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The Mahāsāṃghika (
Brahmi Brahmi ( ; ; ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system from ancient India. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as 'lath' or ...
: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great
Sangha Sangha or saṃgha () is a term meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community". In a political context, it was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used b ...
", ) was a major division (
nikāya ''Nikāya'' () is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word '' āgama'' () to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit. It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhis ...
) of the
early Buddhist schools The early Buddhist schools refers to the History of Buddhism in India, Indian Buddhist "doctrinal schools" or "schools of thought" (Sanskrit: ''vāda'') which arose out of the early unified Buddhist monasticism, Buddhist monastic community (San ...
in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. They were one of the two original communities that emerged from the first
schism A schism ( , , or, less commonly, ) is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a single religious body, suc ...
of the original pre-sectarian Buddhist tradition (the other being the Sthavira nikaya). This schism is traditionally held to have occurred after the
Second Buddhist council Since the Mahaparinirvana of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhist monastic communities, the "''sangha''", have periodically convened for doctrinal and disciplinary reasons and to revise and correct the contents of the Buddhist ...
, which occurred at some point during or after the reign of Kalashoka. The Mahāsāṃghika nikāya developed into numerous sects which spread throughout
ancient India Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentism, Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; ...
. Some scholars think that the Mahāsāṃghika
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali and Sanskrit: विनय) refers to numerous monastic rules and ethical precepts for fully ordained monks and nuns of Buddhist Sanghas (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). These sets of ethical rules and guidelines devel ...
(
monastic rule Monasticism (; ), also called monachism or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual activities. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially ...
) represents the oldest Buddhist monastic source, although some other scholars think that it is not the case. While the Mahāsāṃghika tradition is no longer in existence, many
scholars A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a terminal ...
look to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition as an early source for some ideas that were later adopted by
Mahāyāna Buddhism Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
. Some of these ideas include the view that the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
was a fully transcendent being (term " lokottaravada", "transcendentalism"), the idea that there are many contemporaneous
Buddhas In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as awakening or enlighten ...
and
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
s throughout the universe, the doctrine of the inherent purity and luminosity of the mind ( Skt: ''prakṛtiś cittasya prabhāsvarā''), the doctrine of reflexive awareness ( ''svasamvedana'') and the doctrine of ''prajñapti-matra'' (absolute
nominalism In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are two main versions of nominalism. One denies the existence of universals—that which can be inst ...
or pure conceptualism).


History

Most sources place the origin of the Mahāsāṃghikas to the
Second Buddhist council Since the Mahaparinirvana of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhist monastic communities, the "''sangha''", have periodically convened for doctrinal and disciplinary reasons and to revise and correct the contents of the Buddhist ...
. Traditions regarding the Second Council are confusing and ambiguous, but it is agreed that the overall result was the first schism in the
Sangha Sangha or saṃgha () is a term meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community". In a political context, it was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used b ...
between the
Sthavira nikāya The Sthavira nikāya (Sanskrit "Sect of the Elders"; ; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools. They split from the majority Mahāsāṃghikas at the time of the Second Buddhist council. Scholarly views Origin The Sthavira nikāya was one of the ...
and the Mahāsāṃghika nikāya, although it is not agreed upon by all what the cause of this split was. According to
Jan Nattier Jan Nattier is an American scholar of Mahāyana Buddhism. Early life and education She earned her PhD in Inner Asian and Altaic Studies from Harvard University (1988), and subsequently taught at the University of Hawaii (1988-1990), Stanford Unive ...
and Charles S. Prebish, the best date for the first schism and the creation of the Mahāsāṃghika as a separate community is 116 years after the Buddha's nirvana.Nattier, Jan; Prebish, Charles S.
Mahāsāṃghika Origins: The Beginnings of Buddhist Sectarianism
''History of Religions Volume 16, Number 3Feb., 1977
Some Buddhist historical sources mention that the cause for schism was a dispute over vinaya (monastic rule), mainly the desire of certain Sthaviras (elders) to add extra rules to make the vinaya more rigorous. Other sources, especially Sthavira sources like those of the Sarvastivada school, argue that the main cause was a doctrinal issue. They blame a figure named Mahadeva with arguing for five divisive points, four of which see
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
ship as a lesser kind of spiritual attainment (which still has ignorance and desire). Andrew Skilton has suggested that the problems of contradictory accounts about the first schism are solved by the Mahāsāṃghika ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'', which is the earliest surviving account of the schism.Skilton, Andrew. ''A Concise History of Buddhism.'' 2004. p. 48 In this account, the council was convened at Pāṭaliputra over matters of
vinaya The Vinaya (Pali and Sanskrit: विनय) refers to numerous monastic rules and ethical precepts for fully ordained monks and nuns of Buddhist Sanghas (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). These sets of ethical rules and guidelines devel ...
, and it is explained that the schism resulted from the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) refusing to accept the addition of rules to the Vinaya by a smaller group of elders (Sthaviras). The Mahāsāṃghikas therefore saw the Sthaviras as being a breakaway group which was attempting to modify the original Vinaya and to make it more strict.Skilton, Andrew. ''A Concise History of Buddhism.'' 2004. p. 64 However, this text is not fully accepted by some Buddhist schools, such as the Theravāda, which instead claim that it was the Mahāsāṃghika who altered the original rules. Scholars have generally agreed that the matter of dispute was indeed a matter of vinaya, and have noted that the account of the Mahāsāṃghikas is bolstered by the vinaya texts themselves, as vinayas associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahāsāṃghika vinaya. Some scholars therefore agree that the Mahāsāṃghika vinaya is the oldest, although some other scholars think that it is not the case. According to Skilton, future historians may determine that a study of the Mahāsāṃghika school will contribute to a better understanding of the early Dhamma-Vinaya than the Theravāda school. According to Bhante Sujato, there is no strong evidence that the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya is the oldest; both the Mahāsāṃghika and Theravāda Vinayas developed in parallel from shared ancient sources, each containing both older and later elements. Declaring one as definitively “the earliest” is an oversimplification not supported by the academic evidence. Regarding the issue with Mahadeva's doctrine, this seems to have been a later doctrinal dispute within the Mahāsāṃghika community (which happened after the schism). The followers of Mahadeva seem to have been the precursors of the southern Mahāsāṃghika sects, like the Caitikas.


