The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit
epics of
ancient India
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentism, Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; ...
revered as
Smriti texts in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
, the other being the ''
Rāmāyaṇa''.
It narrates the events and aftermath of the
Kurukshetra War
The Kurukshetra War (), also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Hindu Indian epic poetry, epic poem ''Mahabharata'', arising from a dynastic struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, for the thr ...
, a
war of succession
A war of succession is a war prompted by a succession crisis in which two or more individuals claim to be the Order of succession, rightful successor to a demise of the Crown, deceased or deposition (politics), deposed monarch. The rivals are ...
between two groups of princely cousins, the
Kauravas and the
Pāṇḍavas.
It also contains
philosophical
Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or ''
puruṣārtha'' (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the ''Mahābhārata'' are the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
'', the story of
Damayanti
Damayanti () is a heroine in ancient Indian literature, primarily known for her role in the episode of ''Nala and Damayanti, Nalopakhyana'', which is embedded within the ''Vana Parva'' (the third book) of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c. 400 BCE – ...
, the story of
Shakuntala, the story of
Pururava and
Urvashi, the story of
Savitri and Satyavan, the story of
Kacha and
Devayani, the story of
Rishyasringa and an
abbreviated version of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'', often considered as works in their own right.
Traditionally, the authorship of the ''Mahābhārata'' is attributed to
Vyāsa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The bulk of the ''Mahābhārata'' was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.
[Brockington (1998, p. 26)] The text probably reached its final form by the early
Gupta period ().
The title is translated as "Great
Bharat (India)", or "the story of the great descendants of
Bharata", or as "''The Great Indian Tale''". The ''Mahābhārata'' is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written".
Its longest version consists of over 100,000
shlokas (verses) or over 200,000 individual lines (each
shloka
Shloka or śloka ( , from the root , Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'', Appendix II, p. 232 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927).) in a broader sense, according to Monier-Williams's dictionary, is "any verse or stan ...
is a couplet), and long prose passages. At about 1.8 million words in total, the ''Mahābhārata'' is roughly ten times the length of the ''
Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...
'' and the ''
Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; ) is one of two major epics of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like the ''Iliad'', the ''Odyssey'' is divi ...
'' combined, or about four times the length of the ''
Rāmāyaṇa''. Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called the
fifth Veda.
Textual history and structure

The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage
Vyasa
Vyasa (; , ) or Veda Vyasa (, ), also known as Krishna Dvaipayana Veda Vyasa (, ''Vedavyāsa''), is a ''rishi'' (sage) with a prominent role in most Hindu traditions. He is traditionally regarded as the author of the epic Mahabharata, Mah� ...
, who is also a major figure in the epic.
Vyasa described it as being an ''
itihasa'' (). He also describes the
Guru–shishya tradition, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.
The first section of the ''Mahābhārata'' states that it was
Ganesha
Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...
who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation, but this is regarded by scholars as a later interpolation to the epic and the "Critical Edition" does not include Ganesha.
The epic employs the
story within a story
A story within a story, also referred to as an embedded narrative, is a literary device in which a character within a story becomes the narrator of a second story (within the first one). Multiple layers of stories within stories are sometime ...
structure, otherwise known as
frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is first recited at ''
Takshashila'' by the sage
Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa, to the King
Janamejaya who was the great-grandson of the
Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...
prince
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
. The story is then recited again by a professional storyteller named
Ugrashrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the
Naimisha Forest.

The text was described by some early 20th-century
Indologists as unstructured and chaotic.
Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense "tragic force" but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."
Moritz Winternitz
Moriz Winternitz (Horn, Austria, Horn, December 23, 1863 – Prague, January 9, 1937) was a scholar from Austria who began his Indology contributions working with Max Müller at the Oxford University. An eminent Sanskrit scholar, he worked as ...
(''Geschichte der indischen Literatur'' 1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.
Accretion and redaction
Research on the ''Mahābhārata'' has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present ''Mahabharata'' can be traced back to Vedic times. The background to the ''Mahābhārata'' suggests the origin of the epic occurs "after the very early
Vedic period
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, between the e ...
" and before "
the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C." That this is "a date not too far removed from the 8th or 9th century B.C."
[Buitenen (1973) pp. xxiv–xxv] is likely. The ''Mahabharata'' started as an orally-transmitted tale of the charioteer
bard
In Celtic cultures, a bard is an oral repository and professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's a ...
s. It is generally agreed that "Unlike the
Vedas
FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...
, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style,"
so the earliest 'surviving' components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest 'external' references we have to the epic, which include a reference in
Panini's 4th century BCE grammar
''Ashtadhyayi'' 4:2:56.
Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the ''Mahābhārata'', commented: "It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in an original shape, based on an archetype and a ''
stemma codicum''. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct ''the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach'' based on the manuscript material available." That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.
