Chen De'an

Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also called Dashi Tiantai (天台大師) and Zhizhe (智者, "Wise One"), was a Chinese Buddhist monk, philosopher, meditation teacher, and exegete. He is considered to be the founder of the Tiantai Buddhist tradition, as well as its fourth patriarch. Śramaṇa Zhiyi is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the development of East Asian Buddhist thought and practice. As the first major Chinese Buddhist thinker to construct a comprehensive religious system based primarily on Chinese interpretations, Zhiyi played a crucial role in synthesizing various strands of Mahayana Buddhism into a unique coherent framework."Tiantai Zhiyi." In ''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism'', 911–12. Princeton University Press, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46n41q.27. According to David W. Chappell, Zhiyi "has been ranked with Thomas Aquinas and al-Ghazali as one of the great systematizers of religious thought and practice in world history."

Zhiyi relied on the teachings of the ''Lotus Sutra'' as the main basis for his system, though he also drew on numerous texts, such as the works of Nagarjuna. One of his central innovations was the ''Threefold Truth'', which unifies the truths of emptiness, and provisional existence, with a holistic third truth: the middle. Zhiyi also developed an influential interpretation of the ''Lotus Sutra,'' which he used to interpret all other Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Zhiyi's comprehensive work on Buddhist practice, the ''Mohe Zhiguan'' (''Great Cessation-Contemplation''), outlines step-by-step instructions for Buddhist meditation and cultivation, combining traditional Indian methods with unique innovations. This text continues to serve as an influential guide for meditators across East Asian Buddhist traditions.Rev. Jikai Dehn, Mohe Zhiguan study materials, http://tendaiaustralia.org.au/documents/MoheZhiguanOutline.pdf

Zhiyi's Tiantai school became one of the most significant Buddhist traditions in imperial China, and its teachings later spread to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Zhiyi's synthesis of doctrine and practice remains a cornerstone of East Asian Buddhist philosophy. His three great works, the ''Great Cessation-Contemplation'', the ''Profound Meaning of The Lotus Sutra,'' and the ''Words and Phrases of The Lotus Sutra'' are the foundational treatises for the Tiantai, Tendai (Japanese) and Cheontae (Korean) traditions. Zhiyi's works also influenced other Buddhist traditions, such as Zen, Pure Land and Nichiren Buddhism, and continue to be studied by Asian Buddhists for their depth, clarity, and systematic approach to Buddhist thought. His system provides a universalist Mahayana framework which allowed it to easily adapt to new times and cultures.

Biography

Zhenjue temple
Born with the Chinese surname, surname Chen () in Huarong District, Jing Prefecture (now Hubei), Zhiyi lost his parents and hometown of Jiangling to the Western Wei army when he was just seventeen. He subsequently became a Buddhist monk at eighteen. As a young monk, he studied Mahayana sutras and Vinaya, and also recited the ''Threefold Lotus Sutra'', under the guidance of Vinaya master Huikuang (d.u.).

At 23, Zhiyi met his most important teacher, Nanyue Huisi (515–577 CE), a meditation and ''Lotus Sutra'' master who would later be listed as Zhiyi's predecessor in the Tiantai lineage. On first meeting, Huisi is said to have greeted Zhiyi as an old friend, since he recognized that they had both been present in the Lotus Sutra assembly at Vulture's Peak. Under Huisi's tutelage (from 560 to 567), Zhiyi practiced the Lotus Samadhi Repentance, the '' Pratyutpanna Samadhi'', the ''suiziyi sanmei'' (the samādhi of freely flowing thoughts), the ''Lotus Sutra'' based "four practices of ease and bliss" (''si anle xing''), and the meditative recitation of the ''Lotus Sutra''.

