Hugh Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding
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Air Chief Marshal Air chief marshal (Air Chf Mshl or ACM) is a high-ranking air officer rank used by some air forces, with origins from the Royal Air Force. The rank is used by air forces of many Commonwealth of Nations, countries that have historical British i ...
Hugh Caswall Tremenheere Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding, (24 April 1882 – 15 February 1970) was a senior officer in the
Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the Air force, air and space force of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. It was formed towards the end of the World War I, First World War on 1 April 1918, on the merger of t ...
. He was Air Officer Commanding
RAF Fighter Command RAF Fighter Command was one of the commands of the Royal Air Force. It was formed in 1936 to allow more specialised control of fighter aircraft. It operated throughout the Second World War, winning fame during the Battle of Britain in 1940. The ...
during the
Battle of Britain The Battle of Britain () was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal Navy defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force ...
and is generally credited with playing a crucial role in Britain's defence, and hence, the defeat of
Operation Sea Lion Operation Sea Lion, also written as Operation Sealion (), was Nazi Germany's code name for their planned invasion of the United Kingdom. It was to have taken place during the Battle of Britain, nine months after the start of the Second World ...
, Adolf Hitler's plan to invade Britain. Born in
Moffat Moffat is a burgh and parish in Dumfriesshire. Part of the Dumfries and Galloway local authority area in Scotland, it lies on the River Annan, with a population of around 2,500. It was a centre of the wool trade and a spa town. Moffat is arou ...
, Scotland, Dowding was an officer in the British Army in the 1900s and early 1910s. He joined the
Royal Flying Corps The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was the air arm of the British Army before and during the First World War until it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force. During the early part of the war, the RFC sup ...
at the start of the
First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
and went on to serve as a fighter pilot and then as commanding officer of No. 16 Squadron. During the inter-war years he became Air Officer Commanding Fighting Area,
Air Defence of Great Britain The Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) was a Royal Air Force (RAF) command comprising substantial army and RAF elements responsible for the air defence of the British Isles. It lasted from 1925, following recommendations that the RAF take contr ...
and then joined the Air Council as
Air Member for Supply and Research The Air Member for Materiel is the senior Royal Air Force officer responsible for procurement matters. The post-holder is a member of the Air Force Board and is in charge of all aspects of procurement and organisation for RAF regular, reserve and ...
. In July 1936, Dowding was appointed chief of the newly created RAF Fighter Command. During the Battle of Britain in the
Second World War World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, Dowding's Fighter Command successfully defended the UK against the attacks of the
Luftwaffe The Luftwaffe () was the aerial warfare, aerial-warfare branch of the before and during World War II. German Empire, Germany's military air arms during World War I, the of the Imperial German Army, Imperial Army and the of the Imperial Ge ...
, thanks to his prudent management of RAF resources and detailed preparation of Britain's air defences (the
Dowding system The Dowding system was the world's first wide-area ground-controlled interception network, controlling the airspace across the United Kingdom from northern Scotland to the southern coast of England. It used a widespread dedicated land-line tele ...
). He subsequently came into conflict with proponents of the Big Wing tactic, most notably Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Douglas Bader, which along with the inadequacies of RAF's night-time defence during
the Blitz The Blitz (English: "flash") was a Nazi Germany, German bombing campaign against the United Kingdom, for eight months, from 7 September 1940 to 11 May 1941, during the Second World War. Towards the end of the Battle of Britain in 1940, a co ...
led to his eventual downfall. In November 1940, Dowding was replaced in command against his wishes by Sholto Douglas, another Big Wing advocate. Dowding retired from the Royal Air Force in July 1942 and was made a peer in June 1943. Upon retirement, Dowding subsequently became an influential member of the British spiritualist, theosophical, and
animal rights Animal rights is the philosophy according to which many or all Animal consciousness, sentient animals have Moral patienthood, moral worth independent of their Utilitarianism, utility to humans, and that their most basic interests—such as ...
movements. He died on 15 February 1970, aged 87.


Early life

Dowding was born at St. Ninian's Boys' Preparatory School in
Moffat Moffat is a burgh and parish in Dumfriesshire. Part of the Dumfries and Galloway local authority area in Scotland, it lies on the River Annan, with a population of around 2,500. It was a centre of the wool trade and a spa town. Moffat is arou ...
, Dumfriesshire, the son of Arthur John Caswall Dowding and Maud Caroline Dowding (née Tremenheere). His father had taught at
Fettes College Fettes College () is a co-educational private boarding and day school in Craigleith, Edinburgh, Scotland, with over two-thirds of its pupils in residence on campus. The school was originally a boarding school for boys only and became co-ed in ...
in Edinburgh before moving to Moffat. Dowding was educated at St Ninian's School and
Winchester College Winchester College is an English Public school (United Kingdom), public school (a long-established fee-charging boarding school for pupils aged 13–18) with some provision for day school, day attendees, in Winchester, Hampshire, England. It wa ...
. He trained at the
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich The Royal Military Academy (RMA) at Woolwich, in south-east London, was a British Army military academy for the training of Officer (armed forces), commissioned officers of the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. It later also trained officers o ...
before being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the
Royal Garrison Artillery The Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA) was formed in 1899 as a distinct arm of the British Army's Royal Artillery, Royal Regiment of Artillery serving alongside the other two arms of the Regiment, the Royal Field Artillery (RFA) and the Royal Horse ...
on 18 August 1900.