The ''Mahābhārata'' itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses: the ''Bhārata'' proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the ''
Ashvalayana Grihyasutra'' (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three redactions of the text are commonly recognized: ''Jaya'' (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, the ''Bharata'' with 24,000 verses as recited by
Vaisampayana, and finally the ''Mahābhārata'' as recited by
Ugrashrava Sauti with over 100,000 verses. However, some scholars, such as John Brockington, argue that ''Jaya'' and ''Bharata'' refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory of ''Jaya'' with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in the ''
Adi Parva
The Adi Parva ("Book of the Beginning") is the first of the eighteen ''parvas'' (books) of the Indian epic ''Mahabharata''. "Ādi" (wiktionary:आदि#Sanskrit, आदि) in Sanskrit means "first". Adi Parva traditionally has 19 parts and 236 ' ...
'' (1.1.81). The
redaction
Redaction or sanitization is the process of removing sensitive information from a document so that it may be distributed to a broader audience. It is intended to allow the selective disclosure of information. Typically, the result is a document ...
of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18 and 12. The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the ''
Anushasana Parva'' and the ''
Virata Parva'' from the "
Spitzer manuscript". The oldest surviving
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
text dates to the
Kushan Period (200 CE).
According to what one figure says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with ''Manu'' (1.1.27), ''Astika'' (1.3, sub-Parva 5), or ''Vasu'' (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The ''Vasu'' version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa. The ''astika'' version would add the ''sarpasattra'' and ''ashvamedha'' material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the name ''Mahābhārata'', and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The redactors of these additions were probably
Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Mention of the
Huna in the ''
Bhishma Parva'' however appears to imply that this Parva may have been edited around the 4th century.

The ''Adi Parva'' includes the snake sacrifice (''sarpasattra'') of
Janamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why despite this, there are still snakes in existence. This ''sarpasattra'' material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the ''Mahābhārata'' by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to
Vedic
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed ...
(
Brahmana
The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedas, Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Sama, Yajurveda, Yajur, and Athar ...
) literature. The ''
Panchavimsha Brahmana'' (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of a ''sarpasattra'' among whom the names
Dhritarashtra and Janamejaya, two main figures of the ''Mahābhāratas ''sarpasattra'', as well as
Takshaka, a snake in the ''Mahābhārata'', occur.
The ''
Suparnakhyana'', a late Vedic period poem considered to be among the "earliest traces of epic poetry in India," is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of
Garuda
Garuda (; ; Vedic Sanskrit: , ) is a Hindu deity who is primarily depicted as the mount (''vahana'') of the Hindu god Vishnu. This divine creature is mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain faiths. Garuda is also the half-brother of the D ...
that is included in the ''Astika Parva'', within the ''Adi Parva'' of the ''Mahābhārata''.
Historical references
The earliest known references to ''bhārata'' and the
compound ''mahābhārata'' date to the
''Ashtadhyayi'' (
sutra
''Sutra'' ()Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a ...
6.2.38) of
Panini (''fl.'' 4th century BCE) and the ''
Ashvalayana Grihyasutra'' (3.4.4). This may mean that the core 24,000 verses, known as the ''Bhārata'', as well as an early version of the extended ''Mahābhārata'', were composed by the 4th century BCE. However, it is uncertain whether Panini referred to the epic, as ''bhārata'' was also used to describe other things.
Albrecht Weber mentions the
Rigvedic tribe of the
Bharatas, where a great person might have been designated as ''Mahā-Bhārata.'' However, as Panini also mentions figures that play a role in the ''Mahābhārata'', some parts of the epic may have already been known in his day. Another aspect is that Panini determined the
accent of ''mahā-bhārata''. However, the ''Mahābhārata'' was not recited in
Vedic accent.
The Greek writer
Dio Chrysostom () reported that
Homer
Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
's poetry was being sung even in India. Many scholars have taken this as evidence for the existence of a ''Māhabhārata'' at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of the ''Iliad''.
Several stories within the ''Mahābhārata'' took on separate identities of their own in
Classical Sanskrit literature. For instance, the
''Abhijnanashakuntala'' by the Sanskrit poet
Kalidasa (), believed to have lived in the era of the
Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the ''Mahābhārata''. The ''
Urubhanga'', a Sanskrit play written by
Bhasa who is believed to have lived before Kalidasa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhana by the splitting of his thighs by
Bhima
Bhima (, ), also known as Bhimasena (, ), is a hero and one of the most prominent characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. As the second of the five Pandava brothers, Bhima was born to Kunti—the wife of King Pandu—fathered by Vayu, the ...
.
The copper-plate inscription of the
Maharaja
Maharaja (also spelled Maharajah or Maharaj; ; feminine: Maharani) is a royal title in Indian subcontinent, Indian subcontinent of Sanskrit origin. In modern India and Medieval India, medieval northern India, the title was equivalent to a pri ...
Sharvanatha (533–534 CE) from Khoh (
Satna District,
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh (; ; ) is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and the largest city is Indore, Indore. Other major cities includes Gwalior, Jabalpur, and Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, Sagar. Madhya Pradesh is the List of states and union te ...