Geography

The original center of the Mahāsāṃghika sects was
Magadha Magadha was a region and kingdom in ancient India, based in the eastern Ganges Plain. It was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas during the Second Urbanization period. The region was ruled by several dynasties, which overshadowed, conquered, and ...
, but they also maintained important centers such as in
Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the states and union territories of India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located south-east of Delhi; and about from the town of Vrindavan. In ancient ti ...
and Karli. The Kukkuṭikas were situated in eastern India around Vārāṇasī and Pāṭaliputra and the
Bahuśrutīya Bahuśrutīya (Sanskrit: बहुश्रुतीय) was one of the early Buddhist schools, according to early sources such as Vasumitra, the ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'', and other sources, and was a sub-group which emerged from the Mahāsā� ...
in Kośala, Andhra, and Gandhara. The
Lokottaravāda The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsā ...
subschool itself claimed to be of the 'Middle Country', i.e. Ganges Basin region in the north of India. The Mahāsāṃghikas and the
Lokottaravāda The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsā ...
subschool also had centres in the Gandhara region. The Ekavyāvahārika are not known from later times. The
Caitika Caitika () was an Early Buddhist schools, early Buddhist school, a sub-sect of the Mahāsāṃghika. They were also known as the Caityaka sect. The Caitikas proliferated throughout the mountains of South India, from which they derived thei ...
branch was based in the
Coastal Andhra Coastal Andhra, also known as Kosta Andhra (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: Kōstā Āndhra), is a geographic region in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, comprising the coastal districts of the state between the East ...
region and especially at Amarāvati and Nāgārjunakoṇḍā. This Caitika branch included the Pūrvaśailas, Aparaśailas, Rājagirikas, and the Siddhārthikas. Finally, Madhyadesa was home to the Prajñaptivādins.Elizabeth Cook. ''Light of Liberation: A History of Buddhism in India.'' Dharma Publishing, 1992. p. 242-243 The ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Krishna Valley, including Amarāvati, Nāgārjunakoṇḍā and Jaggayyapeṭa, "can be traced to at least the third century BCE, if not earlier." The cave temples at the Ajaṇṭā Caves, the Ellora Caves, and the
Karla Caves The Karla Caves, Karli Caves, Karle Caves or Karla Cells, are a complex of ancient Buddhist Indian rock-cut architecture, Indian rock-cut caves at Karli, India, Karli near Lonavala, Maharashtra. It is just 10.9 Kilometers away from Lonavala. Ot ...
are associated with the Mahāsāṃghikas.


Appearance and language


Appearance

Between 148 and 170 CE, the
Parthia Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...
n monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which describes the color of monastic robes (Skt. '' kāṣāya'') utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called ''Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi'' (Ch. 大比丘三千威儀).Hino, Shoun. ''Three Mountains and Seven Rivers.'' 2004. p. 55 Another text translated at a later date, the ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'', contains a very similar passage corroborating this information. In both sources, the Mahāsāṃghikas are described as wearing yellow robes. The relevant portion of the ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'' reads: The lower part of the yellow robe was pulled tightly to the left. According to Dudjom Rinpoche from the tradition of
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
, the robes of fully ordained Mahāsāṃghika monastics were to be sewn out of more than seven sections, but no more than twenty-three sections.Dudjom Rinpoche. ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows''. 1999. p. 16 The symbols sewn on the robes were the
endless knot file:Endless knot detail, from- Burmese-Pali Manuscript. Wellcome L0026495 (cropped).jpg, Endless knot in a Burmese Pali manuscript The endless knot or eternal knot is a symbolic Knot (mathematics), knot and one of the Ashtamangala, Eight Au ...
(Skt. ''śrīvatsa'') and the conch shell (Skt. ''śaṅkha''), two of the Eight Auspicious Signs in Buddhism.


Language

The Tibetan historian
Buton Rinchen Drub Butön Rinchen Drup (), (1290–1364), 11th Abbot of Shalu Monastery, was a 14th-century Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school), Sakya master and Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhist leader. Shalu was the first of the major monasteries to be built by nob ...
(1290–1364) wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prākrit, the Sarvāstivādins Sanskrit, the Sthaviravādins used Paiśācī and the Saṃmitīya used
Apabhraṃśa Apabhraṃśa (, , Prakrit: ) is a term used by '' vaiyākaraṇāḥ'' (native grammarians) since Patañjali to refer to languages spoken in North India before the rise of the modern languages. In Indology, it is used as an umbrella term for ...
.


Doctrines and teachings


List of doctrinal tenets

An important source for the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghika is the ''Samayabhedoparacanacakra'' (''The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines'', Ch: 異部宗輪論) of Vasumitra (a Sarvāstivāda scholar, c. 2nd century CE), which was translated by
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
.Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. ''Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.'' 2008. p. 56 According to this source, some of the key doctrines defended by Indian Mahāsāṃghikas include:Willemen, Charles; Tsukamoto Keisho (2004).
Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines
', pp. 97-101. Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
# The
Buddhas In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as awakening or enlighten ...
are supramundane (''lokottara''), devoid of asravas and the mundane natures. # All words spoken by Tathagatas turn the wheel of
Dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
and none of their words are false. # Buddhas teach all dharmas with a single sound. # The material body (''rupakaya''), supernatural power (''prabhava'') and lifespan (ayus) of a Buddha is unlimited (''ananta''). # The Buddha’s heart never tires of converting living beings by awakening faith ( sraddha) in them. # The Buddha does not sleep or dream. # The Tathagata answers questions without thinking (or reflecting on things). # Buddhas never say a single word because they are always in
samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''Samādhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
, but beings rejoice, thinking that they utter words. # In a single moment of thought (''ekaksanikacitta''), Buddhas comprehend all dharmas. # The Buddhas remain in all directions. There are Buddhas everywhere in the four directions. # When the
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
s enter into a womb (''garbha''), they possess nothing impure and are entirely provided with organs and members, rather than developing gradually. When they enter a womb, Bodhisattvas also take on the appearance of a white elephant. # Bodhisattvas, because they want to help beings become perfect, make vows to be reborn in bad destinations (durgati). # The different aspects of the
four noble truths In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (; ; "The Four Arya (Buddhism), arya satya") are "the truths of the noble one (the Buddha)," a statement of how things really are (Three marks of existence, the three marks of existence) when they are seen co ...
are known in a single moment (''ekaksanika''). # The five sensory (''
indriya ''Indriya'' (literally "belonging to or agreeable to Indra") is the Sanskrit and Pali term for physical strength or ability in general, and for and specifically refers to the ''five spiritual faculties'', the five or six sensory faculties, and the ...
'') faculties consist of balls of flesh, therefore only consciousness (''vijñana'') sees forms, hears sounds, etc. # There are no indeterminate (avyakrta) things (dharma), that is, there are no dharmas that are neither good nor bad. # When one enters certainty o become a Buddha(''samyaktvaniyama'') one has abandoned all the fetters ( ''samyojana''). # "Stream enterers" ( ''srotapanna'') can commit all misdeeds, except for the irremediable crimes (''anantarya''). # All sutras uttered by Buddha are '' nītārtha'' ("of plain or clear meaning"). # Since they do not know everything (''sabba''), there are
Arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
s who lack knowledge (''ajñana''), who have doubts (''kariksa''), who are saved by others. # The self-presence of mind is bright. It is soiled (i.e. darkened) by adventitious secondary defilement. # The tendencies (''anusaya'') are neither consciousnesses (''citta'') nor mental factors (''caitta''), and are devoid of object (''analambana''). # The past and the future have no substantial existence (dravya). # There is no intermediate state ( ''antarabhava''). # Virtue (''sila'') is not mental (''acetasika'') and it is not consecutive to thought (''cittanuparivatti''). # Tendencies (''anusaya'') are indeterminate (''abyakata''), not-caused (''ahetuka'') and disjointed from thought (''cittavippayutta''). # There is a root-consciousness ( ''mūlavijñāna'') which serves as the support (dsraya) for eye-perception and the other sensory perceptions, like the root of the tree is the principle of the leaves, etc. # The current consciousnesses (''pavattiviññāna'') can be simultaneous (''sahabhu'') and do not carry karmic seeds ( ''bija''). # The path (''marga'') and the defilements ( ''kleśa'') appear together. # The act (''karman'') and its maturation (''vipaka'') evolve at the same time. # Material things last a long time and so go through transformation (as milk turns into curds), but mental factors and consciousnesses do not because they have a swift production and cessation. # Thought (''citta'') penetrates the whole body (''kaya'') and, depending on the object (''visaya'') and the support (''asraya''), it can contract or expand.


