This article covers the history of

Ottoman architecture Ottoman architecture is an architectural style or tradition that developed under the Ottoman Empire over a long period, undergoing some significant changes during its history. It first emerged in northwestern Anatolia in the late 13th century an ...

from the 19th century up to the end of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. The 19th century saw an increase of architectural influences from Western Europe in Ottoman culture. The

Ottoman Baroque style Ottoman Baroque architecture, also known as Turkish Baroque, was a period in Ottoman architecture in the 18th century and early 19th century which was influenced by European Baroque architecture. Preceded by the changes of the Tulip Period and Tul ...

, which emerged in the 18th century, continued to be evident in the early 19th century under the reigns of

Selim III Selim III (; ; was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler, he was eventually deposed and imprisoned by the Janissaries, who placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV (). A group of a ...

and

Mahmud II Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...

Empire style The Empire style (, ''style Empire'') is an early-nineteenth-century design movement in architecture, furniture, other decorative arts, and the visual arts, representing the second phase of Neoclassicism. It flourished between 1800 and 1815 duri ...

and Neoclassical motifs also began to be introduced around this time. Subsequently, a trend towards

eclecticism Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories i ...

became prominent in many types of buildings, particularly during the

Tanzimat The (, , lit. 'Reorganization') was a period of liberal reforms in the Ottoman Empire that began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. Driven by reformist statesmen such as Mustafa Reşid Pash ...

period (1839 and after), as exemplified by the Dolmabaçe Palace and many mosques of this era designed by architects of the

Balyan family The Balyan family (; ) was a prominent Armenians, Armenian family in the Ottoman Empire of court architects in the service of List of Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman sultans and other members of the Ottoman dynasty during the 18th and 1 ...

. In the late 19th century, an Orientalist fashion mixed neo-Ottoman and other traditional Islamic architectural elements into new buildings, seen in many of the designs by

Alexandre Vallaury Alexandre Vallaury (1850–1921) was a France, French-Ottoman Empire, Ottoman architect who established architectural education in the Ottoman Empire at the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, School of Fine Arts in Constantinople. Nicknamed "archi ...

Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( ; ; ), Jugendstil and Sezessionstil in German, is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and ...

also appeared towards the end of the century, promoted most notably by

Raimondo D'Aronco Raimondo Tommaso D’Aronco (1857–1932) was an Italian architect renowned for his building designs in the style of Art Nouveau. He was the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Istanbul for 16 years. Early years D� ...

. The last decades of the Ottoman Empire saw the development of a new architectural style that was more rigorously neo-Ottoman and revivalist, often known as the

First National Architectural Movement The First national architecture movement (), also referred to in Turkey as the National architecture Renaissance (), or Turkish Neoclassical architecture (), was a period of Turkish architecture that was most prevalent between 1908 and 1930 but ...

, by architects such as

Mimar Kemaleddin Ahmed Kemaleddin (; 187013 July 1927), widely known as Mimar Kemaleddin (''Architect Kemaleddin'') was a Turkish architect, and one of the leading figures of the first national architectural movement, First National architectural movement, alo ...

and Vedat Tek.

Background

Following the Ottoman conquest of

Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...

(present-day

Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...

) in 1453, Ottoman architecture evolved progressively into what became the classical Ottoman style, which was consolidated in the 16th century under the long tenure of

Mimar Sinan Mimar Sinan (; , ; – 17 July 1588) also known as Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ, ("Sinan Agha (title), Agha the Grand Architect" or "Grand Sinan") was the chief Ottoman Empire, Ottoman architect, engineer and mathematician for sultans Suleiman ...

as imperial architect. The classical style remained during the 17th century but became less innovative and more repetitive. Cultural shifts in the early 18th century, particularly during the Tulip Period (), triggered a shift away from this style, as the Ottoman ruling class opened itself to

Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...

influence. New decorative trends and new building types became evident in the architecture of this era. During the 1740s, a new

emerged in its full expression and rapidly grew dominant in imperial architecture. This signaled the final end to the classical style. After the Tulip Period, Ottoman architecture began to openly imitate European architecture, so that architectural and decorative trends in Europe were mirrored in the Ottoman Empire. Changes were especially evident in the ornamentation of new buildings rather than in their overall forms, though new building types were eventually introduced from European influences as well.

Last Ottoman Baroque monuments (early 19th century)

Some of the last clearly Ottoman Baroque monuments to be constructed were those built under

() and

(). At the end of the 18th century, one of Selim III's major projects was rebuilding the

Eyüp Sultan Mosque The Eyüp Sultan Mosque () is a mosque in Eyüp district of Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque complex includes a mausoleum marking the spot where Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, Ebu Eyüp el-Ansari (Abu Ayyub al-Ansari), the standard-bearer and companion of the ...

between 1798 and 1800. Other family members and high state officials built new monuments in the same area around this time, such as Mihrişah Sultan's charitable complex (1792–1796) and the Tomb of Şah Sultan (1800–1801). In other trends, Selim III established the monumental

barracks Barracks are buildings used to accommodate military personnel and quasi-military personnel such as police. The English word originates from the 17th century via French and Italian from an old Spanish word 'soldier's tent', but today barracks ar ...

as a new and prominent type of building in Istanbul's urban landscape. This took place in conjunction with Selim III's reform attempts, the '' Nizam-i Cedid'' ("New Order"), which among other things created a new Western-style army. Selim III built a barracks building for his "New Artillery" regiment in

Tophane Tophane () (lit. "Armoury") is a quarter in the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Turkey, running downhill from Galata to the shore of the Bosphorus where it joins up with Karaköy to the southwest and Fındıklı to the northeast. In the Ottoman ...

, near the later site of the

Nusretiye Mosque The Nusretiye Mosque () is an ornate mosque located in Tophane district of Beyoğlu, Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1823–1826 by Sultan Mahmud II. Historical background The mosque was commissioned by Mahmud II and built between 1822 and 1 ...

. This was destroyed by fire in 1823 and rebuilt by Mahmud II in 1824. The

Selimiye Barracks Selimiye Barracks (), also known as Scutari Barracks, is a Turkish Army barracks located in Selimiye in the Üsküdar district on the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey. It was originally built in 1800 by Sultan Selim III for the soldiers of the ...

was built in southern

Üsküdar Üsküdar () is a municipality and district of Istanbul Province, Turkey. Its area is 35 km2, and its population is 524,452 (2022). It is a large and densely populated district on the Anatolian (Asian) shore of the Bosphorus. It is border ...

between 1800 and 1803. It was rebuilt in stone by Mahmud II between 1825 and 1828 and further expanded to its current form by Abdulmecid between 1842 and 1853. Istanbul Selimiye Mosque Interior 6549

The construction of the Selimiye Barracks was followed by the construction of the nearby Selimiye Mosque complex between 1801 and 1805. The complex included the usual mosque dependencies, but more innovative was the construction of factories, shops, and modern facilities such as a printing house, all arranged to form the nucleus of a new neighbourhood with a regular grid of streets. The mosque incorporates a wide imperial pavilion (a small lounge or residence for the sultan) that stretches across its front façade, a feature that appeared in the 18th century (e.g. Beylerbeyi Mosque) but which was further refined here. The prayer hall largely retains a traditional single-domed layout. Naksidil Valide Sultan Mausoleum 9293

From Mahmud II's time, the Tomb of

Nakşidil Sultan Nakşidil Sultan (; "''embroidered on the heart''"; also Nakşi Sultan; 1761 – 22 August 1817) was a consort of Sultan Abdul Hamid I, and '' Valide Sultan'' to their son Mahmud II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Background Origins According t ...