) describes the ''Mahābhārata'' as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (''śata-sahasri saṃhitā'').
The 18 parvas or books
The division into 18 parvas is as follows:
Historical context
The historicity of the
Kurukshetra War
The Kurukshetra War (), also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Hindu Indian epic poetry, epic poem ''Mahabharata'', arising from a dynastic struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, for the thr ...
is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to
Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE. The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (
Vedic
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed ...
) India, where the
Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE. A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the ''Jaya'', the foundation on which the ''Mahābhārata'' corpus was built, with a climactic battle, eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.
Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the ''Mahābhārata'' narrative. The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1,015 (or 1,050) years between the birth of
Parikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of
Mahapadma Nanda (400–329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle. However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies. Of the second kind is analysis of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (
Parikshit's great-grandson) and
Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.
B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.
John Keay
John Stanley Melville Keay FRGS (born 1941) is a British historian, journalist, radio presenter and lecturer specialising in popular histories of India, the Far East and China, often with a particular focus on their colonisation and explora ...
suggests "their core narratives seem to relate to events from a period prior to all but the Rig Veda."
Attempts to date the events using methods of
archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid-2nd millennium BCE. The late 4th-millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the ''
Kali Yuga'' epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by
Aryabhata
Aryabhata ( ISO: ) or Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the '' Āryabhaṭīya'' (which mentions that in 3600 ' ...
(6th century). Aryabhata's date of 18 February 3102 BCE for ''Mahābhārata'' war has become widespread in Indian tradition. Some sources mark this as the disappearance of
Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
from the Earth. The
Aihole inscription of
Pulakeshin II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3,735 years have elapsed since the Bhārata battle, putting the date of ''Mahābhārata'' war at 3137BCE.
Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by
Vrddha Garga,
Varāhamihira and
Kalhana, place the Bharata war 653 years after the ''Kali Yuga'' epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE. According to Varāhamihira's ''
Bṛhat Saṃhitā'' (6th century),
Yudhishthara lived 2,526 years before the beginning of the
Shaka era
The Shaka era (IAST: Śaka, Śāka) is a historical Hindu calendar era (year numbering), the epoch (its year zero) of which corresponds to Julian year (calendar), Julian year 78.
The era has been widely used in different regions of the Indian ...
, which begins in the 78 CE. This places Yudhishthara (and therefore, the Mahabharata war) around 2448–2449 BCE (2526–78). Some scholars have attempted to identify the "Shaka" calendar era mentioned by Varāhamihira with other eras, but such identifications place Varāhamihira in the first century BCE, which is impossible as he refers to the 5th century astronomer
Aryabhata
Aryabhata ( ISO: ) or Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the '' Āryabhaṭīya'' (which mentions that in 3600 ' ...
.
Kalhana's ''
Rajatarangini'' (11th century), apparently relying on Varāhamihira, also states that the Pandavas flourished 653 years after the beginning of the Kali Yuga; Kalhana adds that people who believe that the Bharata war was fought at the end of the ''
Dvapara Yuga'' are foolish.
Sanskrit and ''Mahābhārata'' scholar
Robert P. Goldman states:
(The ''Mahābhārata'') cloaks itself in mythology, but I don't think the text itself should be called a myth...it's an '' itihasa'' but in the terms that the tradition understood history. It is a ''kāvya
Kāvya (Devanagari: :wikt:काव्य#Devanagari, काव्य, IAST: ''kāvyá'') refers to the Sanskrit literary style used by Kingdoms of Ancient India, Indian court poets flourishing between c. 200 BCE and 1200 CE.
This literary styl ...
'', obviously, it is a ''shastra
''Śāstra'' ( ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'zAstra'' The word is ge ...
'', and it is a teaching method for how to live in the world - how to respect your elders, how to respect the brahmins
Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
, and so on. So in answer to the question "Is it history or mythology?", I would say yes, it is both of those things, and a great deal more.
Synopsis
The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of
Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the
Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the
Kaurava and the
Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...
. Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family,
Duryodhana
Duryodhana (, Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ̪ʊɾjoːd̪ʱən̪ᵊ ), also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He is the eldest of the Kaurava, Kauravas, the hundred sons of King Dhritarashtra and Queen Gan ...
, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than
Yudhishthira, the eldest Pandava. Both
Duryodhana
Duryodhana (, Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ̪ʊɾjoːd̪ʱən̪ᵊ ), also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He is the eldest of the Kaurava, Kauravas, the hundred sons of King Dhritarashtra and Queen Gan ...
and
Yudhishthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.
The struggle culminates in the
Kurukshetra War
The Kurukshetra War (), also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Hindu Indian epic poetry, epic poem ''Mahabharata'', arising from a dynastic struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, for the thr ...
, in which the
Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.
The ''Mahābhārata'' itself ends with the death of
Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of ''
Kali Yuga'', the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality, and virtue.