Buddhas and bodhisattvas

Depiction of the bodhisattva Padmapani, Ajaṇṭā Caves, cave number 1. The Mahāsāṃghikas advocated the transcendental and supramundane nature of the
buddhas In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the supreme goal of Buddhism, variously described as awakening or enlighten ...
and
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
s, and the fallibility of
arhat In Buddhism, an ''Arhat'' () or ''Arahant'' (, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana (Buddhism), Nirvana'' and has been liberated from the Rebirth (Buddhism ...
s.Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 48 Xing also notes that the ''Acchariyābbhūtasutta'' of the Majjhimanikāya along with its Chinese Madhyamāgama parallel version is the most prominent evidence for the ancient source of the Mahāsāṃghika view of the Buddha. The sutra mentions various miracles performed by the Buddha before his birth and after. While the Pāli sutta uses the term bodhisattva for the Buddha before his birth, the Chinese version calls him
Bhagavan The word Bhagavan (; ), also spelt as Bhagwan (sometimes translated in English as "Lord", "God"), is an epithet within Indian religions used to denote figures of religious worship. In Hinduism it is used to signify a deity or an ''avatar'', pa ...
. This points to the idea that the Buddha was already awakened before descending down to earth.Xing, Guang. An Enquiry into the Origin of the Mahasamghika Buddhology Authors. The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2004, n. 5, p. 41-51. Similarly, the idea that the lifespan of a Buddha is limitless is also based on very ancient ideas. The Mahāparinirvānasūtra states that the Buddha's lifespan is as long as an eon (kalpa) and that he voluntarily chose to give up his life. Another early source for the Mahāsāṃghika view that a Buddha was a transcendent being is the idea of the thirty-two major marks of a Buddha's body. Furthermore, the ''Simpsapa sutta'' states that the Buddha had way more knowledge than what he taught to his disciples. The Mahāsāṃghikas took this further and argued that the Buddha knew the dharmas of innumerable other Buddhas of the ten directions. Of the 48 special theses attributed by the ''Samayabhedoparacanacakra'' to the Mahāsāṃghikas (Ekavyāvahārika, Lokottaravāda, and Kukkuṭika), twenty concern the supramundane nature of buddhas and bodhisattvas. According to the ''Samayabhedoparacanacakra'', these four groups held that the Buddha is able to know all ''dharmas'' in a single moment of the mind.Yao, Zhihua. ''The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition.'' 2005. p. 11 Yao Zhihua writes: A doctrine ascribed to the Mahāsāṃghikas is, "The power of the tathāgatas is unlimited, and the life of the buddhas is unlimited." According to Guang Xing, two main aspects of the Buddha can be seen in Mahāsāṃghika teachings: the true Buddha who is omniscient and omnipotent, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through his skillful means (Skt. '' upāya''). For the Mahāsāṃghikas, the historical
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...
was merely one of these transformation bodies (Skt. ''
nirmāṇakāya Nirmāṇakāya ( zh, t=應身, p=yīngshēn; Tibetan: , , Wylie: ) is the third aspect of the trikāya and the physical manifestation of a Buddha in time and space. In Vajrayāna it is described as "the dimension of ceaseless manifestation". ...
''), while the essential real Buddha was equated with the Dharmakāya. Sketch of the interior of Ajanta cave no. 19 by James Fergusson (1808–1886) The Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartanā sūtra makes numerous supramundane claims about the Buddha, including that: * He was not produced through union of father and mother, but magically produced. * His feet never touch the ground or get dirty, his footprints are only a show. * His body and mouth does not get dirty, he only makes a show of cleaning himself. * He did not really suffer and struggle to attain enlightenment for six years, this was just a show. * He never gets hungry, he only manifests this in order to allow others to gain merit by giving. * He does not really produce human waste, this is only a show. * His body does not grow tired, ill or old, and is not affected by cold or heat, it only appears to have these qualities.Xing, Guang, The Lokānuvartanā Sūtra, Journal of Buddhist Studies, Vol IV, 2006. Like the Mahāyāna traditions, the Mahāsāṃghikas held the doctrine of the existence of many contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions.Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. p. 65 In the Mahāsāṃghika ''Lokānuvartana Sūtra'', it is stated, "The Buddha knows all the dharmas of the countless buddhas of the ten directions." It is also stated, "All buddhas have one body, the body of the Dharma." In the view of Mahāsāṃghikas, advanced bodhisattvas have severed the bonds of
karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...
, and are born out of their own free will into lower states of existence (Skt. ''durgati'') in order to help liberate other sentient beings. As described by Akira Hirakawa: The concept of many bodhisattvas simultaneously working toward buddhahood is also found among the Mahāsāṃghika tradition, and further evidence of this is given in the ''Samayabhedoparacanacakra'', which describes the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghikas.Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. p. 66 These two concepts of contemporaneous bodhisattvas and contemporaneous buddhas were linked in some traditions, and texts such as the '' Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa'' use the principle of contemporaneous bodhisattvas to demonstrate the necessity of contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions.Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. pp. 65-66 It is thought that the doctrine of contemporaneous buddhas was already old and well established by the time of early Mahāyāna texts such as the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'', due to the clear presumptions of this doctrine.