(1818) is one of the finest Ottoman Baroque tombs and one of the best examples of late Baroque monuments. It also incorporates some influence from the

, which was being introduced in Istanbul around this time. Some of the Baroque mosques from this period feature elliptical domes, such as the small single-domed Küçük Efendi (or Fevziye) Mosque in Istanbul (1825) and the multi-domed Kapı Mosque in

Konya Konya is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium. In 19th-century accounts of the city in En ...

(1812).

The Nusretiye Mosque, Mahmud II's imperial mosque, was built between 1822 and 1826 at Tophane. This mosque was the first major imperial work by Krikor Balian. It is sometimes described as belonging to the Empire style, but is considered by art historians Godfrey Goodwin and

Doğan Kuban Doğan Kuban (10 April 1926 – 22 September 2021) was a Turkish architectural historian. Biography Kuban was born in Paris. He received his bachelor's degree in architecture from Istanbul Technical University (ITU). Shortly thereafter he start ...

as one of the last Ottoman Baroque mosques. Another art historian, Ünver Rüstem, describes the style as moving away from the Baroque and towards an Ottoman interpretation of

Neoclassicism Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative arts, decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiq ...

. Goodwin also describes it as the last in a line of imperial mosques that started with the Nuruosmaniye (1748–1755). Despite its relatively small size the mosque's tall proportions creates a sense of height, marking the culmination of a trend that likely began with the

Ayazma Mosque The Ayazma Mosque () is a mosque in the neighbourhood of Üsküdar in Istanbul, Turkey. It stands on a hillside overlooking the Bosphorus. It was commissioned by Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III and built between 1757 and 1761. It is an example of the ...

(1757–1761).

Empire style (early–mid 19th century)

During the reign of

(r. 1808–1839) the

, a Neoclassical style which originated in France under

Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

, was also introduced into Ottoman architecture. This marked the trend towards increasingly direct imitation of Western styles, particularly from France. The purest example of the Empire style in Istanbul is the

Tomb of Mahmud II The Tomb of Mahmud II is a tomb built by the Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I, Abdulmecid for his father Mahmud II in Istanbul, where other sultans and members of the Ottoman dynasty, Ottoman Dynasty were later buried. Completed in 1840, the tomb is l ...

(1840), an imposing octagonal monument designed by Ohannes and Bogos Dadyan. Other examples are the Cevri Kalfa School on

Divanyolu Street The ''Mese'' ( ''i Mése dós', lit. "Middle treet) was the main thoroughfare of ancient Constantinople and the scene of many Byzantine imperial processions. Its ancient course is largely followed by the modern ''Divan Yolu'' ("Road to the Divan ...

, dated to 1819, and the tomb and library complex of

Hüsrev Pasha Hüsrev (), also spelt Hüsref, is a Turkish language, Turkish given name derived from the Persian language, Persian name "Khosrow (word), Khusraw", having the same meaning. It is related to the Bengali language, Bengali given name "Khasru (disambig ...

in the Eyüp neighbourhood, dated to 1839. The upper section of the Tower of Justice or Divan Tower in

Topkapı Palace The Topkapı Palace (; ), or the Seraglio, is a large museum and library in the east of the Fatih List of districts of Istanbul, district of Istanbul in Turkey. From the 1460s to the completion of Dolmabahçe Palace in 1856, it served as the ad ...

was also rebuilt in its current form under Mahmud II in 1820, adopting

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...

and

Palladian Palladian architecture is a European architectural style derived from the work of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). What is today recognised as Palladian architecture evolved from his concepts of symmetry, perspective and ...

elements. Empire style motifs, such as

colonettes A colonnette is a small slender column, usually decorative, which supports a beam or lintel. Colonnettes have also been used to refer to a feature of furnishings such as a dressing table and case clock, and even studied by archeologists in Roma ...

and composite capitals, continued to be widely used throughout the 19th century alongside other styles. The Hırka-i Şerif Mosque, built between 1847 and 1851 under

Abdülmecid I Abdülmecid I (, ; 25 April 182325 June 1861) was the 31st sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He succeeded his father Mahmud II on 2 July 1839. His reign was notable for the rise of nationalist movements within the empire's territories. Abdülmecid's ...

(r. 1839–1861), is a unique religious building in Ottoman architecture which was designed to house the Holy Mantle (''Hırka-i Şerif''), a relic of Muhammad. (Another mantle and relic, the ''Hırka-i Saadet'', is housed in Topkapı Palace.) Because of this special function, the mosque has an unusual design. It was built and decorated in a purely Empire or Neoclassical style. It is fronted by an imperial pavilion with a somber Neoclassical façade and slender minarets that look like

Corinthian columns The Corinthian order (, ''Korinthiakós rythmós''; ) is the last developed and most ornate of the three principal classical orders of Ancient Greek architecture and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order, which was the earliest, ...

. This section leads to an octagonal mosque lit by large windows, with a mihrab and minbar fashioned of dark grey marble. The sacred relic is kept inside another smaller octagonal building directly behind the mosque. File:Cevri_Kalfa_School_DSCF2037.jpg, Cevri Kalfa School in Istanbul (1819) File:20180115_Topkapi_8025_(39451439184).jpg, Tower of Justice in Topkapı Palace (1820) File:Husrev_Pasha_Tomb_complex_Eyup_DSCF7789.jpg, Tomb of Hüsrev Pasha in Eyüp, Istanbul (1839) File:2013-01-02_Istanbul_89.jpg, Tomb of

in Istanbul (1840) File:Graveyard_at_the_Mausoleum_of_Sultan_Mahmud_II_-_interior_-_dome_-_P1030830.JPG, Interior of the Tomb of Mahmud II

Eclecticism (19th century)

The

reforms began in 1839 under

() and sought to modernize the Ottoman Empire with Western-style reforms. In the architectural realm, this period resulted in the dominance of European architects and of Ottoman architects with European training. Among these, the Balyans, an