The older generations
King Janamejaya's ancestor,
Shantanu, the king of
Hastinapura, had a short-lived marriage with the goddess
Ganga and had a son, Devavrata (later to be called
Bhishma, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when King
Shantanu goes hunting, he sees
Satyavati
Satyavati (, ; also spelled Satyawati) was the queen of the Kuru Kingdom in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. Satyavati is married to king Shantanu of Hastinapura, and is a great-grandmother of the Pandava and Kaurava princes. She is also the m ...
, the daughter of the chief of fishermen, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma,
Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honoring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.
Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati,
Chitrāngada and
Vichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies.
Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules
Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of
Kāśī arranges a
swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapura. To arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses
Amba,
Ambika, and
Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.
The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry the king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry the king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. She vows to kill him in her next life. Later she is reborn to King
Drupada as
Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
, in the battle of Kurukshetra.
The Pandava and Kaurava princes

When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son
Vyasa
Vyasa (; , ) or Veda Vyasa (, ), also known as Krishna Dvaipayana Veda Vyasa (, ''Vedavyāsa''), is a ''rishi'' (sage) with a prominent role in most Hindu traditions. He is traditionally regarded as the author of the epic Mahabharata, Mah� ...
, born to her from a previous union with the sage
Parashara, to
father children with the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son
Dhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son
Pandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son,
Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest figures in the ''Mahabharata''. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.
When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to
Kunti
Kunti (, un̪t̪iː ), also known as Pritha (, ">r̩t̪ʰaː/nowiki>, ), is a prominent female character in the ancient Hindu epic '' Mahabharata''. She is chiefly recognised as the mother of the central characters—the five Pandavas—h ...
and
Madri. Dhritarashtra marries
Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself for the rest of her life so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother
Shakuni
Shakuni (, , ) is one of the antagonists of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He was the prince of the kingdom of Gandhara when introduced, later becoming its king after the death of his father, Subala. He was the brother of Gandhari (Mahabharata), ...
is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However, the arrow hits the sage
Kindama, who was engaged in a sexual act in the guise of a deer. He curses Pandu that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.
Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage
Durvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask
Dharma
Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
, the god of justice,
Vayu
Vayu (; ), also known as Vata () and Pavana (), is the Hindu deities, Hindu god of the winds as well as the divine messenger of the gods. In the ''Vedic scriptures'', Vayu is an important deity and is closely associated with Indra, the king o ...
, the god of the wind, and
Indra
Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes
Indra is the m ...
, the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons,
Yudhishthira,
Bhima
Bhima (, ), also known as Bhimasena (, ), is a hero and one of the most prominent characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. As the second of the five Pandava brothers, Bhima was born to Kunti—the wife of King Pandu—fathered by Vayu, the ...
, and
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen
Madri, who bears the twins
Nakula
Nakula () is a major character in the ancient Indian epic, the ''Mahabharata.'' He is the elder twin brother of Sahadeva and the fourth of the five Pandava brothers. He is the son of Divine twins, twin physician gods, Ashvins, and Madri, the ...
and
Sahadeva
Sahadeva () was the youngest of the five Pandava brothers in the ancient Indian epic, the '' Mahabharata''. He and his twin brother Nakula were the sons of Madri, one of the wives of the Pandava patriarch Pandu, and Ashvini Kumaras, the ...
through the
Ashwini twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in lovemaking, and Pandu dies. Madri commits suicide out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the
Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...
brothers.
Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons, and one daughter—
Duhsala—through
Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishthira. These are the
Kaurava brothers, the eldest being
Duryodhana
Duryodhana (, Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ̪ʊɾjoːd̪ʱən̪ᵊ ), also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He is the eldest of the Kaurava, Kauravas, the hundred sons of King Dhritarashtra and Queen Gan ...
, and the second
Dushasana. Other Kaurava brothers include
Vikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the
Kurukshetra war.
Lakshagraha (the house of lac)
After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur. Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers.
Shakuni, Duryodhana, and Dushasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect
Purochana to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, intending to set it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle,
Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They escape to safety through the tunnel and go into hiding. During this time, Bhima marries a
demon
A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in folklore, mythology, religion, occultism, and literature; these beliefs are reflected in Media (communication), media including
f ...
ess
Hidimbi and has a son
Ghatotkacha. Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.
Marriage to Draupadi

Whilst they were in hiding, the Pandavas learn of a
swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of the
Pāñcāla
Panchala () was an ancient Realm, kingdom of northern India, located in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab of the Gangetic plain, Upper Gangetic plain which is identified as Kannauj, Kanyakubja or region around Kannauj. During Late Vedic period, Vedic time ...
princess
Draupadī. The Pandavas, disguised as
Brahmin
Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
s, come to witness the event. Meanwhile, Krishna, who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead). The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below. In popular versions, after all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow, Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi who refuses to marry a suta (this has been excised from the Critical Edition of Mahabharata
as later interpolation
). After this, the swayamvara is opened to the Brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi. The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves, thinking it to be
alms
Alms (, ) are money, food, or other material goods donated to people living in poverty. Providing alms is often considered an act of Charity (practice), charity. The act of providing alms is called almsgiving.