Military career

Promoted to
lieutenant A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a Junior officer, junior commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations, as well as fire services, emergency medical services, Security agency, security services ...
on 8 May 1902, Dowding served with the Royal Garrison Artillery at
Gibraltar Gibraltar ( , ) is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory and British overseas cities, city located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, on the Bay of Gibraltar, near the exit of the Mediterranean Sea into the A ...
, in
Ceylon Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
and in
Hong Kong Hong Kong)., Legally Hong Kong, China in international treaties and organizations. is a special administrative region of China. With 7.5 million residents in a territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the wor ...
before being posted to No. 7 Mountain Artillery Battery in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
in 1904. In September 1907 he was seconded for service with the Native Mountain Artillery in India. After returning to the United Kingdom, he attended the Army Staff College 1912 before being promoted to
captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader or highest rank officer of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police depa ...
on 18 August 1913 and being posted with the Royal Garrison Artillery on the
Isle of Wight The Isle of Wight (Help:IPA/English, /waɪt/ Help:Pronunciation respelling key, ''WYTE'') is an island off the south coast of England which, together with its surrounding uninhabited islets and Skerry, skerries, is also a ceremonial county. T ...
later that year. After becoming interested in aviation, Dowding gained Aviator's Certificate no. 711 on 19 December 1913 in a
Vickers Vickers was a British engineering company that existed from 1828 until 1999. It was formed in Sheffield as a steel foundry by Edward Vickers and his father-in-law, and soon became famous for casting church bells. The company went public in 18 ...
biplane at the Vickers School of Flying,
Brooklands Brooklands was a motor racing circuit and aerodrome built near Weybridge in Surrey, England, United Kingdom. It opened in 1907 and was the world's first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing circuit as well as one of Britain's first airfields, ...
. He then attended the
Central Flying School The Central Flying School (CFS) is the Royal Air Force's primary institution for the training of military flying instructors. Established in 1912 at the Upavon Aerodrome, it is the longest existing flying training school in the world. The sch ...
, where he was awarded his wings. Although added to the Reserve List of the
Royal Flying Corps The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was the air arm of the British Army before and during the First World War until it merged with the Royal Naval Air Service on 1 April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force. During the early part of the war, the RFC sup ...
(RFC), Dowding returned to the Isle of Wight to resume his Royal Garrison Artillery duties. However, this arrangement was short lived and in August 1914, he joined the RFC as a pilot on No. 7 Squadron.


First World War

Dowding transferred to No. 6 Squadron in October 1914 and then, after two weeks as a staff officer in
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, became a Flight Commander, first with No. 9 Squadron and then with No. 6 Squadron. He served from December 1914 as a general staff officer, grade 3 and was seconded. He became commanding officer of the Wireless Experimental Establishment at Brooklands in March 1915 and went on to be commanding officer of No. 16 Squadron in July 1915, which was based at
La Gorgue La Gorgue () is a town in northern France. It is a commune in the Nord department. The population of La Gorgue in 2019 was 5,639.
in northern France. After the
Battle of the Somme The Battle of the Somme (; ), also known as the Somme offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British Empire and the French Third Republic against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 Nove ...
, Dowding clashed with General Hugh Trenchard, the commander of the RFC, over the need to give pilots some rest and recuperation. In September 1915 Duncan Grinnell-Milne joined No 16 squadron as a junior pilot. Years later he published an account of his time in the squadron, in which he criticises Dowding as being "too reserved and aloof from his juniors", although efficient. Promoted to
major Major most commonly refers to: * Major (rank), a military rank * Academic major, an academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits * People named Major, including given names, surnames, nicknames * Major and minor in musi ...
on 30 December 1915, Dowding was recalled to England in January 1916, and, having been promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on 1 February 1916 was given command of 7 Wing at Farnborough later that month. He transferred to the command of 9 Wing at Fienvillers in June 1916. Returning to England, he was promoted to temporary
colonel Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...
on 1 January 1917 on appointment as commander of the Southern Group Command and promoted to temporary brigadier-general on 23 June 1917 before being given command of the southern training brigade in August 1917. He was sent to
York York is a cathedral city in North Yorkshire, England, with Roman Britain, Roman origins, sited at the confluence of the rivers River Ouse, Yorkshire, Ouse and River Foss, Foss. It has many historic buildings and other structures, such as a Yor ...
as chief staff officer to the RAF's senior administrative officer in the area in April 1918. He was appointed a
Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George The Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George is a British order of chivalry founded on 28 April 1818 by George, Prince of Wales (the future King George IV), while he was acting as prince regent for his father, King George I ...
on 1 January 1919.