Mundane and supramundane

The Mahāsāṃghikas held that the teachings of the Buddha were to be understood as having two principal levels of truth: a relative or conventional (Skt. ''saṃvṛti'') truth, and the absolute or ultimate (Skt. ''paramārtha'') truth. For the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism, the final and ultimate meaning of the Buddha's teachings was "beyond words," and words were merely the conventional exposition of the Dharma. K. Venkata Ramanan writes:


Self-awareness and the mind

Some Mahāsāṃghikas held a theory of self-awareness or self-cognition (''
svasaṃvedana In Buddhist philosophy, svasaṃvedana (also ''svasaṃvitti'') is a term which refers to the self-reflexive nature of consciousness, that is, the awareness of being aware. It was initially a theory of cognition held by the Mahasamghika and Sau ...
'') which held that a moment of consciousness (citta) can be aware of itself as well as its intentional object. This doctrine arose out of their understanding of the Buddha's enlightenment which held that in a single moment of mind the Buddha knew all things. The ''Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra'' explains the doctrine of self-reflexive awareness as follows:
Some allege that the mind (''citta'') and mental activities (''caitta'') can apprehend themselves (''svabhāva''). Schools like Mahāsāṃghika hold the following view: It is the nature of awareness (''jñāna'') and so forth to apprehend, thus awareness can apprehend itself as well as others. This is like a lamp that can illuminate itself and others owing to its nature (''svabhāva'') of luminosity.
Some Mahāsāṃghikas also held that the mind's nature (''cittasvabhāva'') is fundamentally pure (''mulavisuddha''), but it can be contaminated by adventitious defilements.Skorupski, Tadeusz. “Consciousness and Luminosity in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism.” In ''Buddhist Philosophy and Meditation Practice: Academic Papers Presented at the 2nd IABU Conference Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Main Campus Wang Noi, Ayutthaya, Thailand, 31 May–2 June 2012''. Vasumitra's ''Nikayabheda-dharmamati-chakra-sastra'' also discusses this theory, and cites the sutra passage which the Mahāsāṃghikas drew on to defend it. The passage is quoted by Vasumitra as:
The self-nature of the mind (''cittasvabhāva'') is luminous (''prabhāsvara''). It is the adventitious impurities (''āgantukopakleśa'') that defile it. The self substance of the mind is eternally pure.Bareau, André (1955) ''Buddhist Sects of the Small Vehicle (Les Sectes Bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule),'' Translated from the French by Gelongma Migme Chodron (2005), p. 56.
The commentary to Vasumitra by
Kuiji Kuiji (; 632–682), also known as Ji (), an exponent of Yogācāra, was a Chinese monk and a prominent disciple of Xuanzang.Lusthaus, Dan (undated). ''Quick Overview of the Faxiang School'' (). Source(accessed: December 12, 2007) His posthumous ...
adds the following: "It is because afflictions (''kleśa)'' are produced which soil it that it is said to be defiled. But these defilements, not being of the original nature of the mind, are called adventitious." The ''
Kathāvatthu Kathāvatthu (Pāli) (; abbreviated Kv, Kvu; ) is a Buddhist scripture, one of the seven books in the Theravada Abhidhamma Pitaka. The text contrasts the orthodox Theravada position on a range of issues to the heterodox views of various interlocu ...
'' (III, 3) also cites this idea as a thesis of the Andhakas.


Unconditioned realities

According to Vasumitra, the Mahāsāṃghikas held that there were nine dharmas (phenomena, realities) which were unconditioned or unconstructed (asaṃskṛta): # Cessation obtained through discriminative cognition (pratisaṃkhyānirodha) # Cesation due to absence of a productive cause (apratisaṃkhyānirodha) # Space (ākāśā) # The sphere of unlimited space (ākāśānantyāyatana) # The sphere of unlimited consciousness (vijñānānantyāyatana) # The sphere of emptiness (ākiñcanyāyatana) # The sphere of neither identification nor nonidentification (naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana) # The own-nature of the members of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpādāṅgasvabhāva) # The own-nature of the members of the holy path (ārya-mārgāṅgasvabhāva)


Texts

According to Bart Dessein, the ''Mohe sengzhi lu'' (Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya) provides some insight into the format of this school's textual canon. They appear to have had a
Vinaya The Vinaya (Pali and Sanskrit: विनय) refers to numerous monastic rules and ethical precepts for fully ordained monks and nuns of Buddhist Sanghas (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). These sets of ethical rules and guidelines devel ...
in five parts, an Abhidharmapiṭaka, and a Sutrapiṭaka:
Of these texts, their Vinaya was translated into Chinese by Buddhabhadra and Faxian between 416 and 418 CE in the Daochang Monastery in Nanjing, capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. In this text, their Abhidharma is defined as "the ''sūtrānta'' in nine parts" (''navāṅga''). This suggests that the early Mahāsāṃghikas rejected the abhidharmic developments that occurred within Sarvāstivāda circles. As is the case with their Vinayapiṭaka, also their Sutrapiṭaka seems to have consisted of five parts (''āgama''): *''Dīrghāgama'',*''Madhyamāgama'',*''Saṃyuktāgama'', *''Ekottarāgama'' and *''Kṣudrakāgama''.
Dessein also mentions that the school probably also had a Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which included material that "in all likelihood consisted of texts that formed part of the early development of the bodhisattva path as an alternative career to that of the arhant, perhaps serving as a foundation for the later developments of the bodhisattva doctrine".


Vinaya texts

According to Zhihua Yao, the following Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya texts are extant in Chinese: ''Mahāsāṃghika bhiksuni-vinaya'', ''Pratimoksa-sutra'', ''Sphutartha Srighanacarasamgrahatika, Abhisamacarika-Dharma'' and the ''Mahavastu''.Zhihua Yao (2012) ''The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition,'' pp. 8-10. Routledge. Zhan Ru also notes that the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (Chinese: Mohe Sengqi Lü) translated by
Faxian Faxian (337–), formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as Fa-hien and Fa-hsien, was a Han Chinese, Chinese Chinese Buddhism, Buddhist bhikkhu, monk and translator who traveled on foot from Eastern Jin dynasty, Jin China to medieval India t ...
(337–422 CE) contains proto-Mahayana elements and "reflects the nascent formation of the Mahāyāna Dharma teachings." The '' Mahāvastu'' (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is the most well known of the
Lokottaravāda The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsā ...
branch of the Mahāsāṃghika school. It is a preface to their
Vinaya Pitaka The Vinaya (Pali and Sanskrit: विनय) refers to numerous monastic rules and ethical precepts for fully ordained monks and nuns of Buddhist Sanghas (community of like-minded ''sramanas''). These sets of ethical rules and guidelines devel ...
and contains numerous Jātaka and Avadāna tales, stories of past lives of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
and other
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
s."Mahāvastu" (2008).
/ref> It is considered a primary source for the notion of a transcendent (''''lokottara'''') Buddha, who across his countless past lives developed various abilities such as omniscience (sarvajñana), the lack of any need for sleep or food and being born painlessly without the need for intercourse. The text shows strong parallels with the Pali ''Mahakhandhaka.'' The ''Śariputraparipṛcchā'' (''Shelifu Wen Jing'', 舍利弗問經, Taisho 1465, p. 900b), translated into Chinese between 317 and 420, is a Mahasamghika Vinaya work which also provides a history of early Buddhism and its schisms.