Etymology
The word ''alms'' come ...
. Thus, Draupadi ends up being the
wife of all five brothers.
Indraprastha
After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited by
Takshaka, the king of snakes, and his family. Through hard work, the Pandavas build a new glorious capital for the territory at
Indraprastha.
Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister,
Subhadra. Yudhishthira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the ''rājasūya yagna'' ceremony; he is thus recognized as pre-eminent among kings.
The Pandavas have a
new palace built for them, by
Maya
Maya may refer to:
Ethnic groups
* Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America
** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples
** Mayan languages, the languages of the Maya peoples
* Maya (East Africa), a p ...
the
Danava. They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond and assumes it is not water and falls in.
Bhima
Bhima (, ), also known as Bhimasena (, ), is a hero and one of the most prominent characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. As the second of the five Pandava brothers, Bhima was born to Kunti—the wife of King Pandu—fathered by Vayu, the ...
,
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
, the twins and the servants laugh at him.
In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhishthira) who had insulted Duryodhana. Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game on Shakuni's suggestion. This suggestion was accepted by Yudhisthira despite the rest of the Pandavas advising him not to play.
The dice game
Shakuni
Shakuni (, , ) is one of the antagonists of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He was the prince of the kingdom of Gandhara when introduced, later becoming its king after the death of his father, Subala. He was the brother of Gandhari (Mahabharata), ...
, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed.
Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra calls for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden called as ''
Agyaata Vaasa''. If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.
Exile and return
The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. The Pandavas acquire many divine weapons, given by gods, during this period. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of the king
Virata, and they are discovered just after the end of the year.
At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary. However, this negotiation fails, because Duryodhana objected that they were discovered in the 13th year of their exile and the return of their kingdom was not agreed upon. Then the Pandavas fought the Kauravas, claiming their rights over Indraprastha.
The battle at Kurukshetra
The two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at
Kurukshetra for a war. The kingdoms of
Panchala,
Dwaraka, Kasi,
Kekaya,
Magadha,
Matsya
Matsya () is the fish avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. Often described as the first of Vishnu's Dashavatara, ten primary avatars, Matsya is described to have rescued the first man, Manu (Hinduism), Manu, from a great deluge. Matsya may be dep ...
,
Chedi,
Pandyas,
Telinga, the
Yadus of
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the states and union territories of India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located south-east of Delhi; and about from the town of Vrindavan. In ancient ti ...
, and some other clans like the
Parama Kambojas were allied with the
Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...
s. The allies of the
Kauravas included the kings of Pragjyotisha,
Anga
Anga was an ancient Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan tribe of eastern South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age in India, Iron Age. The members of the Aṅga tribe were called the Āṅgeyas.
Counted among the "sixteen great na ...
, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus,
Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati,
Avanti in Madhyadesa,
Madra,
Gandhara
Gandhara () was an ancient Indo-Aryan people, Indo-Aryan civilization in present-day northwest Pakistan and northeast Afghanistan. The core of the region of Gandhara was the Peshawar valley, Peshawar (Pushkalawati) and Swat valleys extending ...
, Bahlika people, Kambojas, and many others. Before war is declared, Balarama expresses his unhappiness at the developing conflict and leaves to go on pilgrimage; he does not take part in the battle. Krishna participates in a non-combatant role, as charioteer (Sarathi (name of Krishna), Sarathy) for
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
and offers Narayani Sena consisting of Abhira tribe, Abhira gopas to the
Kauravas to fight on their side.
Before the battle, Arjuna, noticing that the opposing army includes his cousins and relatives, including his grandfather
Bhishma and his teacher Drona, has grave doubts about the fight. He falls into despair and refuses to fight. At this time, Krishna reminds him of his duty as a Kshatriya to fight for a righteous cause in the famous
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
section of the epic.
Though initially adhering to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonorable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa, Ashwatthama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive. Yudhisthira becomes king of Hastinapur. All warriors who died in the Kurukshetra war go to swarga.
The end of the Pandavas

After "seeing" the carnage,
Gandhari, who had lost all her sons, curses
Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.
The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishthira gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
,
Nakula
Nakula () is a major character in the ancient Indian epic, the ''Mahabharata.'' He is the elder twin brother of Sahadeva and the fourth of the five Pandava brothers. He is the son of Divine twins, twin physician gods, Ashvins, and Madri, the ...
and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhishthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja) and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.
Arjuna's grandson
Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (''sarpasattra'') to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.
The reunion
The ''Mahābhārata'' mentions that Karna, the Pandavas, Draupadi and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended to svarga and "attained the state of the gods", and banded together – "serene and free from anger".