Inter-war years

Dowding was given a permanent commission in the RAF on 1 August 1919 with the rank of
group captain Group captain (Gp Capt or G/C) is a senior officer rank used by some air forces, with origins from the Royal Air Force. The rank is used by air forces of many Commonwealth of Nations, countries that have historical British influence. Group cap ...
. He commanded No. 16 Group from October 1919 and then No. 1 Group from February 1920 where he was responsible for organising two of the annual air displays at
Hendon Hendon is an urban area in the London Borough of Barnet, northwest London northwest of Charing Cross. Hendon was an ancient Manorialism, manor and parish in the county of Middlesex and a former borough, the Municipal Borough of Hendon; it has ...
. He was promoted to
air commodore Air commodore (Air Cdre or Air Cmde) is an air officer rank used by some air forces, with origins from the Royal Air Force. The rank is also used by the air forces of many countries which have historical British influence and it is sometimes ...
on 1 January 1922, and served as chief staff officer at Inland Area headquarters at
Uxbridge Uxbridge () is a suburban town in west London, England, and the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Hillingdon, northwest of Charing Cross. Uxbridge formed part of the parish of Hillingdon in the county of Middlesex. As part ...
from February 1922 before being appointed Chief Staff Officer for
RAF Iraq Command Iraq Command was the Royal Air Force (RAF) commanded British Armed Forces, inter-service Command (military formation), command in charge of United Kingdom, British forces in Iraq in the 1920s and early 1930s, during the period of the British Man ...
in August 1924. Dowding was an accomplished
skier Skiing is the use of skis to glide on snow for basic transport, a recreational activity, or a competitive winter sport. Many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the International ...
, winner of the first ever National Slalom Championship, and president of the
Ski Club of Great Britain The Ski Club of Great Britain is a not-for-profit recreational snow sports club. It was founded on 6 May 1903 during a meeting at the Hotel Café Royal in London. Until the 1960s, the Ski Club of Great Britain was responsible for British Alpine s ...
from 1924 to 1925. The dominant personality within the RAF in the 1920s was Hugh Trenchard who ardently believed in strategic bombing as a war-winning measure and as a result, the interwar RAF was dominated by a "bomber cult" as Trenchard tended to promote officers who shared his views about strategic bombing. Dowding stood out as one of the few RAF officers not totally englamoured with bombers and who was more interested in fighters. In May 1926 Dowding was appointed director of training at the
Air Ministry The Air Ministry was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force and civil aviation that existed from 1918 to 1964. It was under the political authority of the ...
. He was appointed a
Companion of the Order of the Bath Companion may refer to: Relationships Currently * Any of several interpersonal relationships such as friend or acquaintance * A domestic partner, akin to a spouse * Sober companion, an addiction treatment coach * Companion (caregiving), a caregi ...
on 2 January 1928 and promoted to
air vice-marshal Air vice-marshal (Air Vce Mshl or AVM) is an air officer rank used by some air forces, with origins from the Royal Air Force. The rank is also used by the air forces of many countries which have historical British influence and it is sometime ...
on 1 January 1929. Trenchard sent him to Palestine and Transjordan to study security problems caused by Arab–Jewish unrest: his reports, which gained Trenchard's approval, were a cause of further career advancement. Dowding became Air Officer Commanding Fighting Area,
Air Defence of Great Britain The Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) was a Royal Air Force (RAF) command comprising substantial army and RAF elements responsible for the air defence of the British Isles. It lasted from 1925, following recommendations that the RAF take contr ...
in December 1929 and then joined the Air Council as
Air Member for Supply and Research The Air Member for Materiel is the senior Royal Air Force officer responsible for procurement matters. The post-holder is a member of the Air Force Board and is in charge of all aspects of procurement and organisation for RAF regular, reserve and ...
in September 1930. One of his first responsibilities in this post was the approval of the granting of a
certificate of airworthiness A standard certificate of airworthiness is a permit for commercial passenger or cargo operation, issued for an aircraft by the civil aviation authority in the state/nation in which the aircraft is registered. For other aircraft such as crop-spray ...
to the
R101 R101 was one of a pair of British rigid airships completed in 1929 as part of the Imperial Airship Scheme, a British government programme to develop civil airships capable of service on long-distance routes within the British Empire. It was d ...
airship shortly before it set off on its ill-fated voyage to India; he later said "I think I was wrong not to insist on much more extensive trials and tests" and that his decision had been based on optimistic technical advice. Dowding's time in this office coincided with a period of rapid development in aircraft design and a growing fear that another major war was on the horizon. Although without scientific or technical training, he displayed a great capacity for understanding technical matters. He was promoted to air marshal on 1 January 1933 and advanced to
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by King George I of Great Britain, George I on 18 May 1725. Recipients of the Order are usually senior British Armed Forces, military officers or senior Civil Service ...
on 3 June 1933. In July 1936 Dowding was appointed commanding officer of the newly created
RAF Fighter Command RAF Fighter Command was one of the commands of the Royal Air Force. It was formed in 1936 to allow more specialised control of fighter aircraft. It operated throughout the Second World War, winning fame during the Battle of Britain in 1940. The ...
, and was perhaps the one important person in Britain, and perhaps the world, who did not agree with
British Prime Minister The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government of the United Kingdom. The prime minister advises the sovereign on the exercise of much of the royal prerogative, chairs the Cabinet, and selects its ministers. Modern pri ...
Stanley Baldwin Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (3 August 186714 December 1947), was a British statesman and Conservative politician who was prominent in the political leadership of the United Kingdom between the world wars. He was prime ministe ...
's 1932 declaration that "
The bomber will always get through "The bomber will always get through" was a phrase used by Stanley Baldwin in a 1932 speech "A Fear for the Future" given to the British Parliament. His speech stated that contemporary bomber aircraft had the performance necessary to conduct a ...
". He conceived and oversaw the development of the "
Dowding system The Dowding system was the world's first wide-area ground-controlled interception network, controlling the airspace across the United Kingdom from northern Scotland to the southern coast of England. It used a widespread dedicated land-line tele ...
". This consisted of an integrated air defence system which included (i)
radar Radar is a system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), direction ( azimuth and elevation angles), and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It is a radiodetermination method used to detect and track ...
(whose potential Dowding was among the first to appreciate), (ii) human observers (including the Royal Observer Corps), who filled crucial gaps in what radar was capable of detecting at the time (the early radar systems, for example, did not provide accurate information on the altitude of incoming German aircraft), (iii) raid plotting, and (iv) radio control of aircraft. The whole network was linked in many cases by dedicated telephone cables buried sufficiently deeply to provide protection against bombing. The network had its centre at RAF Bentley Priory, a converted country house on the outskirts of London. The system as a whole later became known as
Ground-controlled interception Ground-controlled interception (GCI) is an air defence tactic whereby one or more radar stations or other observational stations are linked to a command communications centre which guides interceptor aircraft to an airborne target. This tactic wa ...
(GCI). A major problem for the RAF was the way that the Canadian prime minister
William Lyon Mackenzie King William Lyon Mackenzie King (December 17, 1874 – July 22, 1950) was a Canadian statesman and politician who was the tenth prime minister of Canada for three non-consecutive terms from 1921 to 1926, 1926 to 1930, and 1935 to 1948. A Liberal ...
from 1935 onward repeatedly vetoed plans for the Empire Air Training Scheme for training pilots from all the Commonwealth nations in Canada, which prevented Fighter Command from building up a reserve of properly trained pilots. By the time the
British Commonwealth Air Training Plan The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), often referred to as simply "The Plan", was a large-scale multinational military aircrew training program created by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand during the Second Wo ...
was finally launched in the autumn of 1939 after Mackenzie King gave his consent, it was far too late for Dowding. On an average, it took about one year to train a pilot plus another year of squadron flying to prepare a pilot for war. In lieu of the Empire Air Training Scheme that he wanted, Dowding was forced to depend upon the Auxiliary Air Force, the RAF Volunteer Reserve and the University Air Squadrons to provide him with a reserve of trained pilots. However despite all the efforts to give Fighter Command a reserve of pilots, Dowding complained in 1939 that he lacked sufficient reserves of properly trained pilots to face the Luftwaffe. On the basis of the First World War experiences, Dowding predicated that many of his pilots would be rapidly killed or seriously injured in the event of war, all the more because the Luftwaffe had many combat-experienced pilots who had served in the
Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
, and it still took a year to train a pilot, leading him to warn that he would almost certainly face a shortage of pilots. Dowding also brought modern aircraft into service during the pre-war period, including the eight gun
Spitfire The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and other Allied countries before, during, and after World War II. It was the only British fighter produced continuously throughout the ...
and
Hurricane A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system with a low-pressure area, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depending on its ...
. He is also credited with having fought the Air Ministry so that fighters were equipped with bullet-proof wind shields. At a meeting with the Air Ministry when told that bullet-proof windows were too expensive, Dowding replied: "If Chicago gangsters can have bulletproof glass in their cars I can't see any reason why my pilots cannot have the same". Dowding was a quiet, reserved man, but was greatly admired by those who served under him. He was promoted to
air chief marshal Air chief marshal (Air Chf Mshl or ACM) is a high-ranking air officer rank used by some air forces, with origins from the Royal Air Force. The rank is used by air forces of many Commonwealth of Nations, countries that have historical British i ...
on 1 January 1937 and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order on 23 January 1937.