Ottoman Armenian Armenians were a significant minority in the Ottoman Empire. They belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, or the Armenian Protestant Church, each church serving as the basis of a millet. They played a ...

family, succeeded in dominating imperial architecture for much of the century. They were joined by European architects such as the Fossati brothers, William James Smith, and

. After the early 19th century, Ottoman architecture was characterized by an

eclectic architecture Eclecticism in architecture is a 19th and 20th century architectural style in which a single piece of work incorporates eclecticism, a mixture of elements from previous historical styles to create something that is new and original. In architec ...

that mixed or borrowed from multiple styles. The Balyans, for example, commonly combined Neoclassical or Beaux-arts architecture with highly eclectic decoration. As more Europeans arrived in Istanbul, the neighbourhoods of

Galata Galata is the former name of the Karaköy neighbourhood in Istanbul, which is located at the northern shore of the Golden Horn. The district is connected to the historic Fatih district by several bridges that cross the Golden Horn, most nota ...

and

Beyoğlu Beyoğlu (; ) is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Istanbul Province, Istanbul Province, Turkey. Its area is 9 km2, and its population is 225,920 (2022). It is on the European side of Istanbul, Turkey, separated from the o ...

(or Pera) took on very European appearances.

Palaces

Dolmabahçe Palace

The

Dolmabahçe Palace Dolmabahçe Palace ( ) is a 19th-century imperial palace located in Istanbul, Turkey, along the European shore of the Bosporus, which served as the main administrative center of the Ottoman Empire from 1856 to 1887 and from 1909 to 1922. Histor ...

was constructed for Sultan Abdülmecid between June 13, 1843, and June 7, 1856. Construction was finished by 1853 or 1854, but the sultan did not move into the palace until 1856. It replaced the Topkapı Palace as the official imperial residence of the sultan. It was built on a site along the

Bosphorus The Bosporus or Bosphorus Strait ( ; , colloquially ) is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul, Turkey. The Bosporus connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and forms one of the continental bo ...

that had been previously occupied by the old

Beşiktaş Beşiktaş () is a district and municipality of Istanbul Province, Turkey. Its area is 18 km2 and its population is 175,190 (2022). It is located on the European shore of the Bosphorus strait. It is bordered on the north by Sarıyer and ...

Palace and its gardens, which had been used and expanded by various sultans since the 17th century until its demolition to make room for the current palace. Dolmabahçe Palace was designed by Garabet Balyan, though his son Nikogos was known to collaborate with him and may have designed the Ceremonial Hall and the palace gates. The palace consists mainly of a single building with monumental proportions. These characteristics represented a radical rejection of traditional Ottoman palace design. The style of the palace is fundamentally Neoclassical but is characterized by a highly eclectic decoration that mixes Baroque motifs with other styles. The monumental gates that lead to the palace grounds are especially ornate and distinguished by highly sculptural and eclectic decoration in stone, marble, and plaster. The decoration of the palace goes beyond the usual eclecticism seen in contemporary Western architecture, as it mixes multiple different styles in the same building. It lacks some consistency and unity as a result. Aside from the European-inspired design, the organization of the palace still reflected a traditional Ottoman division between the

selamlık The Selamlik, Selamluk or Sélamlique (, {{langx, tr, Selamlık) was the portion of an Ottoman palace or house reserved for men. It was also the portion of the household where guests might be received and entertained, similar to the '' andron'' o ...

(official section), which occupies the southwestern wing of the palace, and the

harem A harem is a domestic space that is reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A harem may house a man's wife or wives, their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic Domestic worker, servants, and other un ...

(private section), which occupies the northeastern wing. The two wings of the palace are separated by the Ceremonial Hall, a grand domed hall. The different sections of the palace are also centred around cruciform halls, another feature retained from the Ottoman tradition. File:Treasury Gate, Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, Turkey 001.jpg, Treasury Gate File:Dolmabahçe Palace on January 30th, 2015.jpg, External façade of the selamlık File:Estambul dolmabahce12.jpg, Crystal Staircase in the selamlik section of the palace File:Dolmabahçe Sarayı - panoramio.jpg, External façade of the Ceremonial Hall File:Turkey (68739605).jpeg, Interior of the Ceremonial Hall

Other residences and pavilions

Many other palaces, residences, and pleasure pavilions were built in the 19th century, most of them in the Bosphorus suburbs of Istanbul. The small single-story Ihlamur Pavilion, built in 1849–1855, and the slightly larger two-story Küçüksu Pavilion, built in 1856, were both designed by Nikogos Balyan and feature very ornate façades. They were originally used as recreational pavilions or resting areas and did not contain bedrooms, though bedrooms were later added to the Küçüksu Pavilion when it was used to house foreign dignitaries. The Mecidiye Kiosk in the Fourth Court of Topkapı Palace is another small single-story structure in a similar style, designed by Sarkis Balyan and built in 1840. The

Beylerbeyi Palace The Beylerbeyi Palace () is a 19th-century Ottoman palace located in the Beylerbeyi neighborhood of Istanbul’s Üsküdar district, on the Asian shore of the Bosporus. Commissioned by Sultan Abdulaziz and completed between 1861 and 1865, the ...

, along the shore of the Bosphorus, was designed by Sarkis Balyan and his brother Agop Balyan in a Neoclassical style with eclectic and Orientalist interior decoration. It was completed in 1864–1865 and replaced an earlier structure by Krikor Balyan from the reign of Mahmud II. The palace was used as the sultan's summer residence and as a guest residence for foreign dignitaries. Like Dolmabahçe Palace, its interior is divided into selamlık and harem sections separated by a large central hall. Soon after this, the

Çırağan Palace Çırağan Palace (), a former Ottoman palace, is now a five-star hotel in the Kempinski Hotels chain. It is located on the European shore of the Bosporus, between Beşiktaş and Ortaköy in Istanbul, Turkey. The Sultan Suite, billed at pe ...

was commissioned by Sultan Abdülalziz (r. 1861–1876) and completed in 1872. Nikogos or Sarkis Balyan was probably responsible for the design. It has a severe Neoclassical appearance except for the decoration, which is Orientalist and includes carved

openwork In art history, architecture, and related fields, openwork or open-work is any decorative technique that creates holes, piercings, or gaps through a solid material such as metal, wood, stone, pottery, cloth, leather, or ivory. Such techniques ha ...

in the windows. The palace was destroyed by fire in 1910, leaving only the seaside façade standing which was later integrated into a hotel in 1987. File:Mecidiye_Kosku_Topkapi_Istanbul_2007_Pano.jpg, Mecidiye Kiosk in Topkapı Palace (1840) File:Ihlamur_Palace_Ceremonial_House_01.jpg, Ihlamur Pavilion, Istanbul (1849–1855) File:KüçüksuPavilion01.JPG, Küçüksu Pavilion, Istanbul (1856) File:贝勒贝伊宫_-_panoramio.jpg,

, Istanbul (completed 1864–1865) File:Beylerbeyi-palace-interior.jpg, Interior of Beylerbeyi Palace File:Ciragan_Palace_Hotel_-_panoramio.jpg,

, Istanbul (1872)

Yıldız Palace

One of the last major Ottoman imperial creations was the

Yıldız Palace Yıldız Palace (, ) is a vast complex of former imperial Ottoman Empire, Ottoman pavilions and villas in Beşiktaş, Istanbul, Turkey, built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was used as a residence by the List of sultans of the Ottoman ...