Sutras

Some scholars such as Yao and Tse Fu Kuan consider the ''Ekottara Āgama'' (Taishō Tripiṭaka 125) to belong to the Mahāsāṃghika school, though this is still up for debate. The ''Lokānuvartanā sūtra'' (Chinese: 佛説内藏百寶經, pinyin: ''fóshuō nèi zàng bǎi bǎo jīng,''
Taishō Tripiṭaka The ''Taishō Tripiṭaka'' (; Japanese: ''Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō''; " Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka") is a definitive edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon and its Japanese commentaries used by scholars in the 20th century. The name is abbr ...
, Volume 17, text No. 807) is a text preserved in some Sanskrit fragments as well as in Tibetan and Chinese translation. Furthemore, another sutra in the Chinese canon which has similar Mahāsāṃghika themes to the ''Lokānuvartanā'' is the ''Pusaxingwushiyuanshengjing'' (Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on (the characteristic marks of) His Appearance as (the result of) Fifty Causes of the Practice of Bodhisattva).


Abhidharma treatises and commentaries

According to some sources,
abhidharma The Abhidharma are a collection of Buddhist texts dating from the 3rd century BCE onwards, which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. It also refers t ...
was not accepted as canonical by the Mahāsāṃghika school. The Theravādin '' Dīpavaṃsa'', for example, records that the Mahāsāṃghikas had no abhidharma.Walser, Joseph. ''Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture.'' 2005. p. 213 However, other sources indicate that there were such collections of abhidharma. During the early 5th century, the Chinese pilgrim
Faxian Faxian (337–), formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as Fa-hien and Fa-hsien, was a Han Chinese, Chinese Chinese Buddhism, Buddhist bhikkhu, monk and translator who traveled on foot from Eastern Jin dynasty, Jin China to medieval India t ...
is said to have found a Mahāsāṃghika abhidharma at a monastery in Pāṭaliputra. Furthermore, when
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
visited Dhānyakaṭaka, he met two Mahāsāṃghika bhikṣus and studied Mahāsāṃghika abhidharma with them for several months.Baruah, Bibhuti. ''Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism.'' 2008. p. 437 On the basis of textual evidence as well as inscriptions at Nāgārjunakoṇḍā, Joseph Walser concludes that at least some Mahāsāṃghika sects probably had an abhidharma collection, and that it likely contained five or six books. The ''Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra'' ("the treatise that accomplishes reality"; C: 成實論, ''Chengshilun''), is an
Abhidharma The Abhidharma are a collection of Buddhist texts dating from the 3rd century BCE onwards, which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries. It also refers t ...
work by a figure known as Harivarman (250–350). Some scholars including A.K. Warder, attribute the work to the Mahāsāṃghika- Bahusrutiyas, however others disagree and see it as a Sautrantika work.Lin, Qian. Mind in Dispute: The Section on Mind in Harivarman’s *Tattvasiddhi, University of Washington Chinese sources mention that he was initially a Sautrantika teacher who later lived with the Mahāsāṃghikas. The Chinese canon also includes a sutra commentary called the ''Fen''-''bie''-''gong''-''de''-''lun''. (分別功徳論) in the 25th volume of the Taisho Tripitaka Series (No. 1507, pp. 30–52).


Manuscript collections

The Chinese Buddhist monk
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
visited a Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda
monastery A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of Monasticism, monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in Cenobitic monasticism, communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a ...
in the 7th century at
Bamyan Bamyan (), also spelled Bamian or Bamiyan, is the capital of Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan. Its population of approximately 100,000 people makes it the largest city in Hazarajat. Bamyan is at an altitude of about above sea level. The ...
,
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
, and this monastery site has since been rediscovered by archaeologists. Birch bark manuscripts and
palm-leaf manuscript Palm-leaf manuscripts are manuscripts made out of dried palm leaves. Palm leaves were used as writing materials in the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia dating back to the 5th century BCE. Their use began in South Asia and spread to ot ...
s of texts in this monastery's collection, including
Mahayana sutras The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
, have been discovered at the site, and these are now located in the Schøyen Collection. Some manuscripts are in the Gāndhārī language and
Kharoṣṭhī Kharosthi script (), also known as the Gandhari script (), was an ancient script originally developed in the Gandhara, Gandhara Region of modern-day Pakistan, between the 5th and 3rd century BCE. used primarily by the people of Gandhara along ...
script, while others are in Sanskrit and written in forms of the
Gupta script The Gupta script (sometimes referred to as Gupta Brahmi script or Late Brahmi script)Sharma, Ram. '' 'Brahmi Script' ''. Delhi: BR Publishing Corp, 2002 was used for writing Sanskrit and is associated with the Gupta Empire of the Indian subcon ...
. Manuscripts and fragments that have survived from this monastery's collection include the following source texts: * '' Prātimokṣa Vibhaṅga'' of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda (MS 2382/269) * '' Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'', a sutra from the Āgamas (MS 2179/44) * ''Caṃgī Sūtra'', a sūtra from the Āgamas (MS 2376) * ''
Diamond Sutra The ''Diamond Sutra'' (Sanskrit: ) is a Mahayana, Mahāyāna Buddhism, Buddhist sutra from the genre of ('perfection of wisdom') sutras. Translated into a variety of languages over a broad geographic range, the ''Diamond Sūtra'' is one of th ...
'', a Mahayana sutra (MS 2385) * '' Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra'', a Mahayana sutra (MS 2385) * '' Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra'', a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378) * ''Pravāraṇa Sūtra'', a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378) * ''Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśa Sūtra'', a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378) * ''Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra'', a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378) * '' Śāriputrābhidharma'' (MS 2375/08)


Bodhisattva collection

Within the Mahāsāṃghika branch, the
Bahuśrutīya Bahuśrutīya (Sanskrit: बहुश्रुतीय) was one of the early Buddhist schools, according to early sources such as Vasumitra, the ''Śāriputraparipṛcchā'', and other sources, and was a sub-group which emerged from the Mahāsā� ...
s are said to have included a Bodhisattva Piṭaka in their canon, and Paramārtha wrote that the Bahuśrutīyas accepted both the
Hīnayāna Hīnayāna is a Sanskrit term that was at one time applied collectively to the '' Śrāvakayāna'' and '' Pratyekabuddhayāna'' paths of Buddhism. This term appeared around the first or second century. The Hīnayāna is considered as the prelim ...
and Mahāyāna teachings. In the 6th century CE, Bhāvaviveka speaks of the Siddhārthikas using a Vidyādhāra Piṭaka, and the Pūrvaśailas and Aparaśailas both using a Bodhisattva Piṭaka, all implying collections of Mahāyāna texts within the Mahāsāṃghika schools.Walser, Joseph. ''Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture.'' 2005. p. 53 During the same period, Avalokitavrata speaks of the Mahāsāṃghikas using a "Great Āgama Piṭaka," which is then associated with Mahāyāna sūtras such as the ''Prajñāparamitā'' and the '' Daśabhūmika Sūtra''.