Second World War


Battle of Britain

At the time of his retirement in June 1939, Dowding was asked to stay on until March 1940 because of the tense international situation. He was again permitted to continue serving through the
Battle of Britain The Battle of Britain () was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal Navy defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force ...
, first until July and finally until November 1940. In 1940, Dowding, nicknamed "Stuffy" by his men for his alleged lack of humour, proved unwilling to sacrifice aircraft and pilots in the attempt to aid Allied troops during the
Battle of France The Battle of France (; 10 May – 25 June 1940), also known as the Western Campaign (), the French Campaign (, ) and the Fall of France, during the Second World War was the Nazi Germany, German invasion of the Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembour ...
. He, along with his immediate superior Sir Cyril Newall, then Chief of the Air Staff, resisted repeated requests from
Winston Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, military officer, and writer who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 (Winston Churchill in the Second World War, ...
to weaken the home defence by sending precious squadrons to France. Dowding lacked tact when it came to dealing with politicians, and right from the onset he did not get along well with Churchill. The British historian Len Deighton wrote: "But Dowding was no paragon. Too often he resorted to caustic comments when a kind word of advice would have produced the same or better results...Dowding was indifferent to the boardroom politics of higher office, impatient and abrasive to men who failed to understand his reasoning". Just before a cabinet meeting on 15 May 1940, Dowding protested before an informal committee that consisted of Churchill; the minister of aircraft production,
Lord Beaverbrook William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook (25 May 1879 – 9 June 1964), was a Canadian-British newspaper publisher and backstage politician who was an influential figure in British media and politics of the first half of the 20th century ...
and the Air Minister Sir
Archibald Sinclair Archibald Henry Macdonald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso, (22 October 1890 – 15 June 1970), known as Sir Archibald Sinclair between 1912 and 1952, and often as Archie Sinclair, was a British politician and leader of the Liberal Party (UK), Li ...
that the number of fighter squadrons available to Fighter Command had been reduced from 52 to 36, and at present rate of losses in France, he would have no squadrons available within two weeks. Dowding attended the subsequent cabinet meeting, but did not speak. The meeting ended with the cabinet voting to send four more squadrons to France. On 16 May 1940, Churchill held a summit In Paris with the French Premier Paul Reynaud, and telephoned London afterwards to ask for six more fighter squadrons to be sent to France. At a cabinet meeting late in the afternoon of the same day, Sinclair mentioned Dowding's argument, which led to the cabinet to agree that the additional six squadrons could operate from French airfields in the day, but had to return to the United Kingdom at night. Churchill was angered by the way that Dowding's arguments had swayed the cabinet into a decision that he did not want and came to feel a grudge against Dowding. In a clear sign of disfavour, Churchill barely mentioned Dowding in ''Their Finest Hour'', volume 2 of his memoirs/history of the Second World, and in the few times that he did, he gave distorted accounts that cast Dowding in a dark light. In ''Their Finest Hour'', Churchill wrote: "Air Chief Marshal Dowding, at the head of the metropolitan Fighter Command, had declared to me that with twenty-five squadrons of fighters he could defend the island against the whole of the German Air Force, but that with less he would be overpowered". Deighton wrote that this statement was "nonsense" as Dowding in a letter to Churchill dated 15 May 1940 had expressed grave concerns about the ability of Fighter Command to hold out against the Luftwaffe with only thirty-six squadrons. When the Allied resistance in France collapsed, he worked closely with Air Vice-Marshal
Keith Park Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Rodney Park, (15 June 1892 – 6 February 1975) was a New Zealand-born officer of the Royal Air Force (RAF). During the Second World War, his leadership of the RAF's No. 11 Group RAF, No. 11 Group was pivotal to t ...
, the commander of 11 Fighter Group, in organising cover for the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force at
Dunkirk Dunkirk ( ; ; ; Picard language, Picard: ''Dunkèke''; ; or ) is a major port city in the Departments of France, department of Nord (French department), Nord in northern France. It lies from the Belgium, Belgian border. It has the third-larg ...
. Through the summer and autumn of 1940 in the
Battle of Britain The Battle of Britain () was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal Navy defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force ...
, Dowding's Fighter Command resisted the attacks of the
Luftwaffe The Luftwaffe () was the aerial warfare, aerial-warfare branch of the before and during World War II. German Empire, Germany's military air arms during World War I, the of the Imperial German Army, Imperial Army and the of the Imperial Ge ...
. Beyond the critical importance of the overall system of integrated air defence which he had developed for Fighter Command, his major contribution was to marshal resources behind the scenes (including replacement aircraft and air crew) and to maintain a significant fighter reserve, while leaving his subordinate commanders' hands largely free to run the battle in detail. The first phase of the Battle of Britain, namely Luftwaffe attacks on British shipping in the English Channel were what Deighton called a classic "heads I win, tails you lose" gambit. If Dowding committed his fighters at the near-range of German aircraft, he risked having the strength of Fighter Command reduced via attrition while he did not think the Luftwaffe would sink the merchantmen. Because of a shortage of pilots, Dowding only committed the minimal number of fighters during what the Germans called the ''Kanalkampf'' (Channel battle), which led to increased shipping losses in July–August 1940. He was forced to commit more fighter squadrons close to the coast even though he knew it was highly dangerous. The Luftwaffe planes were already flying at the optimal height over the Channel while it took time for the British fighters taking off at coastal airfields to reach the proper flying height, which thereby gave the Luftwaffe the advantage in any dogfights