, a sprawling complex of buildings set amidst a large wooded park (

Yıldız Park Yıldız Park () is a historical, urban park in Beşiktaş district of Istanbul, Turkey. It is one of the largest public parks in Istanbul. The park is located in Yıldız, Beşiktaş, Yıldız quarter between the palaces of Yıldız Palace, Yı ...

) on a hillside overlooking the Bosphorus. The area had been a private garden of the sultans since the 17th century and was known as the Çırağan garden during the Tulip Period. Selim III, Mahmud II, Abdülmecid and Abdülaziz each erected various pavilions here, but it was

Abdülhamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a period of decline wit ...

(r. 1876–1909) who transformed it into an imperial palace, residence, and seat of government. After the massive single-block palace buildings like Dolmabahçe, the Yildiz Palace returned to the older tradition of creating many different structures with no overarching site plan. Unlike Topkapı Palace though, the structures are not linked together around courtyards and they instead resemble a kind of rural mountain village. Moreover, the palace and inner gardens were separated from the adjacent wooded park which was open to the public. One part of the palace complex formed its own private harem section. The most imposing structure in the center of the palace is the ''Büyük Mabeyn Köşk'' erected by Abdülaziz and designed by Agop and Sarkis Balyan. It has a traditional ''divanhane'' layout typical of earlier Ottoman pavilions and a Neoclassical design with Orientalist decoration similar to the contemporary Çırağan Palace. The many subsequent buildings built under Abdülhamid II are less monumental and many of them were designed by Raimond D'Aronco in an

style. One of the largest and most interesting is the Şale or Chalet Pavilion, so-called because it was built to resemble a

Swiss Swiss most commonly refers to: * the adjectival form of Switzerland * Swiss people Swiss may also refer to: Places * Swiss, Missouri * Swiss, North Carolina * Swiss, West Virginia * Swiss, Wisconsin Other uses * Swiss Café, an old café located ...

mountain

chalet A chalet (pronounced in British English; in American English usually ), also called Swiss chalet, is a type of building or house, typical of the Alpine region in Europe. It is made of wood, with a heavy, gently sloping roof and wide, well-su ...

in the

Alps The Alps () are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. ...

. The palace complex also included a

theatre Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors to present experiences of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a Stage (theatre), stage. The performe ...

, a

greenhouse A greenhouse is a structure that is designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of the environment inside. There are different types of greenhouses, but they all have large areas covered with transparent materials that let sunlight pass an ...

, stables, and an official mosque, the Hamidiye Mosque. Several other pavilions stand in the park outside the private palace enclosure such as the Malta Kiosk and the Çadır Kiosk, both designed by the Balyans under Sultan Abdülaziz. The mosque, designed by Sarkis Balyan for Abdülhamid II and dated to 1886, has no resemblance at all to the traditional form of Ottoman mosques and looks more like a church. It is decorated with

neo-Gothic Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half of the 19th century ...

and Orientalist details, some of which recall the decoration of the earlier Çırağan Palace and the Pertevniyal Valide Mosque (discussed below). File:İstanbul_5717.jpg, ''Büyük Mabeyn Köşkü'', built during reign of Abdülaziz (r. 1861–1876) File:Yildiz_Palace_and_Park_8162.jpg, Chalet Pavilion, built by Abdülhamid II (multiple building phases) File:Istanbul_Yildiz_Palace_and_Park_May_2014_8168.jpg, The "Mother-of-Pearl" Hall inside the Chalet Pavilion File:Yildiz_Palace_and_Park_8198.jpg, Malta Kiosk in

File:Yildiz_Palace_and_Park_8208.jpg, Çadir Kiosk in Yıldız Park File:Istanbul_asv2021-10_img15_Yıldız_Hamidiye_Mosque.jpg, Hamidiye Mosque (1886), the official mosque of the palace File:Istanbul_Yildiz_Hamidiye_mosque_oct_2019_7252.jpg, Interior of Hamidiye Mosque: view towards the rear and the imperial balconies

Mosques

After the Nusretiye Mosque, one of the earliest mosques designed by the Balyan family is the Küçuk Mecidiye Mosque in Istanbul, near Yıldız, which was built in 1848. At the same time as the Dolmabahçe Palace was being built, Garabet and Nikogos Balyan also built the nearby

Dolmabahçe Mosque The Dolmabahçe Mosque () is a baroque waterside mosque in Kabataş, Beyoğlu, Kabataş in the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Turkey, close to the Dolmabahçe Palace. It was commissioned by Queen Mother Bezmiâlem Sultan, Bezmialem Valide Sultan ...

, commissioned by Bezmi'alem Valide Sultan in 1853 but finished after her death by her son Abdülmecid in 1855. The mosque is Neoclassical in style and distinguished by its minarets which are shaped like Corinthian columns up to their balcony levels. It is a single-domed building fronted by a large and imposing imperial pavilion. The mosque's upper windows are arranged in a semi-circular wheel-like design under the arches that support the dome. The

Ortaköy Mosque Ortaköy Mosque (), formally the Büyük Mecidiye Camii () in Beşiktaş, Istanbul, Turkey, is a mosque situated at the waterside of the Ortaköy pier square, one of the most popular locations on the Bosphorus. It was commissioned by the Ottom ...

(or Büyük Mecidiye Mosque), located further northeast on a small promontory along the Bosphorus shore, has a very similar design that is considered more successful. The mosque was once again designed by Garabet Balyan and his son Nikogos and was built between 1854 and 1856 – although Goodwin and Kuban cite the year of construction as 1853. The Balyans likely worked as a team in order to produce so many works in such a short period. The mosque has a Baroque appearance in its use of strong curves but it features an eclectic mix of styles, except for the imperial pavilion in front which is entirely Neoclassical. The mosque is covered in highly ornate and sculptural details that recall the style of the Ceremonial Hall and gates of the Dolmabahçe Palace. The Pertevniyal Valide Mosque in Istanbul was built in the

Aksaray Aksaray () is a city in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey. It is the seat of Aksaray Province and Aksaray District.

neighbourhood of Istanbul in 1871 in honour of Abdülaziz's mother. It is usually attributed to the Italian architect Montani Efendi or to Agop Balyan, although it's possible that both were responsible for different aspects of the design. The mosque is an intense mix of styles including Ottoman, Gothic, and Empire styles. One notable change from previous mosques is the decrease in the imperial pavilion's size relative to the mosque, reversing the previous trend of the 18th-19th centuries. The use of Ottoman revival features in this mosque is also an indication that the foundations for a future Ottoman revivalist movement were already being laid at this time. Another eclectic-style mosque of the same period is the Aziziye Mosque in

, built in 1872. This is the only imperial mosque built in Anatolia during the late Ottoman period. File:Kucuk Mecidiye Mosque DSCF5414.jpg,

Küçük Mecidiye Mosque The Küçük Mecidiye Mosque () is an Ottoman mosque in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul, Turkey. It was built from the order of Sultan Abdülmecid I by Nigoğos Balyan, member of the Balyan family. The mosque is located on the Çırağan Stre ...

