contrasts with most BASICs of the era, where strings and array entries were stored in a separate heap.

The first byte for a variable entry always held the type in the first three bits, and the first character of the name in the next five bits. As was the case in most microcomputer dialects, A, A$, A() and A$() were all different variables and could store different values. Most variables could only have a single-character name; the exception are numeric variables (not arrays), where an alternate format held the first character of the name in those same five bits, but was then followed by additional characters ending with one with its high-bit set. Long variable names were whitespace-independent, and case-insensitive in later versions, so LET Number Of Apples = 5 is the same as LET numberofapples = 5 referred to the same variable.

The downside to this approach is that scanning the table to look up the value of a variable reference is more complex. In addition to testing whether the name matches using the subset of the first byte, if the entry is not the one that is being looked for, the type has to be read from the upper three bits and then the next location of a variable in storage calculated using the type. For instance, if the program encounters the variable "A" and the table starts with the entry for "B$", it fails to match A with B, then reads the type to see it is a string, and then has to read the following length byte and skip forward by that amount of bytes to find the next entry in the table. To make this somewhat easier, arrays also stored a two-byte length, so the entire structure could be skipped over more easily.

A unique feature was the "short float", or integer type. Any numeric variable could store either type, the storage itself did not change and used 5 bytes in either case. Integers were indicated by setting the exponent byte to zero, while floating-point values were stored with an excess-128 format exponent. This meant that it could not store zero as a float and lost one possible exponent magnitude. It also did not use any less memory, as the values were still 5-byte in memory. The advantage to this format is performance; the math library included tests to look for the zero exponent, and if it was seen, it would not attempt to perform various operations on the remaining 3 bytes under certain conditions.

Keyword details

The ZX81 8K BASIC used the shorter forms GOTO, GOSUB, CONT and RAND, whereas the Spectrum 48 BASIC used the longer forms GO TO, GO SUB, CONTINUE and RANDOMIZE. The ZX80 4K BASIC also used these longer forms but differed by using the spelling RANDOMISE. The ZX81 8K BASIC was the only version to use FAST, SCROLL, SLOW and UNPLOT. The ZX80 4K BASIC had the exclusive function TL$(); it was equivalent to the string operator in later versions.

Unique code points are assigned in the ZX80 character set, ZX81 character set and ZX Spectrum character set for each keyword or multi-character operator, i.e. <=, >=, <>, "" (tokenized on the ZX81 only), ** (replaced with ↑ on the Spectrum). These are expanded by referencing a token table in ROM. Thus, a keyword uses one byte of memory only, a significant saving over traditional letter-by-letter storage. This also meant that the BASIC interpreter could quickly determine any command or function by evaluating one byte, and that the keywords need not be ''reserved words'' like in other BASIC dialects or other programming languages, e.g., it is allowed to define a variable named PRINT and output its value with PRINT PRINT. This is also related to the syntax requirement that every line start with a command keyword, and pressing the one keypress for that command at the start of a line changes the editor from command mode to letter mode. Thus, variable assignment requires LET (i.e., LET A=1 not only A=1). This practice is also different from other BASIC dialects. Further, it meant that unlike other BASIC dialects, the interpreter needed no parentheses to identify functions; SIN x was sufficient, no SIN(x) needed (though the latter was allowed). The 4K BASIC ROM of the ZX80 had a short list of exceptions to this: the functions CHR$(), STR$(), TL$(), PEEK(), CODE(), RND(), USR() and ABS() did not have one-byte tokens but were typed in letter-by-letter and required the parentheses. They were listed as the INTEGRAL FUNCTIONS on a label above and to the right of the keyboard.

128 BASIC, present on ZX Spectrum 128, +2, +3, +2A, and +2B, stored keywords internally in one-byte code points, but used a conventional letter-by-letter BASIC input system. It also introduced two new commands:

* PLAY, which operated the 128k models' General Instrument AY-3-8910 music chip
* SPECTRUM, which switched the 128k Spectrum into a 48k Spectrum compatibility mode

The original Spanish ZX Spectrum 128 included four additional BASIC editor commands in Spanish, one of which was undocumented:

* EDITAR (to edit a line number or invoke the full screen string editor)
* NUMERO (to renumber the program lines)
* BORRAR (to delete program lines)
* ANCHO (to set the column width of the RS-232 device, but undocumented as the code was broken)

Unlike the LEFT$(), MID$() and RIGHT$() functions used in the ubiquitous Microsoft BASIC dialects for home computers, parts of strings in Sinclair BASIC are accessed by numeric range. For example, gives a substring starting with the 5th and ending with the 10th character of the variable a$. Thus, it is possible to replace the LEFT$() and RIGHT$() commands by simply omitting the left or right array position respectively; for example is equivalent to LEFT$(A$,5). Further, a$(5) alone is enough to replace MID$(A$,5,1).

