Hindu scriptures

Hindu texts or Hindu scriptures are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. Some of the major Hindu texts include the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Itihasa. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of Hinduism,Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, , p. ix–xliii but many list the Agamas as Hindu scriptures,Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , pp. 46–52, 76–77 and Dominic Goodall includes Bhagavata Purana and Yajnavalkya Smriti in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.

History

There are two historic classifications of Hindu texts: '' Shruti'' (Sanskrit: श्रुति, ) – that which is heard, and '' Smriti'' (Sanskrit: स्मृति, IAST: ''Smṛti'') – that which is remembered. The ''Shruti'' texts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancient religious texts, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (''rishis''). These comprise the central canon of Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 645 It includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, , pp. 2–3 Of the ''Shrutis'', the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."

The ''Smriti'' texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author, as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Shruti'' in Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, , pp. 656–657 The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāngas, the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), the Sutras and Shastras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the ''Bhasyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, , pp. 16–18

Many ancient Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in non-Indian languages. Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.Michael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., , pp. 68–71 This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 67–77

Shruti

The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.Roger R. Keller, "Hinduism," ''Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions'' (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39. The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit. The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Each Veda is subcategorized into Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

Vedas

The four Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda) are a large body of Hindu texts originating from the Vedic period in northern India, the Rig Veda being composed , and its Samhita and Brahmanas complete before about 800 BCE. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit hymns, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation, '' apauruṣeya'', which means "not of a man, superhuman" and "impersonal, authorless". The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.

Vedas are also called '' shruti'' ("what is heard") literature, distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ' ("what is remembered"). The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the Deity. In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation, Brahma.

Each of the four Vedas have been subclassified into four major text types:

# the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions),
# the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices),
# the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and
# the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , pages 35–39A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, , pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, , page 285Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,

Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''Vedānta'', interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda". The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, , pp. 35–36 The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the ''mukhya'' (main) or principal Upanishads.Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, , Chapter 1 The ten mukhya Upanishads are: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, and Brihadaranyaka. The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''Brahmanas'' and '' Aranyakas'' and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE), down to the Maurya period. Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.

Smriti

Smriti is the classification of literature which includes various scriptures and ''Itihasa''s (epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata), Harivamsa Puranas, Agamas and Darshanas. This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. The Dharma-shastras (law books), derivatives of the Dharma-sutras. Other examples were ''bhautikashastra'' "physics", ''rasayanashastra'' "chemistry", ''jīvashastra'' "biology", '' vastushastra'' "architectural science", '' shilpashastra'' "science of sculpture", ''arthashastra'' "economics" and ''nītishastra'' "political science". It also includes Tantras and Agama literature.

Puranas

The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE. The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, , pp. 437–439 Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, , pp. 185–204Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, , pp. 139 several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi.Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , pp. 1–5, 12–21

The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915 and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy. The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.

There are 18 ''Maha Puranas'' (Great Puranas): Agni Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahmavaivarta Purana, Garuda Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Markandeya Purana, Naradiya Purana, Padma Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Vamana Purana, Varaha Purana, Vayu Purana, and Vishnu Purana and 18 ''Upa Puranas'' (Minor Puranas),Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, , pp. xii, 4 with over 400,000 verses. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism, but are considered a Smriti. These Hindu texts have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre. The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes bhakti (devotion) towards Krishna. The Bhagavata Purana is a key text in Krishna bhakti literature.

Mahabharata

The ''Mahābhārata'', which translates to "''The Great Indian Tale''", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.Brockington (1998, p. 26) The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (). The composition is traditionally attributed to Vedavyasa and is made up of over 100,000 shlokas.

The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (the Pandavas and the Kauravas) and the aftermath of the Kurukshetra War. The Mahabharata also teaches about dharma (duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes the Bhagavad Gita.

The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion between Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God, moksha, and dharma.

Ramayana

The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sage Valmiki and contains over 24,000 verses.

The epic covers the life journey of Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wife Sita, and brother Lakshmana. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted by Ravana of Lanka. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana, Hanuman (a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return to Ayodhya, where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.

Other Hindu texts

Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:

Historical significance

The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such as music, dance, sculptures, architecture, astronomy, science, mathematics, medicine and wellness. Valmiki's Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by Gandharvas, dance by Apsaras such as Urvashi, Rambha, Menaka, Tilottama Panchāpsaras, and by Ravana's wives who excelling in ''nrityageeta'' or "singing and dancing" and ''nritavaditra'' or "playing musical instruments").Ananda W. P. Guruge, 1991
The Society of the Ramayana
Page 180-200. The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in ''Natasutras'', which are mentioned in the text of Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on Sanskrit grammar, and who is dated to about 500 BCE. This performance arts related Sutra text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts. Richmond et al. estimate the ''Natasutras'' to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.

See also

* Hindu cosmology and eschatology
* Hindu tantric literature
* Indian epic poetry
* List of Hindu texts
** ''Atharvaveda''
** ''Rigveda''
** ''Samaveda''
** ''Yajurveda''
* List of historic Indian texts
* Prasthanatrayi
* Sanskrit literature
* Sanskrit-related topics
* Timeline of Hindu texts

Notes

References

Bibliography

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Further reading

* R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House,
* Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,
* Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic,

External links

Manuscripts collections (incomplete)
A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library
Volume 1, Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.)
A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library
Volume 2, Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.; for complete 6 set collection see )
Clay Sanskrit Library
publishes Sanskrit literature with downloadable materials.
The Sacred Books of the Hindus Information

Online resources:
The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts - HinduismSanskrit Documents Collection
Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.

a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.

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