, Istanbul (1848): front view facing the imperial pavilion File:Kucuk Mecidiye Mosque DSCF5421.jpg, Küçük Mecidiye Mosque interior File:Dolmabahce mosque DSCF7944.jpg, Front view of the Dolmabahçe Mosque and its imperial pavilion File:Dolmabahce mosque DSCF8124.jpg, Dolmabahçe Mosque interior File:Istanbul asv2020-02 img60 Ortaköy Mosque.jpg,

, Istanbul (1854–1856) File:Ortakoy Mosque DSCF5603.jpg, Ortaköy Mosque entrance, between the two wings of the imperial pavilion File:Istanbul asv2020-02 img63 Ortaköy Mosque.jpg, Interior of the Ortaköy Mosque File:2007-03-11 03-17 Istanbul 017 Lâleli Moschee (2717731295).jpg, Pertevniyal Valide Mosque, Istanbul (1871) File:Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque 6616.jpg, Interior of the Pertevniyal Valide Mosque File:Aziziye Mosque, Konya.JPG, Aziziye Mosque, Konya (1872)

Churches and synagogues

The Tanzimat reforms also granted Christians and Jews the right to freely build new centers of worship, which resulted in the significant construction, renovation, and expansion of churches and synagogues. Most of these new constructions followed the same eclecticism that prevailed in the rest of Ottoman architecture of the 19th century. Among the notable examples of Greek Orthodox churches is the Hagia Triada Church, a prominent building near

Taksim Square Taksim Square (, ), situated in Beyoğlu in the European part of Istanbul, Turkey, is a major tourist and leisure district famed for its restaurants, shops, and hotels. It is considered the heart of modern Istanbul, with the central station of th ...

in Beyoğlu which was built by the architect Vasilaki Ioannidi in 1880. Another is the Hagia Kyriaki Church in the

Kumkapı Kumkapı (meaning "sand gate" in Turkish) is a quarter in Fatih district of Istanbul. It is located along the northern shore of Marmara Sea. Up to recent times, Kumkapı is the center of the Armenian community of the city, boasting a school and ...

neighbourhood, which was built in 1895 by local architects for the

Karaman Karaman is a city in south central Turkey, located in Central Anatolia, north of the Taurus Mountains, about south of Konya. It is the seat of Karaman Province and Karaman District.Stefan Sveti Church (or Church of St. Stephen of the Bulgars) is a

Bulgarian Orthodox The Bulgarian Orthodox Church (), legally the Patriarchate of Bulgaria (), is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox jurisdiction based in Bulgaria. It is the first medieval recognised patriarchate outside the Pentarchy and the oldest Slavic Orthod ...

church built between 1895 and 1898 in an eclectic style, located in the Balat neighbourhood. It was the first steel building in Istanbul, designed by architect Hovsep Aznavu. Its pieces were fabricated abroad and then assembled in Istanbul. Among examples of 19th-century Armenian churches, the Surp Asdvadzadzin Church in Beşiktaş (not to be confused with the Surp Asdvadzadzin Patriarchal Church) was built in 1838 by Garabet Balyan. Its style deviated from traditional

Armenian architecture Armenian architecture comprises architectural works with an aesthetic or historical connection to the Armenians, Armenian people. It is difficult to situate this architectural style within precise geographical or chronological limits, but many o ...

in Istanbul and reflected instead the Neoclassical or Empire style that the Balyans used during the reign of Mahmud II, including an Ottoman-style dome. The Surp Asdvadzadzin Church in

Gaziantep Gaziantep, historically Aintab and still informally called Antep, is a major city in south-central Turkey. It is the capital of the Gaziantep Province, in the westernmost part of Turkey's Southeastern Anatolia Region and partially in the Medi ...

(later converted to the Kurtuluş Mosque) was built between 1878 and 1893 in an eclectic style that references European styles as well as local influences such as ''

ablaq ''Ablaq'' (; particolored; literally 'piebald') is an architectural technique involving alternating or fluctuating rows of light and dark stone. It is an Arabic term describing a technique associated with Islamic architecture in the Arab world. It ...

'' masonry, demonstrating that eclecticism was present far outside Istanbul. Later on, the largest and most famous Catholic church in Istanbul, the Church of St. Anthony in Beyoğlu, was built between 1906 and 1912 in a neo-Gothic style by architect Giulio Mongeri. In addition to places of worship, new educational institutions and colleges associated with churches were built. In

Fener Fener (; ), also spelled Phanar, is a quarter midway up the Golden Horn in the district of Fatih in Istanbul, Turkey. The Turkish name is derived from the Greek word "phanarion" (Medieval Greek: Φανάριον), meaning lantern, streetlight o ...

, near the Greek Orthodox Patriarchal Church, the

Phanar Greek Orthodox College Phanar Greek Orthodox College or Phanar Roman Orthodox Lyceum (), known in Greek as the Great School of the Nation and Patriarchal Academy of Constantinople (, ''Megáli toú Genous Scholí''), is the oldest surviving and most prestigious Greek Or ...