Syntax

Keywords

On the 16K/48K ZX Spectrum (48 BASIC), there are 88 keywords in Sinclair BASIC, denoting commands (of which there are 50), functions and logical operators (31), and other keywords (16, including 9 which are also commands or functions):

Official versions

4K BASIC

''4K BASIC'' for ZX80 (so named for residing in 4  KiB read-only memory (ROM)), was developed by John Grant of Nine Tiles for the ZX80. It has integer-only arithmetic.
* System Commands: NEW RUN LIST LOAD SAVE
* Control Statements: GOTO IF THEN GOSUB STOP RETURN FOR TO NEXT CONTINUE
* Input/Output Statements: PRINT INPUT
* Assignment Statement: LET
* Other Statements: CLEAR CLS DIM REM RANDOMIZE POKE
* Functions: ABS CHR$ CODEPEEK RND STR$ TL$ USR

8K BASIC

''8K BASIC'' is the ZX81 BASIC (also available as an upgrade for the ZX80), updated with floating-point arithmetic by Steve Vickers, so named for residing in 8 KiB ROM.
* Statements: PRINT RAND LET CLEAR RUN LIST GOTO CONT INPUT NEW REM PRINT STOP BREAK IF STOP FOR NEXT TO STEP SLOW FAST GOSUB RETURN SAVE LOAD CLS SCROLL PLOT UNPLOT PAUSE LPRINT LLIST COPY DIM POKE NEW
* Functions: ABS SGN SIN COS TAN ASN ACS ATN LN EXP SQR INT PI RND FUNCTION LEN VALSTR$ NOT CODE CHR$ INKEY$ AT TAB INKEY$ PEEK USR

48 BASIC

''48 BASIC'' is the BASIC for the original 16/48 KB RAM ZX Spectrum (and clones), with colour and more peripherals added by Steve Vickers and John Grant. It resides in 16 KB ROM and began to be called 48 BASIC with the introduction of the ZX Spectrum 128 at which time the 16 KB Spectrum was no longer sold and most existing ones in use had been upgraded to 48 KB.

128 BASIC

''128 BASIC'' is the BASIC for the ZX Spectrum 128. It offers extra commands and uses letter-by-letter input.
* New commands: LOAD ! SAVE ! MERGE ! ERASE ! PLAY SPECTRUM

+3 BASIC

''+3 BASIC'' is the BASIC with disk support for the ZX Spectrum +3 and +2A.
* New commands: FORMAT COPY

T/S 2000 BASIC

''T/S 2000 BASIC'' is used on the Spectrum-compatible Timex Sinclair 2068 (T/S 2068) and adds the following six new keywords:
* DELETE deletes BASIC program line ranges.
* FREE is a function that gives the amount of free RAM. PRINT FREE will show how much RAM is free.
* ON ERR is an error-handling function mostly used as ON ERR GO TO or ON ERR CONT.
* RESET can be used to reset the behaviour of ON ERR. It was also intended to reset peripherals.
* SOUND controls the AY-3-8192 sound chip.
* STICK is a function that gives the position of the internal joystick (Timex Sinclair 2090).

BASIC64

''BASIC64'' by Timex of Portugal, is a software extension to allow better Basic programming with the 512×192 and dual display areas graphic modes available only on Timex Sinclair computers. This extension adds commands and does a complete memory remap to avoid the system overwriting the extended screen memory area. Two versions exist due to different memory maps – a version for TC 2048 and a version for T/S 2068 and TC 2068.
* PRINT # prints to a specific output channel.
* LIST # lists the program to a specific output channel.
* CLS* clears both display areas.
* INK* sets ink colour for both display areas
* PAPER* sets paper colour both display areas
* SCREEN$ selects the high / normal resolution modes.
* PLOT* plots a pixel and updates the drawing position.
* LINE draws a line from the previous PLOT position, supporting arc drawing
* CIRCLE* draws a circle or oval, depending on screen mode.