over the Channel. An additional concern for Dowding was that the planes of Fighter Command had no dinghies or sea dye while Britain at this point lacked an air-sea rescue organisation, so that any pilot shot down over the Channel were more likely than not to be lost. As more colliers were sunk in the Channel while Fighter Command losses increased, Dowding stoutly resisted pressure to send more fighters in the ''Kanalkampf'' and instead urged that more trains be used to move coal from Wales to London. By end of July 1940, Fighter Command had lost 145 aircraft in the ''Kanalkampf''. Dowding had an influential patron in the form of Lord Beaverbrook, who became fond of him, all the more so because the civil servants of the Air Ministry disliked Dowding. On a more personal note, Beaverbrook's son, Maxwell Aitken, was serving in Fighter Command and Beaverbrook decided that Dowding with his concern for the lives of his pilots was the best man to keep his son alive. British aircraft production continued at a brisk rate and it was the loss of pilots that was most concerning to Dowding. It took nearly a year to train a pilot to properly fly an aircraft, and the losses of pilots in the Battle of Britain imposed immense strain on Fighter Command, all the more so because the remaining pilots were forced to fly more to replace those killed or wounded. The majority of the 3,000 pilots under Dowding's command, namely 80% were British, but the fighter squadrons sent from the Commonwealth along with squadrons of emigres from Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, and Belgium were greatly appreciated to help ease the strain imposed by Fighter Command's losses. In early August 1940, Dowding learned via Ultra intelligence that the Luftwaffe was preparing for ''Adlertag'' (Eagle Day) set for 13 August 1940, which was intended to be a series of aerial attacks to win command of the sky. Eagle Day failed to achieve its stated goals as Fighter Command lost 34 planes in aerial combat while another 16 destroyed on the ground while shooting down 75 German planes. Eagle Day came to be known in the Luftwaffe as "''der schwarze Donnerstag''"" ("the black Thursday") owning to the heavy losses taken. During the fighting on Eagle Day, Dowding observed that the Luftwaffe bombers were no match for the Spitfires and Hurricanes, and that German bombers could only operate in the day with the escort of Bf-109 fighters. As the Bf-109 fighters could only fly over south-eastern England owing to their fuel ranges, it was possible to move RAF fighters to airfields out of range for the Bf-109s, which provided a respite of sorts for Fighter Command. Dowding noted that the grim irony that the more successful Fighter Command was at shooting down Luftwaffe bombers during the day, the more likely it was that the Luftwaffe would switch over to bombing by night, a course that Fighter Command was not prepared for. It was also during Eagle Day that Trafford Leigh-Mallory, the GOC of 12 Group, started to become increasing vocal in expressing criticism of Park for not adopting his favoured "big wing" tactics of forming up a large wing of fighters as Park much preferred to send in fighters in looser, informal small groups. Leigh-Mallory also started to attack Dowding for not imposing the "big wing" tactics upon all of Fighter Command. The requirement that not all of Fighter Command's planes be on the ground being fuelled and armed led Dowding to commit small groups to attack the Luftwaffe bombers and their fighter escorts in waves. It was during the summer of 1940 that Dowding first learned of the ''Knickebein'' (literally "dog-leg") radio beam system, which guided Luftwaffe bombers to their targets during the night. The British called the ''Knickebein'' radio guidance system "headache" and called their electronic jamming countermeasures "aspirins". Owing to the threat posed by bombers guided by the ''Knickebein'' radio beams, Dowding ordered that electronic jamming of the radio beams be made a priority. By late August 1940, Dowding was seriously concerned about Fighter Command's losses along with a decline in pilot quality as the RAF was forced to transfer pilots from Bomber Command and Coastal Command to Fighter Command and training was degraded to allow more pilots to graduate on a shortened training course. The great advantage for Fighter Command in August 1940 was that Dowding rotated his fighter squadrons to give his pilots a rest while the opposing German commanders,
Albert Kesselring Albert Kesselring (30 November 1885 – 16 July 1960) was a German military officer and convicted war crime, war criminal who served in the ''Luftwaffe'' during World War II. In a career which spanned both world wars, Kesselring reached the ra ...
and
Hugo Sperrle Hugo Wilhelm Sperrle (7 February 1885 – 2 April 1953) was a Nazi Germany, German military aviator in World War I and a ''Generalfeldmarschall'' (Field marshal, Field Marshal) in the ''Luftwaffe'' during World War II. Sperrle joined the German ...
, did not. On 1 September 1940, Dowding realised that the losses taken during the fighting in July–August 1940 was such that there were no more squadrons to rotate into the area of 11 Group of Fighter Command, which always endured the most heavy fighting. That day, Dowding took what he called "a desperate expedient" of breaking the squadrons into A, B and C types. The A type squadrons stationed in 11 Group were to continue to defend south-eastern England; the B type squadrons in 10 and 12 Groups were to relieve the A squadrons and the C type squadrons stationed elsewhere were to serve as training units, feeding new pilots into the A squadrons as needed. On 3 September 1940, Dowding reported to Churchill that 25% of all Fighter Command's pilots had been lost since the beginning of the Battle of Britain on top of the losses taken in France in the spring, and at current rate of losses Fighter Command would not be able to last much longer. Dowding also noted that about a quarter of his pilots were new pilots who had just graduated from the Operational Training Units who had less than two weeks' flying experience.
Hermann Göring Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering; ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German Nazism, Nazi politician, aviator, military leader, and convicted war criminal. He was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, which gov ...