Relationship to Mahāyāna


Acceptance of Mahāyāna

In the 6th century CE, Paramārtha, a Buddhist monk from
Ujjain Ujjain (, , old name Avantika, ) or Ujjayinī is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative as well as religious centre of Ujjain ...
in central
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, wrote about a special affiliation of the Mahāsāṃghika school with the Mahāyāna tradition. He associates the initial composition and acceptance of
Mahāyāna sūtras The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
with the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism. He states that 200 years after the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, much of the Mahāsāṃghika school moved north of Rājagṛha, and were divided over whether the Mahāyāna teachings should be incorporated formally into their Tripiṭaka. According to this account, they split into three groups based upon the relative manner and degree to which they accepted the authority of these Mahāyāna texts. Paramārtha states that the Kukkuṭika sect did not accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as ''
buddhavacana Buddhist texts are religious texts that belong to, or are associated with, Buddhism and Schools of Buddhism, its traditions. There is no single textual collection for all of Buddhism. Instead, there are three main Buddhist Canons: the Pāli C ...
'' ("word of the Buddha"), while the
Lokottaravāda The Lokottaravāda (Sanskrit, लोकोत्तरवाद; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools according to Mahayana doxological sources compiled by Bhāviveka, Vinitadeva and others, and was a subgroup which emerged from the Mahāsā ...
sect and the Ekavyāvahārika sect did accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as ''buddhavacana''. Paramartha's report states:
In this school, there were some who believed these sutras and some who did not. Those who did not believe them ... said that such sutras are made by man and are not proclaimed by the Buddha, ... that the disciples of the Lesser Vehicle only believe in the
Tripitaka There are several Buddhist canons, which refers to the various scriptural collections of Buddhist sacred scriptures or the various Buddhist scriptural canons.
, because they did not personally hear the Buddha proclaim the Greater Vehicle. Among those who believed these sutras, there were some who did so because they had personally heard the Buddha proclaim the Greater Vehicle and therefore believed these sutras; others believed them, because it can be known through logical analysis that there is this principle f the Greater Vehicle and some believed them because they believed their masters. Those who did not believe
hem A hem in sewing is a garment finishing method, where the edge of a piece of cloth is folded and sewn to prevent unravelling of the fabric and to adjust the length of the piece in garments, such as at the end of the sleeve or the bottom of the ga ...
did so because these sutras were self-made and because they were not included in the five
Agamas Religion *Āgama (Buddhism), a collection of Early Buddhist texts *Āgama (Hinduism), scriptures of several Hindu sects *Jain literature (Jain Āgamas), various canonical scriptures in Jainism Other uses * ''Agama'' (lizard), a genus of lizards ...
.Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. ''Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.'' 2008. pp. 153-154
Paramārtha also wrote about the origins of the Bahuśrutīya sect in connection with acceptance of Mahāyāna teachings. According to his account, the founder of the Bahuśrutīya sect was named Yājñavalkya.Warder, A.K. ''Indian Buddhism''. 2000. p. 267 In Paramārtha's account, Yājñavalkya is said to have lived during the time of the Buddha, and to have heard his discourses, but was in a profound state of samādhi during the time of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa. After Yājñavalkya emerged from this samādhi 200 years later, he discovered that the Mahāsāṃghikas were teaching only the superficial meaning of the sūtras, and therefore founded the Bahuśrutīya sect in order to expound the full meaning. According to Paramārtha, the Bahuśrutīya school was formed in order to fully embrace both "conventional truth" and "ultimate truth." Bart Dessein links the Bahuśrutīya understanding of this full exposition to the Mahāyāna teachings. In his writings, Paramārtha also indicated as much:


Royal patronage

Some early Mahāyāna sūtras reference wealthy female donors and provide evidence that they were developed in the Āndhra region, where the Mahāsāṃghika Caitika groups were predominant. The Mahāyāna ''Mahāmegha Sūtra'', for example, gives a prophecy about a royal princess of the Śatavāhana dynasty who will live in Āndhra, along the Kṛṣṇa River, in Dhānyakaṭaka, seven hundred years after the ''parinirvāṇa'' of the Buddha. Several scholars such as
Étienne Lamotte Étienne Paul Marie Lamotte (; 21 November 1903 – 5 May 1983) was a Belgian priest and Professor of Greek at the Catholic University of Louvain, but was better known as an Indologist and the greatest authority on Buddhism in the West in his ...
, and Alex and Hideko Wayman, associate the Āndra Ikṣvāku dynasty with patronage of Mahāyāna sūtras.Osto, Douglas. ''Power, Wealth and Women in Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra'' 2011. pp. 114-115 Epigraphic evidence at Nāgārjunikoṇḍa also provides abundant evidence of royal and wealthy female donors.


Prajñāpāramitā

A number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna
Prajñāpāramitā A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala Prajñāpāramitā means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna. Prajñāpāramitā refers to a perfected way of seeing the natu ...
teachings were first developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas. They believe that the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' originated amongst the southern Mahāsāṃghika schools of the Āndhra region, along the Kṛṣṇa River. Guang Xing states, "several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahāsāṃghikas in southern India, in the Āndhra country, on the Kṛṣṇa River." These Mahāsāṃghikas had two famous monasteries near Amarāvati and the Dhānyakaṭaka, which gave their names to the schools of the Pūrvaśailas and the Aparaśailas. Each of these schools had a copy of the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' in
Prakrit Prakrit ( ) is a group of vernacular classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 5th century BCE to the 12th century CE. The term Prakrit is usually applied to the middle period of Middle Ind ...
. Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given in the ''Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' as being that of the Mahāsāṃghikas.
Edward Conze Edward Conze, born Eberhard Julius Dietrich Conze (1904–1979), was a scholar of Marxism and Buddhism, known primarily for his commentaries and translations of the Prajñāpāramitā literature. Biography Conze's parents, Dr. Ernst Conze (1872 ...
estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.


Buddha-nature doctrine

Brian Edward Brown, a specialist in Tathāgatagarbha doctrines, writes that it has been determined that the composition of the '' Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra'' occurred during the Īkṣvāku Dynasty in the 3rd century as a product of the Mahāsāṃghikas of the Āndhra region (i.e. the
Caitika Caitika () was an Early Buddhist schools, early Buddhist school, a sub-sect of the Mahāsāṃghika. They were also known as the Caityaka sect. The Caitikas proliferated throughout the mountains of South India, from which they derived thei ...
schools). Wayman has outlined eleven points of complete agreement between the Mahāsāṃghikas and the ''Śrīmālā'', along with four major arguments for this association. Anthony Barber also associates the earlier development of the '' Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra'' with the Mahāsāṃghikas, and concludes that the Mahāsāṃghikas of the Āndhra region were responsible for the inception of the Tathāgatagarbha doctrine. According to Stephen Hodge, internal textual evidence in the '' Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra'', ''Mahābherihāraka Parivarta Sūtra'', and the ''
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra The ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , ; Vietnamese: ''Kinh Đại Bát Niết Bàn'') or ''Nirvana Sutra'' for short, is an influential Mahayana, Mahāyāna Buddhist Sutra, scripture of the Buddha-nature class. The original ...
'', indicates that these texts were first circulated in South India and then gradually propagated up to the northwest, with
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
being the other major center. The ''Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra'' gives a more detailed account by mentioning the points of distribution as including
South India South India, also known as Southern India or Peninsular India, is the southern part of the Deccan Peninsula in India encompassing the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana as well as the union territories of ...
, the
Vindhya Range The Vindhya Range (also known as Vindhyachal) () is a complex, discontinuous chain of mountain ridges, hill ranges, highlands and plateau escarpments in west-central India. Technically, the Vindhyas do not form a single mountain range in the ...
, Bharuch, and Kashmir. The language used in the ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' and related texts, seems to indicate a region in southern India during the time of the Śātavāhana Dynasty. The Śātavāhana rulers gave rich patronage to Buddhism, and were involved with the development of the cave temples at Karla and Ajaṇṭā, and also with the Great
Stūpa In Buddhism, a stupa (, ) is a domed hemispherical structure containing several types of sacred relics, including images, statues, metals, and ''śarīra''—the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns. It is used as a place of pilgrimage and medi ...
at Amarāvati. During this time, the Śātavāhana Dynasty also maintained extensive links with the Kuṣāṇa Empire. Using textual evidence in the ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' and related texts, Stephen Hodge estimates a compilation period between 100 CE and 220 CE for the ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra''. Hodge summarizes his findings as follows: In the 6th century CE, Paramārtha wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas revere the sūtras which teach the Tathāgatagarbha.