In 567, Zhiyi (now 30 and approved by Huisi as his successor) traveled with several followers to Waguansi monastery at the Southern capital of Jinling (Jiangsu) to give teachings on the ''Lotus Sutra'' and the '' Dazhidu lun''. He spent eight years at the capital teaching. After eight years, feeling that his efforts in the capital were not effective in bringing people to the true Dharma, he moved to Tiantai mountain (Zhejiang province) in 575, where he would remain for eleven years studying and practicing. This move came around the same time as the second great persecution of Buddhism by Emperor Wu (r. 561–578) was raging in the north. Zhiyi also built a monastery on mountain Tiantai, which was later named Xiuchansi (修禪寺).

In 585 Zhiyi returned to the capital of Jinling as requested by the king of Chen. It is here that he would give a series of lectures on the Lotus Sutra which would later be edited by his disciple into an influential commentary, the ''Miao Falianhua wenju'' (妙法蓮華文句'', Words and Phrases of the Wondrous Dharma Lotus Flower,'' or ''Fahua wenju'' for short, T. 1718)''.'' Zhiyi also acted as preceptor of the bodhisattva precepts to the future Emperor Yang (r. 604-617) of Sui, at the prince's request, who then granted Zhiyi the title of Dashi "Zhizhe" (Great Master Wise Man)''.'' He then founded another monastery in his native Jingzhou which later came to be called Yuquansi (玉泉寺)''.''

In the latter part of his life, he gave other lectures which would become his other great works, the ''Fahua xuanyi'' (''Profound Meaning of The Lotus Sutra'') and the ''Mohe zhiguan'' ''(Great Calming and Insight)''. He also wrote two commentaries on the '' Vimalakīrtinirdeśa'' just before the end of his life in 597''.''

Guanding's biography of Zhiyi states that as he was dying he made offerings to Maitreya, recited the names of Amitabha, Prajña and Avalokitesvara, and listened to recitations from the ''Lotus Sutra'' and the '' Contemplation Sutra'' while waiting for Avalokitesvara to welcome him into the pure land.Hurvitz, L. “Chih-i (538–597): An Introduction to the Life and Ideas of a Chinese Buddhist Monk,” Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques 12 (1960–1962): 170– 173.

Zhiyi is said to have thirty two direct disciples. Guanding (561–632) was his most influential disciple, since he was responsible for recording and preserving the master's legacy. It was Guanding who edited and published the master's lectures into the ''Mohe Zhiguan'' and the two great commentaries on the ''Lotus Sutra''. Guanding also wrote his own original works, including two commentaries on the ''Nirvana Sutra''.

Zhiyi was vastly influential on the development of East Asian Buddhism. His Tiantai school became one of the most important traditions of Buddhist study and practice in the history of China and Japan (where it became Tendai Buddhism). Zhiyi's work also influenced the development of other traditions like Chan and Pure Land.

Works

Statue of Zhiyi holding a scripture, at Shiga prefecture, Japan

Major works

Zhiyi's major works are known as the "Three Great Works of Tiantai" (天台三大部) or "Three Great Texts of the Lotus". These key works were compiled and edited by Zhiyi's disciple Guanding (561–632) from Zhiyi's lectures and writings.Lopez & Stone (2019), p. 16. The three texts are:''''

* ''Words and Phrases of the Wondrous Dharma Lotus Flower'' (''Miao Falianhua wenju'' 妙法蓮華文句'','' or ''Fahua wenju'' for short, T. 1718), a traditional commentary which discusses each passage of the sutra.
* ''Profound Meaning of the Wondrous Dharma Lotus Flower'' (''Miao Falianhua jing xuanyi'' 妙法蓮 華經玄義, short title: ''Fahua xuanyi'' 法華玄義, T. 1716), a commentary which discusses the essential meaning of the ''Lotus Sutra''.
* '' Great Calming-Insight'' (''Mohe Zhiguan'' 摩訶止觀, T. 1911), a large treatise on doctrine and practice, based on lectures given by Zhiyi towards the end of his life, which were edited and arranged by his student Guanding. The title owes its name to the practice of '' samatha'' (止 ''zhǐ'', calming or stabilizing meditation) and '' vipasyana'' (觀 ''guān'', clear seeing or insight), which Zhiyi uses to cover the entirety of the Buddha Dharma. This work, though seen by tradition as also based on the ''Lotus Sutra'', actually draws on numerous Mahayana texts to explicate the "perfect and sudden" (''yuan''-''tun'') teachings on meditation. It cites sutras like the '' Avatamsaka Sutra'' extensively, even more than the ''Lotus Sutra''.
There is also another very important text by Zhiyi which is used as an introductory text to the study of Tiantai Buddhism. This is the twelve fascicle ''On the Four Teachings'' (四教義 ''Sijiao yi'', T 1929), which introduces the Tiantai view through an analysis of the fourfold teaching schema (which divides the Buddha's teaching into four aspects: Tripitaka, Shared, Separate, and Complete).