Themes
Just war
The ''Mahābhārata'' offers one of the first instances of theorizing about ''Dharma-yuddha, dharmayuddha'', "Just war theory, just war", illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like ''proportionality'' (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), ''just means'' (no poisoned or barbed arrows), ''just cause'' (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded.
Translations, versions and derivative works
Translations

The first Bengali language, Bengali translations of the ''Mahabharata'' emerged in the 16th century. It is disputed whether Kavindra Parameshwar of Hooghly district, Hooghly (based in Chittagong during his writing) or Sri Sanjay of Sylhet was the first to translate it into Bengali.
A Persian language, Persian translation of ''Mahabharata'', titled ''Razmnameh'', was produced at Akbar's orders, by Faizi and ʽAbd al-Qadir Badayuni in the 16th century.
The first complete English translation was the Victorian literature, Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by Manmatha Nath Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the public domain and is available online.
An early poetry translation by Romesh Chunder Dutt and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of the ''Mahābhārata'' into English verse. A poetic rendering of the full epic into English, done by the poet Purushottama Lal, P. Lal and completed posthumously by his student, was published by Writers Workshop (publisher), Writers Workshop, Calcutta. The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and it is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the ''Critical Edition''). Dr. Pradip Bhattacharya stated that the P. Lal version is "known in academia as the 'vulgate'".
The text is a "transcreation" rather than a traditional translation.
A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. The translation is based not on the ''Critical Edition'' but on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha Caturdhara, Nīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.
Indian Vedic Shripad Damodar Satwalekar, Scholar Shripad Damodar Satwalekar translated the Critical Edition of Mahabharata into Hindi which was assigned to him by the Government of India. After his death, the task was taken up by Shrutisheel Sharma.
[Sadwalekar has two translations in Hindi. To read BORI CE in Hindi specifically, go for the translations he published starting from 1968(BORI was published in 1966).]
Indian economist Bibek Debroy also wrote an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010, and the last two volumes were published in December 2014. Abhinav Agarwal referred to Debroy's translation as "thoroughly enjoyable and impressively scholarly".
[ In a review of the seventh volume, Bhattacharya stated that the translator bridged gaps in the narrative of the Critical Edition, but also noted translation errors.][ Gautam Chikermane of ''Hindustan Times'' wrote that where "both Debroy and Ganguli get tiresome is in the use of adjectives while describing protagonists".
Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the ''Critical Edition'', is in progress, published by University of Chicago Press. It was initiated by Indologist J. A. B. van Buitenen (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by several scholars. James L. Fitzgerald translated book 11 and the first half of book 12. David Gitomer is translating book 6, Gary Tubb is translating book 7, Christopher Minkowski is translating book 8, Alf Hiltebeitel is translating books 9 and 10, Fitzgerald is translating the second half of book 12, Patrick Olivelle is translating book 13, and Fred Smith is translating book 14–18.
Many condensed versions, abridgments and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in English, including works by Ramesh Menon (writer), Ramesh Menon, William Buck (translator), William Buck, R. K. Narayan, C. Rajagopalachari, Kamala Subramaniam, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, K. M. Munshi, Krishna Dharma Dasa, Purnaprajna Dasa, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Romesh C. Dutt, Bharadvaja Sarma, John D. Smith and Sharon Maas.
]
''Critical Edition''
Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the ''Critical Edition'' of the ''Mahābhārata'', on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, over the span of 47 years, followed by the ''Harivamsha'' in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the text that is usually used in current ''Mahābhārata'' studies for reference. This work is sometimes called the "Pune" or "Poona" edition of the ''Mahabharata''.
Regional versions
Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include the Tamil culture, Tamil street theatre, terukkuttu and kattaikkuttu, the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions of ''Mahābhārata'', focusing on Draupadi.
Outside the Indian subcontinent, in Indonesia, a version was developed in ancient Java as Kakawin Bhāratayuddha in the 11th century under the patronage of King Dharmawangsa (990–1016) and later it spread to the neighboring island of Bali, which remains a Hindu majority island today. It has become the fertile source for Javanese literature, dance drama (wayang wong), and wayang shadow puppet performances. This Javanese version of the ''Mahābhārata'' differs slightly from the original Indian version. Another notable difference is the inclusion of the Punakawans, the clown servants of the main figures in the storyline. These Semar, Petruk, Gareng, and Bagong, who are much-loved by Indonesian audiences. There are also some spin-off episodes developed in ancient Java, such as Arjunawiwaha composed in the 11th century.
A Kawi language, Kawi version of the ''Mahabharata'', of which eight of the eighteen ''parvas'' survive, is found on the Indonesian island of Bali. It has been translated into English by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi.