Views of scholars

Since at least the
Meiji period The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...
in
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
, some scholars of Buddhism have looked to the Mahāsāṃghika as the originators of Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to Akira Hirakawa, modern scholars often look to the Mahāsāṃghikas as the originators of Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to A.K. Warder, it is "clearly" the case that the Mahāyāna teachings originally came from the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism. Warder holds that "the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country." Anthony Barber and Sree Padma note that "historians of Buddhist thought have been aware for quite some time that such pivotally important Mahayana Buddhist thinkers as
Nāgārjuna Nāgārjuna (Sanskrit: नागार्जुन, ''Nāgārjuna''; ) was an Indian monk and Mahāyāna Buddhist philosopher of the Madhyamaka (Centrism, Middle Way) school. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosoph ...
, Dignaga, Candrakīrti, Āryadeva, and Bhavaviveka, among many others, formulated their theories while living in Buddhist communities in Āndhra." André Bareau has stated that there can be found Mahāyāna ontology prefigured in the Mahāsāṃghika schools, and has offered an array of evidence to support this conclusion.Ray, Reginald. ''Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist Values and Orientations.'' 1999. p. 426 Bareau traces the origin of the Mahāyāna tradition to the older Mahāsāṃghika schools in regions such as
Odisha Odisha (), formerly Orissa (List of renamed places in India, the official name until 2011), is a States and union territories of India, state located in East India, Eastern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by ar ...
,
Kosala Kosala, sometimes referred to as Uttara Kosala () was one of the Mahajanapadas of ancient India. It emerged as a small state during the Late Vedic period and became (along with Magadha) one of the earliest states to transition from a lineage ...
, Koñkana, and so on. He then cites the Bahuśrutīyas and Prajñaptivādins as sub-sects of the Mahāsāṃghika that may have played an important role in bridging the flow of Mahāyāna teachings between the northern and southern Mahāsāṃghika traditions. André Bareau also mentions that according to
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
and
Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. The ''I Ching'' was originally a divination manual in ...
in the 7th century CE, the Mahāsāṃghika schools had essentially disappeared, and instead these travelers found what they described as "Mahāyāna." The region occupied by the Mahāsāṃghika was then an important center for Mahāyāna Buddhism. Bareau has proposed that Mahāyāna grew out of the Mahāsāṃghika schools, and the members of the Mahāsāṃghika schools also accepted the teachings of the Mahāyāna. Additionally, the extant Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was originally procured by Faxian in the early 5th century CE at what he describes as a "Mahāyāna" monastery in Pāṭaliputra.Walser, Joseph. ''Nāgārjuna in Context: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Early Indian Culture.'' 2005. p. 40


Vinaya recension


Early features

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya recension is essentially very similar to the other recensions, as they all are to each other. The Mahāsāṃghika recension differs most from the other recensions in structure, but the rules are generally identical in meaning, if the Vibhangas (explanations) are compared. The features of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya recension which suggest that it might be an older redaction are, in brief, these: The ''Bhiksu-prakirnaka'' and'' Bhiksuni-prakirnaka'' and the ''Bhiksu-abhisamacarika-dharma'' sections of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya are generally equivalent to the ''Khandhakas''/ ''Skandhakas'' of the Sthavira derived schools. However, their structure is simpler, and according to recent research by Clarke, the structure follows a ''matika'' (Matrix) which is also found embedded in the Vinayas of several of the Sthavira schools, suggesting that it is presectarian. The sub-sections of the ''Prakirnaka'' sections are also titled ''pratisamyukta'' rather than Skandhaka / Khandhaka. ''Pratisamyukta'' / ''Patisamyutta'' means a section or chapter in a collection organised by subject; the samyukta''-principle', like the ''Samyutta-Nikaya'' / ''Samyukta-agama''. Scholars such as Master Yin Shun, Choong Moon Keat, and Bhikkhu Sujato have argued that the ''Samyutta'' / ''Samyukta'' represents the earliest collection among the Nikayas / Agamas, and this may well imply that it is also the oldest ''organising principle'' too. (N.B. this does not necessarily say anything about the age of the contents). There are also fewer stories in general in the Vinaya of the subsidiary school, the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda, and many of them give the appearance of badly connected obvious interpolations, whereas in the structure of the Sthavira recensions the stories are integrated into the whole scheme. In the formulations of some of the pratimoksha rules also, the phrasing (though generally identical in meaning to the other recensions) often appears to represent a clearer but less streamlined version, which suggests it might be older. This is particularly noticeable in the ''Bhiksuni-Vinaya'', which has not been as well preserved as the ''Bhiksu-Vinaya'' in general in all the recensions. Yet the formulation of certain rules which seem very confused in the other recensions (e.g. ''Bhikkhuni Sanghadisesa'' three = six in the Ma-L) seems to better represent what would be expected of a root formulation which could lead to the variety of confused formulations we see (presumably later) in the other recensions. The formulation of this rule (as an example) also reflects a semi-parallel formulation to a closely related rule for Bhiksus which is found in a more similar form in all the Vinayas (Pc64 in Pali).


Depiction of Devadatta

According to Reginald Ray, the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya mentions the figure of
Devadatta Devadatta was by tradition a Buddhist monk, cousin and brother-in-law of Gautama Siddhārtha. The accounts of his life vary greatly, but he is generally seen as an evil and divisive figure in Buddhism, who led a breakaway group in the ear ...
, but in a way that is different from the vinayas of the Sthavira branch. According to this study, the earliest vinaya material common to all sects simply depicts Devadatta as a Buddhist saint who wishes for the monks to live a rigorous lifestyle. This has led Ray to regard the story of Devadatta as a legend produced by the Sthavira group. However, upon examining the same vinaya materials, Bhikkhu Sujato has written that the portrayals of Devadatta are largely consistent between the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya and the other vinayas, and that the supposed discrepancy is simply due to the minimalist literary style of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya. He also points to other parts of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya that clearly portray Devadatta as a villain, as well as similar portrayals that exist in the Lokottaravādin '' Mahāvastu''.