(or ''Megalio Scholio'' in Greek) was built in 1881 to house a much older Greek educational institution. The structure is one of the most dominating features of the skyline in this area. The architect Konstantinos Dimandis most likely designed it with a

neo-Byzantine Neo-Byzantine architecture (also referred to as Byzantine Revival) was a Revivalism (architecture), revival movement, most frequently seen in religious, institutional and public buildings. It incorporates elements of the Byzantine architecture, ...

style in mind. The synagogues of Istanbul's longstanding Jewish community were comparatively unpretentious structures and few ancient synagogues have survived earthquakes and fires over the centuries. One of the oldest, the Ahrida Synagogue in Balat, was rebuilt in its current form in 1709 and reflects the architecture of the Tulip Period, though it was restored and refurbished again in the 19th century. Some notable 19th-century examples include the Italian Synagogue, built in the 1880s with a neo-Gothic façade, and the Ashkenazi Synagogue, inaugurated in 1900 with a European-style façade. File:Church_surp_asdvadzadzin_besiktas.jpg, Surp Asdvadzadzin Church in Beşiktaş, Istanbul (1838) File:Aya_Triada_Kilisesi-Taksim-İstanbul_-_panoramio.jpg, Hagia Triada Church in Beyoğlu, Istanbul (1880) File:Sinagoga_Italiana_Foto_Miguel_Angel_Otero_Soliño.JPG, Italian Synagogue in Istanbul (1880s) File:Phanar_Greek_Orthodox_college_-_main_entry_-_P1030375.JPG,

building in Istanbul (1881) File:Kurtuluş_mosque-Gaziantep_-_panoramio.jpg, Surp Asdvadzadzin Church ( Kurtuluş Mosque today) in

(1878–1893) File:St_Kyriaki_Church_-P1040037-crop.jpg, Hagia Kyriaki Church in Kumkapı, Istanbul (1895) File:Eşkenazi_Sinagogu.jpg, Ashkenazi Synagogue in Istanbul (1900) File:St._Anthony_of_Padua_Church_in_Istanbul_07.JPG, Church of St. Anthony in Beyoğlu, Istanbul (1906–1912)

Clock towers

Among the new types of monuments introduced to Ottoman architecture during this era,

clock towers Clock towers are a specific type of structure that house a turret clock and have one or more clock faces on the upper exterior walls. Many clock towers are freestanding structures but they can also adjoin or be located on top of another building ...

rose to prominence over the 19th century. One of the earliest towers, and the earliest Ottoman clock tower featuring a bell, was the clock tower built by Izzet Mehmed Pasha in Safranbolu in 1798. Sometime between 1835 and 1839 Mahmud II erected the oldest clock tower in Istanbul, the Tophane Clock Tower near the Nusretiye Mosque, which was rebuilt in more monumental form by Abdülmecid in 1848 or 1849. The largest and most impressive clock tower in Istanbul is the

Dolmabahçe Clock Tower Dolmabahçe Clock Tower () is a clock tower situated outside Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul, Turkey. Its construction was ordered by Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II (1842–1918) and designed by the court architect Sarkis Balyan between 1890 and ...

(near Dolmabahçe Palace), which was built by Abdülhamid II in 1890–1894. It mixes late Baroque decoration with the Neoclassical and eclectic style of the 19th century. Both these towers, along with the

Yıldız Clock Tower Yıldız Clock Tower (), is a clock tower situated next to the courtyard of the Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque, in Yıldız neighborhood of Beşiktaş district in Istanbul, Turkey at the European side of Bosphorus. History The tower was ordered by the ...

(1890), Bursa Clock Tower (rebuilt in 1905), and many others, are designed with a multi-level appearance. Other towers across the empire varied considerably in style. The Adana Clock Tower (1882), by contrast with the Istanbul examples, is a severe brick structure resembling the medieval Italian towers of

San Gimignano San Gimignano (; named after St. Geminianus) is a small walled medieval hill town in the province of Siena, Tuscany, north-central Italy. Known as the Town of Five Towers, San Gimignano is famous for its medieval architecture, unique in the pr ...

. Other towers were built in a form resembling a minaret, such as the

Çorum Clock Tower Çorum Clock Tower is a clock tower in the Central district of Çorum Çorum () is a northern Anatolian city in Turkey. Çorum is located inland in the central Black Sea Region of Turkey and is approximately from Ankara and from Istanbul. It ...

(1896). In 1901 Sultan Abdülhamid II (r. 1876–1909) encouraged the construction of clock towers across the empire for the celebration of the 25th anniversary of his accession to the throne. The Konak Clock Tower in Izmir is one example built that year. Eventually every sizeable Ottoman town was equipped with a clock tower. File:Safranbolu_Saat_Kulesi.JPG, Safranbolu Clock Tower (1798) File:Istanbul's_oldest_clocktower_has_found_new_life_as_the_centre_of_a_square_behind_Galataport_with_the_Nusretiye_Mosque_behind_it.jpg, Tophane Clock Tower in Istanbul (circa 1848) File:Bursa_Clock_tower_Turkey_2013_1.jpg, Clock tower in the Citadel of Bursa (first built by Sultan Abdülaziz but rebuilt in 1905) File:Büyük_Saat_(214879961).jpeg, Adana Clock Tower or ''Büyük Saat'' (1882) File:Yildiz_Clock_Tower_02.jpg,

inside

(1890) File:DolmabahçeClockTower01.JPG,

in Istanbul (1890–1894) File:Çorum_Clock_tower_3253.jpg,

(1896) File:Izmir,_torre_dell'orologio_02.JPG, Konak Clock Tower in Izmir (1901)

Commercial buildings

In the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Parisian-style shopping arcades appeared in the 19th century. Some arcades consisted of a small courtyard filled with shops and surrounded by buildings, as with the example of the Hazzopulo Pasajı, begun in 1850 and completed in 1871. Others were simply built as a passage or alley (''pasaj'' in Turkish) lined with shops. They were commonly built in a Neoclassical style with some European Baroque-style decoration, and were sometimes covered with a glass roof. One of the best-known examples is the

Çiçek Pasajı Çiçek Pasajı ( Turkish: ''Flower Passage''), originally called the Cité de Péra, is a famous historic passage ( galleria or arcade) on İstiklal Avenue in the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Turkey. A covered arcade with rows of historic c ...

("Flower Passage") built in 1876 as part of a building called the ''Cité de Pera'', which contained shops on the ground floor and luxury apartments above. Other well-known examples include the Avrupa Pasajı (1874), the Atlas Pasajı (1877), the Halep (Aleppo) Pasajı (1880–1885), and the Suriye Pasajı (1908). Other commercial building types that appeared in the late 19th century included hotels, such as the Londra Hotel (1891) and

Pera Palace Hotel The Pera Palace Hotel () is a historic special category hotel and museum hotel located in the Beyoğlu (Pera) district in Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1892 for the purpose of hosting the passengers of the Orient Express and was named aft ...