took personal charge of the Luftwaffe forces attacking Britain and on 7 September 1940 dispatched a huge force of 1,000 bombers to strike London. That day, Dowding was having a meeting with Park, when he learned via reports from radar operators of the bomber force heading towards London. During the fighting on 7 September, the "Big Wing" tactics favoured by Trafford Leigh-Mallory of 12 Group failed as it took too long to form up the "big wing" while Park's tactics proved superior as 11 Group actually met the Luftwaffe. On 9 September 1940, Göring dispatched another huge bombing raid on London, which met with fierce resistance from 11 Group. Deighton wrote: "Park's handling of the fighting of 9 September was as brilliant as any in the war. Virtually none of the German bombers achieved hits on its primary target". Dowding received advance notice via Ultra intelligence of another large German raid scheduled for 15 September 1940. Park planned to attack the Luftwaffe both on its way to London and back, which forced his ground crews to work in record time to refuel and rearm his fighters as they landed after attacking the bombers on their way to London. The aerial battles on 15 September 1940 saw about 300 RAF fighters take on 400 Luftwaffe fighters. The Luftwaffe lost about 50 aircraft which convinced its commanders that Fighter Command possessed deeper reserves of pilots than what the RAF actually possessed. Churchill's speech on the radio that evening claimed: "Aided by Czech and Polish squadrons and using only a small proportion of their total strength, the Royal Air Force cut to rags and tatters separate waves of murderous assault upon the civil population of their native land". Fighter Command did not win command of the sky as the Luftwaffe continued to bomb Britain long after the battle of 15 September 1940, but the mere fact that Fighter Command had prevented the Luftwaffe from gaining command of the sky was sufficient to win the Battle of Britain. In an operational sense, Dowding had fought the Luftwaffe to a draw, but in strategical sense the battle was a British victory as the German invasion of Britain was strictly postulated on winning command of the sky first. On 17 September 1940, Hitler postponed Operation Sealion, the codename for the invasion of Britain, until "further notice". Dowding was known for his humility and great sincerity. Fighter Command pilots came to characterise Dowding as one who cared for his men and had their best interests at heart. Dowding often referred to his "dear fighter boys" as his "chicks": indeed his son Derek was one of them. Because of his brilliant detailed preparation of Britain's air defences for the German assault, and his prudent management of his resources during the battle, Dowding is today generally given the credit for Britain's victory in the
Battle of Britain The Battle of Britain () was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal Navy defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force ...
. Dowding's subsequent downfall has been attributed by some to his single-mindedness and perceived lack of diplomacy and political savoir faire in dealing with intra-RAF challenges and intrigues, most obviously the still, even now, hotly debated Big Wing controversy in which a number of senior and active service officers had argued in favour of large set-piece air battles with the Luftwaffe as an alternative to Dowding's successful
Fabian strategy The Fabian strategy is a military strategy where pitched battles and frontal assaults are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a attrition warfare, war of attrition and indirection. While avoiding decisive battles, the side emplo ...
.Korda 2009, pp. 124–125. Another reason often cited for his removal, but characterised by some contemporary commentators more as a pretext, was the difficulty of countering German nighttime bombing raids on British cities. The account of radar pioneer, E. G. Bowen in ''Radar Days'' (1987) rebuts the claim that Dowding's grasp of the problems of British night fighters was inadequate. He suggests that if Dowding had been left to follow his own path, the ultimately effective British response to night bombing (which depended completely on developments in air-borne radar) would have come somewhat sooner. Dowding himself showed that he had a good grasp of night fighter defence and was planning a defence system against night bombing in a letter he wrote some time after the Battle of Britain. However, there was great political and public pressure during
the Blitz The Blitz (English: "flash") was a Nazi Germany, German bombing campaign against the United Kingdom, for eight months, from 7 September 1940 to 11 May 1941, during the Second World War. Towards the end of the Battle of Britain in 1940, a co ...
for something to be done, and Fighter Command's existing resources without, as yet, airborne radar, proved woefully inadequate. A committee of enquiry chaired by Sir John Salmond produced a long list of recommendations to improve night air defence; when Dowding approved only some of them, his erstwhile supporters,
Lord Beaverbrook William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook (25 May 1879 – 9 June 1964), was a Canadian-British newspaper publisher and backstage politician who was an influential figure in British media and politics of the first half of the 20th century ...
and Churchill, decided that it was time for him to step down. On 8 October 1940, Dowding was advanced to
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by King George I on 18 May 1725. Recipients of the Order are usually senior military officers or senior civil servants, and the monarch awards it on the advice of His ...
. Before the war, the leadership of the RAF was committed to winning the next war via strategical bombing, and it was an article of faith amongst the senior Air Marshals that it would be impossible for fighter aircraft to stop a bombing offensive. Deighton wrote that the RAF leadership "acted more vindictively" against Dowding and Park for winning the Battle of Britain than Hermann Göring did with the defeated Luftwaffe generals largely because Dowding and Park had proven the Air Ministry wrong by defeating a strategical bombing offensive. Dowding and Park were summoned to meet what Beaverbrook called a gang of "bloody Air Marshals" who in a quasi-trial accused Dowding and Park of failure in the Battle of Britain. Both Trafford Leigh-Mallory and the fighter ace Douglas Bader argued at the meeting that the Big Wing tactics were superior to those practiced by Dowding and Park, who were effectively treated as if they had lost the Battle of Britain. Dowding unwillingly relinquished command on 24 November 1940 and was replaced by Big Wing advocate Sholto Douglas. Churchill tried to soften the blow by putting him in charge of the British Air Mission to the United States, responsible for the procurement of new aircraft types. Publication of his book ''Twelve Legions of Angels'' was suppressed in November 1941. The British Government considered that it contained information which might be of use to the Germans. The book was finally published in 1946, soon after the war ended.