Derivative literature
Bhasa, the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the ''Marabharata'', '' Urubhanga'' (''Broken Thigh''), about the fight between Duryodhana
Duryodhana (, Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ̪ʊɾjoːd̪ʱən̪ᵊ ), also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata.'' He is the eldest of the Kaurava, Kauravas, the hundred sons of King Dhritarashtra and Queen Gan ...
and Bhima
Bhima (, ), also known as Bhimasena (, ), is a hero and one of the most prominent characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. As the second of the five Pandava brothers, Bhima was born to Kunti—the wife of King Pandu—fathered by Vayu, the ...
, while ''Madhyamavyayoga'' (''The Middle One'') set around Bhima
Bhima (, ), also known as Bhimasena (, ), is a hero and one of the most prominent characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. As the second of the five Pandava brothers, Bhima was born to Kunti—the wife of King Pandu—fathered by Vayu, the ...
and his son, Ghatotkacha. The first important play of 20th century was ''Andha Yug'' (''The Blind Epoch''), by Dharamvir Bharati, which came in 1955, found in ''Mahabharat'', both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent. Starting with Ebrahim Alkazi, it was staged by numerous directors. V. S. Khandekar's Marathi novel, ''Yayati'' (1960), and Girish Karnad's debut play ''Yayati'' (1961) are based on the story of King Yayati found in the ''Mahabharat''. Bengali writer and playwright, Buddhadeva Bose wrote three plays set in Mahabharat, ''Anamni Angana'', ''Pratham Partha'' and ''Kalsandhya''. Pratibha Ray wrote an Moortidevi Award, award winning novel entitled Yajnaseni (novel), Yajnaseni from Draupadi's perspective in 1984. Later, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni wrote a similar novel entitled ''The Palace of Illusions: A Novel'' in 2008. Gujarati poet Chinu Modi has written long narrative poetry ''Bahuk'' based on the figure Bahuka (Nala), Bahuka. Krishna Udayasankar, a Singapore-based Indian author, has written several novels which are modern-day retellings of the epic, most notably the Aryavarta Chronicles Series. Suman Pokhrel wrote a Yajnaseni (play), solo play based on Yajnaseni (novel), Ray's novel by personalizing and taking Draupadi alone in the scene.
Amar Chitra Katha published a 1,260-page Mahabharata (comics), comic book version of the ''Mahabharata''.
In film and television
In Cinema of India, Indian cinema, several film versions of the epic have been made, dating back to 1920. The ''Mahābhārata'' was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in ''Kalyug (1980 film), Kalyug''. Prakash Jha directed 2010 film Raajneeti was partially inspired by the ''Mahabharata''. A Mahabharat (2013 film), 2013 animated adaptation holds the record for India's most expensive animated film.
In 1988, B. R. Chopra created a television series named ''Mahabharat (1988 TV series), Mahabharat.'' It was directed by Ravi Chopra,[ (1988–1990 TV series)] and was televised on India's national television (Doordarshan). The same year as ''Mahabharat'' was being shown on Doordarshan, that same company's other television show, ''Bharat Ek Khoj'', also directed by Shyam Benegal, showed a 2-episode abbreviation of the ''Mahabharata'', drawing from various interpretations of the work, be they sung, danced, or staged. In the Western world, a well-known presentation of the epic is Peter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered in Avignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie version The Mahabharata (1989 film), ''The Mahābhārata''. In the late 2013 ''Mahabharat (2013 TV series), Mahabharat'' was televised on STAR Plus. It was produced by Swastik Productions Pvt.
A Zee TV television series aired from 26 October 2001 to 26 July 2002 and starred Siraj Mustafa Khan as Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
and Suneel Mattoo as Yudhishthira.
Uncompleted projects on the ''Mahābhārata'' include one by Rajkumar Santoshi, and a theatrical adaptation planned by Satyajit Ray.
In folk culture
Every year in the Garhwal division, Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, villagers perform the ''Pandav Lila'', a ritual re-enactment of episodes from the ''Mahabharata'' through dancing, singing, and recitation. The ''lila'' is a cultural highlight of the year and is usually performed between November and February. Folk instruments of the region, dhol, damau and two long trumpets bhankore, accompany the action. The amateur actors often break into a spontaneous dance when they are "possessed" by the spirits of the figures of the ''Mahabharata''.
Jain version
Jainism, Jain versions of ''Mahābhārata'' can be found in the various Jain texts like ''Harivamsapurana'' (the story of Harivamsa) ''Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra'' (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious persons), ''Pandavacharitra'' (lives of Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...
s) and ''Pandavapurana'' (stories of Pandava
The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, aɳɖɐʋᵊ IAST: Pāṇḍava) is a group name referring to the five legendary brothers, Yudhishtira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who are central figures of the Hindu epic ''Mahabhara ...
s). From the earlier canonical literature, ''Antakrddaaśāh'' (8th cannon) and ''Vrisnidasa'' (''upangagama'' or secondary canon) contain the stories of Neminatha (22nd Tirthankara), Krishna and Balarama. Prof. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead, they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain cosmology and rule half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by Bhadrabahu swami (4th–3rd century BCE). According to Jain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Prativasudeva.[ p.305] The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha (who is killed by Krishna as Prativasudevas are killed by Vasudevas). Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as Jain monks and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell. In keeping with the Karma in Jainism, law of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Prof. Jaini admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. The Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in the hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be reborn as a Jain Tirthankara and attain Moksa (Jainism), liberation. Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha. According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath's marriage with Rajemati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world.