Ottoman Bank The Ottoman Bank (), known from 1863 to 1925 as the Imperial Ottoman Bank (, ) and correspondingly referred to by its French acronym BIO, was a bank that played a major role in the financial history of the Ottoman Empire. By the early 20th cent ...

building also designed by Vallaury (1890). These new buildings were also concentrated in the Beyoğlu district and many were again designed in a Neoclassical style, though eclecticism remained apparent in the details or interior decoration. File:Avrupa_Pasajı_(1).JPG, Shopping arcade of Avrupa Pasajı (1874) File:ISTANBUL.CICEK_PASAJI._1_-_panoramio.jpg, ''Cité de Pera'' building and entrance to the

(1876) File:Istanbul_2018_(40725352672).jpg, Çiçek Pasajı interior File:Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg,

building in Galata, Istanbul (1890) File:Büyük_Londra_Oteli,_Beyoğlu.jpg, Londra Hotel in Istanbul (1891) File:Pera_Palace_Hotel_Jumeirah_-_panoramio.jpg, Pera Palace Hotel in Istanbul (1895) File:Istanbul_asv2020-02_img41_Pera_Palace_Hotel.jpg, Pera Palace Hotel interior File:SURİYE_PASAJI_-_panoramio.jpg, Entrance to the Suriye Pasajı (1908)

Railway stations

The construction of railway stations was a feature of Ottoman modernisation reflecting the new infrastructure changes within the empire. The most famous example is the

Sirkeci Railway Station Sirkeci railway station (), listed on maps as Istanbul railway station (), is a railway terminal in Istanbul, Turkey. The terminal is located in Sirkeci, on the tip of Istanbul's historic peninsula, right next to the Golden Horn and just nor ...

, built in 1888–1890 as the terminus of the

Orient Express The ''Orient Express'' was a long-distance passenger luxury train service created in 1883 by the Belgian company ''Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits'' (CIWL) that operated until 2009. The train traveled the length of continental Europe, w ...

. It was designed in an Orientalist style by

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...

architect August Jasmund (also spelled "Jachmund"). The other major railway station of the era was

Haydarpaşa Station Haydarpaşa is a locality within the Kadıköy and Üsküdar districts on the Asian part of Istanbul, Turkey. Haydarpaşa is named after Ottoman Vizier Haydar Pasha. The place, on the coast of Sea of Marmara, borders to Harem in the northwest and ...

, first built in 1872 when the railway to

Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...

was completed. The original building was a mix of Neoclassical, Baroque, and Orientalist styles. It was rebuilt in its current form in 1906–1908 by German architects Otto Ritter and Helmet Cuno in a German neo-Renaissance style. Both Sirkeci and Haydarpaşa stations were designed with a U-shaped layout with platforms in the center. File:Bahnhofsfront-Istanbul-Sirkeci_retouched_2.jpg, Exterior of the

in Istanbul (1888–1890), designed in Orientalist style File:Sirkeci_03-1-4v.jpg, Interior hall in the Sirkeci Station File:Haydarpaşa_Gari_-_panoramio.jpg, Haydarpaşa Station in Istanbul (rebuilt 1906–1908) File:Haydarpaşa_4.jpg, Interior hall of the Haydarpaşa Station

Orientalism (late 19th century)

A local interpretation of Orientalist fashion steadily arose in the late 19th century, initially used by European architects such as Vallaury. This trend combined "neo-Ottoman" motifs with other motifs from wider

Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both Secularity, secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Muslim world, Islamic world encompasse ...

. The Sirkeci Railway Station (1888–1890), for example, was built in an Orientalist style, but its appearance makes more use of non-Ottoman Islamic architecture styles like

Mamluk architecture Mamluk architecture was the architectural style that developed under the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), which ruled over Egypt, the Levant, and the Hijaz from their capital, Cairo. Despite their often tumultuous internal politics, the Mamluk su ...

than it does of Ottoman features. The iconic clock tower of Izmir (1901) was also built in a highly Orientalist style. Alexandre Vallaury, in collaboration with

, designed the neo-Ottoman-style Imperial School of Medicine in Üsküdar, built between 1893 and 1903. Another building with neo-Ottoman motifs by Vallaury is the Office of Public Debts (now serving as the Istanbul Erkek Lisesi), erected in Istanbul in 1897. The orientalist and Ottoman revivalist trends of this period, of which Vallaury was a major figure, eventually led to the First National Architecture movement which, alongside Art Nouveau, dominated architecture in the last years of the Ottoman Empire.

Art Nouveau (late 19th century)

The eclecticism and European imports of the 19th century eventually led to the introduction of

, especially after the arrival of

in the late 19th century. D'Aronco came at the invitation of Sultan

and served as chief court architect between 1896 and 1909. Istanbul became a new center of Art Nouveau and a local flavour of the style developed. The new style was most prevalent in the new apartment buildings being built in Istanbul at the time. The Camondo Stairs in Galata, donated to the city by a local Jewish family in 1860, are an early Art Nouveau example. The Botter Apartment building (1900–1901) on Istiklal Street and the Tomb of Sheikh Zafir in Yıldız (1905–1906) are among the most notable examples designed by D'Aronco, in addition to some of his buildings in the Yıldız Palace. Art Nouveau decoration was applied to a wide variety of materials including stone, wood, stucco, and iron. Reflecting the continued eclecticism of the 19th century, they were also mixed with other styles such as neo-Baroque, neo-Ottoman, and Empire, such that Art Nouveau buildings were not always distinguishable from other genres. For example, the Hamidiye Fountain (1896–1901), originally erected in Tophane but later moved to

Maçka Park Maçka Democracy Park is a recreational area in Istanbul, Turkey, which has paths for jogging, walking and dog walking. It also has children's areas, rest areas and benches and decorative pools. History The area was part of the Dolmabahçe Pal ...

, is a more eclectic work designed by D'Aronco. File:İstanbul - Kamondo Merdivenleri - Mart 2013.JPG, Camondo Stairs in Galata (circa 1860) File:II. Abdülhamid Çeşmesi (Şişli) (cropped).jpg, Fountain of Abdülhamid II (1896–1901), located today in

File:Botter Apartment.jpg, Botter Apartment on Istiklal Street, by Raimond D'Aronco (1900–1901) File:Tulip Fountain (Art Nouveau) Istanbul DSCF6087.jpg, Laleli Fountain in Galata (1905, unconfirmed architect) File:Şeyh Zafir Türbesi.jpg, Tomb of Sheikh Zafir, by Raimond D'Aronco (1905–1906) File:Istanbul Sheikh Zafir complex december 2015 5972.jpg, Interior of the Tomb of Sheikh Zafir

First National Architectural Movement (early 20th century)

The final period of architecture in the Ottoman Empire, developed after 1900 and in particular after the

Young Turks The Young Turks (, also ''Genç Türkler'') formed as a constitutionalist broad opposition-movement in the late Ottoman Empire against the absolutist régime of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (). The most powerful organization of the movement, ...

took power in 1908–1909, is what was then called the "National Architectural Renaissance" and since referred to as the

First national architectural movement The First national architecture movement (), also referred to in Turkey as the National architecture Renaissance (), or Turkish Neoclassical architecture (), was a period of Turkish architecture that was most prevalent between 1908 and 1930 but ...