Ministry of Aircraft Production

After leaving Fighter Command, Dowding was sent on special duty to the United States for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, but there he made himself unpopular with his outspokenness. On his return he headed a study into economies of RAF manpower before retiring from the Royal Air Force in July 1942. He was elevated to the
peerage A peerage is a legal system historically comprising various hereditary titles (and sometimes Life peer, non-hereditary titles) in a number of countries, and composed of assorted Imperial, royal and noble ranks, noble ranks. Peerages include: A ...
, as Baron Dowding of Bentley Priory on 2 June 1943.


Later life

Later in life, because of his belief that he was unjustly treated by the RAF, Dowding became increasingly bitter. The RAF passed him over for promotion to
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Marshal of the Royal Air Force (MRAF) is the highest rank in the UK's Royal Air Force (RAF). In peacetime it was granted to RAF officers in the appointment of Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom), Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS), and to ...
. He approved Robert Wright's book ''Dowding and the Battle of Britain'', which argued that a conspiracy of Big Wing proponents, including Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Douglas Bader, had engineered his sacking from Fighter Command. In 1951, Dowding laid the foundation stone of the Chapel of St George at RAF Biggin Hill, now
London Biggin Hill Airport London Biggin Hill Airport is a minor Commercial aviation, commercial airport serving Biggin Hill in the London Borough of Bromley, located south-southeast of Central London. It specialises in general aviation, handling a spectrum of traffic ...
, in memory of fallen airmen. Dowding and his second wife Baroness Dowding were both anti-
vivisection Vivisection () is surgery conducted for experimental purposes on a living organism, typically animals with a central nervous system, to view living internal structure. The word is, more broadly, used as a pejorative catch-all term for Animal test ...
ists, and in 1973 Britain's
National Anti-Vivisection Society The National Anti-Vivisection Society (NAVS) is an international non-profit Animal welfare, animal protection group, based in London, working to end animal testing, and focused on the replacement of animals in research with advanced, scientific t ...
founded the Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research in his honour.


Spiritualism

In his retirement, Dowding became actively interested in
spiritualism Spiritualism may refer to: * Spiritual church movement, a group of Spiritualist churches and denominations historically based in the African-American community * Spiritualism (beliefs), a metaphysical belief that the world is made up of at leas ...
, both as a writer and speaker. His first book on the subject, ''Many Mansions'', was written in 1943, followed by ''Lychgate'' (1945), ''The Dark Star'' and ''God's Magic''. Rejecting conventional
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
, he joined the
Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society is the organizational body of Theosophy, an esoteric new religious movement. It was founded in New York City, U.S.A. in 1875. Among its founders were Helena Blavatsky, a Russian mystic and the principal thinker of the ...
which advocated belief in
reincarnation Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the Philosophy, philosophical or Religion, religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new lifespan (disambiguation), lifespan in a different physical ...
. He wrote of meeting dead "RAF boys" in his sleep – spirits who flew fighters from mountain-top runways made of light. Dowding became a vegetarian, based on his beliefs as a theosophist and spiritualist. Although he was a vegetarian, he believed that "animals will be killed to satisfy human needs for many a long day to come", and he made several appeals in the House of Lords for the humane killing of animals intended for food. He was also a member of the Fairy Investigation Society. Although he knew that people considered him a crank for his belief in fairies, Dowding believed that fairies "are essential to the growth of plants and the welfare of the vegetable kingdom".