Timex Extended Basic

''Timex Extended Basic'' by Timex of Portugal is used on the Timex Computer 3256, adding ''TEC – Timex Extended Commands'' commands supporting the AY-3-8912 sound chip, RS-232 network and the 512x192 pixel high resolution graphic mode.
* RAM drive commands: LOAD! SAVE! CAT! MERGE! ERASE! CLEAR!
* RS-232 commands: FORMAT! LPRINT LLIST
* AY-3-8912 commands: BEEP!
* 512 x 192 resolution commands: SCREEN$ DRAW! PLOT! CIRCLE!

Other versions, extensions, derivatives and successors

Interpreters for the ZX Spectrum family

Several ZX Spectrum interpreters exist.
* '' Beta BASIC'' by Dr. Andy Wright, was originally a BASIC extension, but became a full interpreter.
* '' YS MegaBasic'' by Mike Leaman.
* ''ZebraOS'' by Zebra Systems in New York, a cartridge version of T/S 2000 BASIC that used the 512×192 screen mode.
*
Sea Change ROM
' by Steve Vickers and Ian Logan, modified by Geoff Wearmouth, a replacement ROM with an enhanced Sinclair BASIC.
*''Gosh Wonderful'' by Geoff Wearmouth, a replacement ROM that fixes bugs and adds a tokenizer, stream lister, delete and renumber commands.
* ''OpenSE BASIC'' (formerly SE BASIC) by Andrew Owen, a replacement ROM with bug fixes and many enhancements including ULAplus support, published as open source in 2011

Compilers for the ZX Spectrum family

Several ZX Spectrum compilers exist.
* '' HiSoft COLT Compiler'' (a.k.a. HiSoft COLT Integer Compiler)
* '' HiSoft BASIC'' (a.k.a. HiSoft BASIC Compiler), an integer and floating-point capable compiler
* ''Laser Compiler''
* ''Softek 'IS' Integer Compiler'' (successor to Softek Integer Compiler)
* ''Softek 'FP' Full Compiler''
* ''ZIP Compiler''

Derivatives and successors for other computers

* '' SuperBASIC'', a much more advanced BASIC dialect introduced with the Sinclair QL personal computer, with some similarities to the earlier Sinclair BASICs
* ''SAM Basic'', the BASIC on the SAM Coupé, generally considered a ZX Spectrum clone
* ''ROMU6'' by Cesar and Juan Hernandez – MSX
* ''Spectrum 48'' by Whitby Computers – Commodore 64
* ''Sparky eSinclair BASIC'' by Richard Kelsh, an operating system loosely based on ZX Spectrum BASIC – Zilog eZ80
* ''Sinbas'' by Pavel Napravnik – DOS
* ''Basic'' (and CheckBasic) by Philip Kendall – Unix
* ''BINSIC'' by Adrian McMenamin, a reimplementation in Groovy closely modelled on ZX81 BASIC – Java
* ''BASin'' by Paul Dunn, a complete Sinclair BASIC integrated development environment (IDE) based on a ZX Spectrum emulator – Windows
* ''SpecBAS'' (a.k.a. SpecOS) by Paul Dunn, an integrated development environment (IDE) providing an enhanced superset of Sinclair BASIC – Windows, Linux, Pandora, and Raspberry Pi
* ''ZX-Basic'' – Backwardly compatible, but enhanced compiler of Sinclair BASIC programs the ZX Spectrum, written in Python, freely available for Windows, Linux and Mac OS
* ''ZX-Basicus'' by Juan-Antonio Fernández-Madrigal, a synthesizer, analyzer, optimizer, interpreter and debugger of Sinclair BASIC 48K for PCs, freely downloadable for Linux and Windows.

See also

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Notes

References

Bibliography

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External links

Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming
The original 1982 manual by Steven Vickers (referenced above)

Sinclair ZX81 Basic Programming
: also by Vickers

The History of Sinclair BASIC
By Andrew Owen


Basic 64 user manual for Timex Computer 2048


A LL(1) grammar specification for parsing Sinclair BASIC 16/48K

{{BASIC

ZX Spectrum
Sinclair Research
BASIC interpreters
Discontinued BASICs
BASIC programming language family
ZX80
ZX81