of Turkish architecture. The approach in this period was an Ottoman Revival style, a reaction to influences in the previous 200 years that had come to be considered "foreign", such as Baroque and Neoclassical architecture, and was intended to promote Ottoman patriotism and self-identity. This was an entirely new style of architecture, related to earlier Ottoman architecture in rather the same manner was other roughly contemporaneous revivalist architectures related to their stylistic inspirations. New government-run institutions that trained architects and engineers, established in the late 19th century and further centralized under the Young Turks, became instrumental in disseminating this "national style". The earlier ''Uṣūl-i Mi'marī-i Osmānī'' was influential in this movement and was used as a textbook at the Academy of Fine Arts in Istanbul (founded in 1883), but new Turkish architects also rejected some of the eclectic and revivalist impulses encouraged by that work. They choose instead to draw their ideas directly from observations of old Ottoman and Seljuk monuments, so as to elaborate what they viewed as a more purely "Turkish" style. They were also among the first to make measured drawings of historic Ottoman monuments and to study them as a national heritage. The Ottoman Revival architecture of this period was based on modern construction techniques and materials such as reinforced concrete, iron, steel, and often glass roofs, and in many cases used what was essentially a Beaux-Arts structure with outward stylistic motifs associated with the original architecture from which it was inspired. The main difference between this style and the previous orientalist/revivalist trends led by European architects was a more conscious study of past Ottoman architecture and pre-Ottoman Turkish architecture in Anatolia in the search of a more uniform "Turkish" style. The new style focused outwardly on forms and motifs seen to be traditionally "Ottoman" such as pointed arches, ornate tile decoration, wide roof overhangs with supporting brackets, domes over towers or corners, etc. It also adapted these traditional elements for more modern building types such as railway stations, government offices, and other public buildings. LimanHan

The emergence of this movement also brought Turkish architects back to the forefront of Ottoman architecture. The most important representatives of this architectural period are Vedat Tek (or Vedat Bey) and Ahmed Kemaleddin Bey. One of the earliest and most important examples is the Istanbul

Grand Post Office The Istanbul Grand Post Office (), or Istanbul Main Post Office, is an office building for postal services located in the Sirkeci neighborhood of the Eminönü quarter within the Fatih district of Istanbul, Turkey. It was designed by architect Ve ...

in Sirkeci, completed in 1909 and designed by Vedat Tek. The most important example of Kemaleddin Bey's works is the Vakıf Han, also in Sirkeci, begun in 1914. Both of these buildings, which have grand facades with corner domes, are among the finest landmarks of the First National Architecture Movement. The style was also employed for mosques, of which the traditional-looking

Bebek Mosque Bebek Mosque (), officially Hümayûn-u Âbad Mosque ( for: Prosperous Imperial Mosque) is a 1913-built mosque located in Bebek neighborhood of Beşiktaş district in Istanbul, Turkey. Bebek Mosque was designed by Mimar Kemaleddin (1870–1927 ...

(1913) by Kemaleddin Bey is among the best examples. Other important extant examples include the Istanbul ferryboat terminals built between 1913 and 1917, such as the Besiktas terminal by Ali Talat Bey (1913), the Haydarpaşa ferry terminal by Vedat Tek (1913), the Buyukada terminal by Mihran Azaryan (1915). Another example is the

Sultanahmet Jail Sultanahmet Jail (), a former prison in Istanbul, Turkey, is now the luxury Four Seasons Hotel at Sultanahmet. It is located in Sultanahmet neighborhood of Fatih district on the historical peninsula. History Built in 1918/1919, it was the fir ...

(1916–1917), now a Four Seasons Hotel. In

Ankara Ankara is the capital city of Turkey and List of national capitals by area, the largest capital by area in the world. Located in the Central Anatolia Region, central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5,290,822 in its urban center ( ...

, the earliest building in the style is the building that now houses the War of Independence Museum and served as the first house of the Turkish Republic's National Assembly in 1920. It was built in 1917 by Ismail Hasif Bey as the local headquarters for the Young Turks'

Committee of Union and Progress The Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP, also translated as the Society of Union and Progress; , French language, French: ''Union et Progrès'') was a revolutionary group, secret society, and political party, active between 1889 and 1926 ...

. Originally, this style was meant to promote the patriotism and identity of the historically multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire, but by the end of World War I and the creation of the Turkish Republic, it was adopted by the republican Turkish nationalists to promote a new Turkish sense of patriotism. In this role, it continued into, and influenced the later architecture of the Republic of Turkey. File:Istanbul_IMG_7342_1725.jpg, Defter-i Hakani building in Sultanahmet, Istanbul, built by Vedat Tek File:İstanbul_-_Bebek,_Beşiktaş_r7_-_Şub_2013.JPG,

in Bebek, Istanbul, designed by Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1913) File:4th_Vakıf_Han.jpg, The 4th Vakıf Han in Sirkeci, Istanbul, by Kemaleddin Bey (c. 1914) File:Istanbul_asv2020-02_img05_Crowne_Plaza_Old_City.jpg, Tayyare Apartments in Laleli, Istanbul, by Kemaleddin Bey (1919–1922) File:Four_Seasons_Sultanahmet_March_2008.JPG,

(1916–1917)

Early scholarly interest in Ottoman architecture

It was in the late 19th century that the first modern scholarly attempts to define historic Ottoman architecture as a distinctive style or tradition were undertaken. The first work to do so was the ''Uṣūl-i Mi'marī-i Osmānī'' ("Fundamentals of Ottoman Architecture"), published in 1873 simultaneously in

Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish (, ; ) was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian. It was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet. ...

, French, and German. The publication took place in the context of the 1873 World Exposition in

Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...

and had official support from the Ottoman state. It was drafted by Marie de Launay and Pietro Montani, under the supervision of Ibrahim Edhem Pasha, the Minister of Trade and Public Works at the time. The volume sought to define Ottoman architecture as a cohesive and rational architectural tradition and to make it compatible with emerging European discourses on architecture at the time. It was also the first work to hail Sinan as a figure of prime importance in Ottoman architectural history who was worthy of universal recognition. A year later (1874), , a student of

Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (; 27 January 181417 September 1879) was a French architect and author, famous for his restoration of the most prominent medieval landmarks in France. His major restoration projects included Notre-Dame de Paris, ...

, published ''L’architecture et décoration turque'' in French ("Turkish architecture and decoration"). While Viollet-le-Duc himself questioned the concept of an Ottoman architectural tradition in his preface to the book, Parvillée endorsed and promoted the idea that Ottoman architecture had originated from multiple older traditions and synthesized them into a unique style with specific principles. Parvillée was employed as an architect by the Ottoman state and was responsible for the restoration of many historic Ottoman monuments in Bursa, including some damaged by the 1855 earthquake. In the process, he also shaped modern understandings of the architecture of early Ottoman Bursa and some of the Ottoman monuments in Bursa owe much of their present-day appearance to his restorations.

References

Citations

Sources

* * * * * * * * * * {{Ottoman Empire topics 19th-20th 19th-century architecture