Chinese translation

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya is extant in the Chinese Buddhist Canon as ''Mohesengzhi Lü'' (摩訶僧祗律;
Taishō Tripiṭaka The ''Taishō Tripiṭaka'' (; Japanese: ''Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō''; " Taishō Revised Tripiṭaka") is a definitive edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon and its Japanese commentaries used by scholars in the 20th century. The name is abbr ...
1425). The vinaya was originally procured by
Faxian Faxian (337–), formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as Fa-hien and Fa-hsien, was a Han Chinese, Chinese Chinese Buddhism, Buddhist bhikkhu, monk and translator who traveled on foot from Eastern Jin dynasty, Jin China to medieval India t ...
in the early 5th century CE at a Mahāyāna monastery in Pāṭaliputra. This vinaya was then translated into Chinese as a joint effort between Faxian and Buddhabhadra in 416 CE, and the completed translation is 40 fascicles in length. According to Faxian, in Northern India, the vinaya teachings were typically only passed down by tradition through word of mouth and memorization. For this reason, it was difficult for him to procure manuscripts of the vinayas that were used in India. The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was reputed to be the original vinaya from the lifetime of the Buddha, and "the most correct and complete."


Legacy

Although Faxian procured the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya in India and had this translated into Chinese, the tradition of
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
eventually settled on the
Dharmaguptaka The Dharmaguptaka (Sanskrit: धर्मगुप्तक; ; ) are one of the eighteen or twenty early Buddhist schools from the ancient region of Gandhara, now Pakistan. They are said to have originated from another sect, the Mahīśāsakas f ...
Vinaya instead. At the time of Faxian, the
Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (; ;) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (third century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy in the First Millennium CE, 2018, p. 60. It was particularl ...
Vinaya was the most common vinaya tradition in China. In the 7th century, Yijing wrote that in eastern China, most people followed the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, while the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was used in earlier times in
Guanzhong Guanzhong (, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben str ...
(the region around
Chang'an Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
), and that the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was prominent in the Yangzi region and further south. In the 7th century, the existence of multiple Vinaya lineages throughout China was criticized by prominent Vinaya masters such as Yijing and Dao'an (654–717). In the early 8th century, Dao'an gained the support of
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (26 November 656 – 3 July 710), personal name Li Xian, and at other times Li Zhe or Wu Xian, was the fourth and seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710. During ...
, and an imperial edict was issued that the saṃgha in China should use only the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya for ordination.Heirman, Ann. Bumbacher, Stephan Peter. ''The Spread of Buddhism.'' 2007. pp. 194-195
Atiśa Atish Dipankar Shrijnan (Sanskrit transliteration: Atiśa Dipankara Shrijnana) (c. 982–1054 CE) was a Bengalis, Bengali Buddhist religious teacher and leader. He is generally associated with his body of work authored at Vikramashila, Vikram ...
was ordained in the Mahāsāṃghika lineage. However, because the Tibetan Emperor Ralpacan had decreed that only the
Mūlasarvāstivāda The Mūlasarvāstivāda (; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools of India. The origins of the Mūlasarvāstivāda school and their relationship to the Sarvāstivāda remain largely unknown, although various theories exist. The continuity of t ...
order would be permitted in Tibet, he did not ordain anyone.


See also

*
Schools of Buddhism The schools of Buddhism are the various institutional and doctrinal divisions of Buddhism, which have often been based on historical sectarianism and the differing teachings and interpretations of specific Buddhist texts. The branching of Buddhi ...
*
Early Buddhist schools The early Buddhist schools refers to the History of Buddhism in India, Indian Buddhist "doctrinal schools" or "schools of thought" (Sanskrit: ''vāda'') which arose out of the early unified Buddhist monasticism, Buddhist monastic community (San ...
*
Nikaya Buddhism The term Nikāya Buddhism was coined by Masatoshi Nagatomi as a non-derogatory substitute for Hinayana, meaning the early Buddhist schools. Examples of these groups are pre-sectarian Buddhism and the early Buddhist schools. Some scholars exclud ...


References


Bibliography

*"Arya-Mahasamghika-Lokuttaravadin Bhiksuni-Vinaya"; edited by Gustav Roth, 1970. *Mahasamghika and Mahasamghika-Lokuttaravadin Vinayas in Chinese translation; CBETA Taisho digital edition. *"The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature"; Frauwallner, Serie Orientale Roma, 8. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. *"Vinaya-Matrka — Mother of the Monastic Codes, or Just Another Set of Lists? A Response to Frauwallner's Handling of the Mahasamghika Vinaya"; Shayne Clarke. Indo-Iranian Journal 47: 77-120, 2004. *"A Survey of Vinaya Literature"; Charles Prebish. Originally, Volume I of The Dharma Lamp Series. Taipei, Taiwan: Jin Luen Publishing House, 1994, 157 pages. Now published by Curzon Press. *"The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: a comparative study based on the Sūtrāṅga portion of the Pali Saṃyutta-Nikāya and the Chinese Saṃyuktāgama", Choong Mun-Keat, Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 2000. (Contains an account of Master Yin-Shun's theory that the Samyukt'Agama is the oldest ''collection'', by a student of Prof. Rod Bucknell.) *"History of Mindfulness"; Bhikkhu Sujato, Taipei, Taiwan: the Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2006. (Gives further evidence for the Anga-theory of Master Yin-Shun and the theory that the Samyukta-/ Samyutta- is the oldest organising principle.) *"Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvastivadins"; Charles Prebish. Volume I of the Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions Series. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975, 156 pages. First Indian Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996. (This is only a translation of a small part of the Vinayas, on its own it is nearly useless.) *Charles Prebish and Janice J. Nattier
"Mahasamghika Origins: The Beginnings of Buddhist Sectarianism"
History of Religions, 16, 3 (February, 1977), 237–272. *"The Pratimoksa Puzzle: Fact Versus Fantasy"; Charles Prebish. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 94, 2 (April–June, 1974), 168–176. *"A Review of Scholarship on the Buddhist Councils"; Charles Prebish. Journal of Asian Studies, XXXIII, 2 (February, 1974), 239–254. *"Theories Concerning the Skandhaka: An Appraisal"; Charles Prebish Journal of Asian Studies, XXXII, 4 (August, 1973), 669–678. *"Saiksa-dharmas Revisited: Further Considerations of Mahasamghika Origins"; Charles Prebish. History of Religions, 35, 3 (February, 1996), 258–270.


External links

* J. J. Jones (1949)
The Mahavastu (English translation)
including footnotes and glossary

(input by Abhisamacarika-Dharma Study Group, Taisho University); GRETIL Archive {{Buddhism topics Nikaya schools Early Buddhist schools