Death

Dowding died at his home in
Royal Tunbridge Wells Royal Tunbridge Wells (formerly, until 1909, and still commonly Tunbridge Wells) is a town in Kent, England, southeast of Central London. It lies close to the border with East Sussex on the northern edge of the Weald, High Weald, whose sand ...
,
Kent Kent is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South East England. It is bordered by Essex across the Thames Estuary to the north, the Strait of Dover to the south-east, East Sussex to the south-west, Surrey to the west, and Gr ...
, on 15 February 1970. His body was cremated and his ashes were placed below the ''Battle of Britain Memorial Window'' in the Royal Air Force chapel in
Westminster Abbey Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is an Anglican church in the City of Westminster, London, England. Since 1066, it has been the location of the coronations of 40 English and British m ...
. Dowding's son Derek (1919–1992) inherited the title of Baron Dowding.


Personal life

Dowding married Clarice Maud Vancourt, the daughter of an officer in the Indian Army, on 16 February 1918. She had one child from a previous marriage, Marjorie Brenda Williams (1911–2003) and they had one child together, Derek Hugh Tremenheere (1919–1992). Clarice died in 1920, and Dowding's sister Hilda helped Dowding look after the two children. Dowding married Muriel Whiting () on 25 September 1951; they had no children.


Legacy

In the 1940s and 1950s, H.D. wrote several novels, memoirs, and book-length poems about Dowding.


Portrayals

Dowding has been portrayed by: * Charles Carson (1956) '' Reach for the Sky'' *
Laurence Olivier Laurence Kerr Olivier, Baron Olivier ( ; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989) was an English actor and director. He and his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud made up a trio of male actors who dominated the British stage of the m ...
(1969) ''
Battle of Britain The Battle of Britain () was a military campaign of the Second World War, in which the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) of the Royal Navy defended the United Kingdom (UK) against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force ...
''; Olivier had himself served as a pilot in the
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the naval warfare force of the United Kingdom. It is a component of His Majesty's Naval Service, and its officers hold their commissions from the King of the United Kingdom, King. Although warships were used by Kingdom ...
's
Fleet Air Arm The Fleet Air Arm (FAA) is the naval aviation component of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy (RN). The FAA is one of five :Fighting Arms of the Royal Navy, RN fighting arms. it is a primarily helicopter force, though also operating the Lockhee ...
during the Second World War. During filming in summer 1968, 86 years old and wheelchair-bound by severe
arthritis Arthritis is a general medical term used to describe a disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, Joint effusion, swelling, and decreased range of motion of ...
, Dowding visited the set at Hawkinge airfield in Kent. Olivier told Dowding he had sat behind the latter's desk all day "pretending to be you" and was "making an awful mess of it too", to which Dowding replied, "Oh, I'm sure you are." The crew and Olivier broke into laughter. Footage of this can be seen in the special features section of the film's Special Edition DVD. *
Adrian Rawlins Adrian John Rawlins (born 27 March 1958) is an English actor best known for playing Arthur Kidd in '' The Woman in Black'' (1989) and James Potter in the ''Harry Potter'' films. In 2019, he starred in '' Chernobyl'' as Nikolai Fomin. Early ...
(2017) '' Darkest Hour'' * Nicholas Farrell (2018) '' Hurricane: 303 Squadron''


Honours and tributes

A statue of Dowding stands outside St Clement Danes church on the
Strand, London The Strand (commonly referred to with a leading "The", but formally without) is a major street in the City of Westminster, Central London. The street, which is part of London's West End Theatre, West End theatreland, runs just over from Tra ...
. The inscription reads:
Other monuments to Dowding can be found in Station Park in
Moffat Moffat is a burgh and parish in Dumfriesshire. Part of the Dumfries and Galloway local authority area in Scotland, it lies on the River Annan, with a population of around 2,500. It was a centre of the wool trade and a spa town. Moffat is arou ...
, the town of his birth, and in Calverley Gardens in Tunbridge Wells where he died. The RAF Association in conjunction with the RAF Benevolent Fund, purchased his birthplace, the former St Ninian's School, Moffat; the building was renamed Dowding House and restored to provide sheltered housing for former members of the Royal Air Force or their dependents. The Dowding Centre at the School of Aerospace Battle Management (formerly the School of Fighter Control) at
RAF Boulmer Royal Air Force Boulmer or more simply RAF Boulmer is a Royal Air Force station near Alnwick in Northumberland, England, and is home to Aerospace Surveillance and Control System (ASACS) Force Command, Control and Reporting Centre (CRC) Boulmer ...
is named after Dowding. A green ceramic commemorative plaque was unveiled at his former residence (1951–1967) in Darnley Drive, Southborough on 6 May 2012. Dowding Place,
Stanmore Stanmore is part of the London Borough of Harrow in Greater London. It is centred northwest of Charing Cross, lies on the outskirts of the London urban area and includes Stanmore Hill, one of the List of highest points in London, highest point ...
, the site of former RAF Stanmore Park is named after him. The 1946-built Southern Railway Battle of Britain pacific (4-6-2) locomotive 21C152 was named ''Lord Dowding'' in his honour.


See also

*
List of animal rights advocates Advocates of animal rights believe that many or all Animal consciousness, sentient animals have moral worth that is independent of their utility for humans, and that their most basic interests—such as in avoiding suffering—should be afforded ...


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * *


External links


Battle of Britain in the Words of Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding

Medal Bar of Air Chief Marshal Baron Dowding of Bentley Priory at the Royal Air Force Museum
, - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - , - {{DEFAULTSORT:Dowding, Hugh 1882 births 1970 deaths Aerial warfare pioneers Barons created by George VI Battle of Britain British Army personnel of World War I British parapsychologists Burials at Westminster Abbey Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order People educated at St Ninian's School, Moffat People educated at Winchester College People from Moffat Royal Air Force air marshals of World War II Royal Air Force generals of World War I Royal Flying Corps officers Royal Garrison Artillery officers Scottish airmen Scottish anti-vivisectionists Scottish spiritualists Scottish Theosophists