Kuru family tree
Cultural influence
In the ''Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
'', Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
explains to Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yoga, Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the ''Gita'' often being described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a practical, self-contained guide to life. In more modern times, Swami Vivekananda, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.[Jordens, J. T. F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita", in Minor, p. 88.]
It has also inspired several works of modern Hindi literature, such as Ramdhari Singh Dinkar's ''Rashmirathi'', which is a rendition of ''Mahabharata'' centered around Karna and his conflicts. It was written in 1952, and won the prestigious Jnanpith Award in 1972.
Explanatory notes
Citations
General sources
* Badrinath, Chaturvedi. ''The Mahābhārata: An Inquiry in the Human Condition'', New Delhi, Orient Longman (2006).
* Bandyopadhyaya, Jayantanuja (2008).
Class and Religion in Ancient India
'. Anthem Press.
*
* Bhasin, R. V. ''Mahabharata'' published by National Publications, India, 2007.
* J. Brockington.
The Sanskrit Epics
', Leiden (1998).
* Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978).
The Mahābhārata
'. 3 volumes (translation / publication incomplete due to his death). University of Chicago Press.
* Chaitanya, Krishna (K.K. Nair). ''The Mahabharata, A Literary Study'', Clarion Books, New Delhi 1985.
* Gupta, S. P. and Ramachandran, K. S. (ed.). ''Mahabharata: myth and reality''. Agam Prakashan, New Delhi 1976.
* Alf Hiltebeitel, Hiltebeitel, Alf. ''The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata'', SUNY Press, New York 1990.
* Hopkins, E. W.
The Great Epic of India
', New York (1901).
* Jyotirmayananda, Swami. ''Mysticism of the Mahabharata'', Yoga Research Foundation, Miami 1993.
* Katz, Ruth Cecily ''Arjuna in the Mahabharata'', University of South Carolina Press, Columbia 1989.
*
*
* Lerner, Paule. ''Astrological Key in Mahabharata'', David White (trans.) Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1988.
* Mallory, J. P (2005). ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans''. Thames & Hudson.
* Mehta, M. ''The problem of the double introduction to the Mahabharata'', JAOS 93 (1973), 547–550.
* Minkowski, C. Z. ''Janamehayas ''Sattra'' and Ritual Structure'', JAOS 109 (1989), 410–420.
* Minkowski, C. Z. 'Snakes, ''Sattras'' and the Mahabharata', in: ''Essays on the Mahabharata'', ed. A. Sharma, Leiden (1991), 384–400.
* Hermann Oldenberg, Oldenberg, Hermann. ''Zur Geschichte der Altindischen Prosa'', Berlin (1917)
* Oberlies, Th. 'The Counsels of the Seer Narada: Ritual on and under the surface of the Mahabharata', in:
New methods in the research of epic
' (ed. H. L. C. Tristram), Freiburg (1998).
* Oldenberg, H. ''Das Mahabharata'', Göttingen (1922).
* Pāṇini. ''Ashtādhyāyī''
Book 4
Translated by Chandra Vasu. Benares, 1896.
* Pargiter, F. E. ''Ancient Indian Historical Tradition'', London 1922. Repr. Motilal Banarsidass 1997.
*
* Sukthankar, Vishnu S. and Shrimant Balasaheb Pant Pratinidhi (1933). ''The Mahabharata: for the first time critically edited''. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
* Sullivan, Bruce M. ''Seer of the Fifth Veda, Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa in the Mahabharata'', Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1999.
* Sutton, Nicholas.
Religious Doctrines in the Mahabharata
', Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 2000.
* Utgikar, N. B. "The mention of the Mahābhārata in the Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra", Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, Poona (1919), vol. 2, Poona (1922), 46–61.
* Vaidya, R. V. ''A Study of Mahabharat; A Research'', Poona, A.V.G. Prakashan, 1967
* Michael Witzel, Witzel, Michael, ''Epics, Khilas and Puranas: Continuities and Ruptures'', Proceedings of the Third Dubrovnik International Conference on the Sanskrit Epics and Puranas, ed. P. Koskiallio, Zagreb (2005), 21–80.
External links
Sacred-Texts: Hinduism
– English translation of 18 parvas of ''Mahabharata''
– English translation of harivamsa Parva of ''Mahabharata''
(licensed and approved by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, BORI)
All volumes in 12 PDF files
(Holybooks.com, 181 MB in total)
* [https://sanskritdocuments.org/mirrors/mahabharata/mahabharata-bori.html Critical Edition Prepared by Scholars at Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute BORI]
*
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