Important practice texts

These are the three Major Tiantai treatises studied in mainland Tiantai and Japanese Tendai and remain the cornerstone of the tradition's doctrine and practice.

Zhiyi also wrote three shorter works on meditation practice, explaining different approaches calming and insight practice:

* ''Explanation of the Sequential Dharma Gates of Dhyāna Pāramitā'' (釋禪波羅蜜次第法門 T 1916), which presents his teachings on the "gradual and sequential" approach to calming and insight meditation and was written towards the beginning of Zhiyi's career
* The ''Xiao Zhiguan'' (; lit ''Small'' ''Calming and Insight'') was probably the first practical manual of meditation in China. With its direct influence on the ''Tso-chan-i'', this smaller meditation treatise was very influential in the development of Chan meditation.
* ''The Six Wondrous Dharma Gates'' (六妙法門 T 1917), presents the "variable" approach to calming and insight

Zhiyi is also known for having composed four repentance rites, which influenced later Chinese Buddhist rituals and remain part of the Chinese Buddhist repertoire today. His four main repentance rites are:

* ''Repentance Ritual for the Lotus Sūtra Samādhi'' (法華三昧懺儀, ''Fǎhuá Sānmèi Chànyí'', T 1941)
* ''Vaipulya-samādhi Repentance Practice'' (''Fangdeng sanmei chanfa'' 方等三昧懺法),
* ''Repentance Ritual of Petitioning Avalokiteśvara'' (''Qing Guanshiyin chanfa'' 請觀世音懺法),
* ''Golden Light Repentance Practice'' (''Jin'guangming chanfa'' 金光明懺法)

Other attributed works

There are also numerous other texts attributed to Zhiyi in the Taishō Tripiṭaka, though scholars are unsure of their provenance. Some of these may have been written by his disciples or later Tiantai authors.Ng Yu-Kwan (1993). ''T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Madhyamika,'' pp. 9-10. Tendai Institute of Hawaii Buddhist Studies Program. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. In particular, the works on Pure Land sutras and on Guanyin are seen by modern scholars as later works, while the commentaries on the ''Vimalakīrti Sūtra'' are seen as important authentic works of Zhiyi. However, all these works remain important in the Tiantai tradition, which generally considers them as authentic. These secondary attributed works are:

# Profound Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sūtra (維摩經玄疏, Wéimó Jīng Xuánshū, T 1777), an important work which was written by Zhiyi himself
# Concise Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sūtra (維摩經略疏, Wéimó Jīng Lüèshū, T 1778)
# Treatise on Contemplating the Mind (觀心論, Guānxīn Lùn, T 1920), also called Treatise on the Churning of Milk, an authentic and important late work of Zhiyi
# Commentary on the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (金剛般若經疏, Jīngāng Bōrě Jīng Shū, T 1698)
# Commentary on the Sūtra for Humane Kings (仁王護國般若經疏, Rénwáng Hùguó Bōrě Jīng Shū, T 1705)
# Profound Meaning of the Golden Light Sūtra (金光明經玄義, Jīnguāngmíng Jīng Xuányì, T 1783)
# Textual Commentary on the Golden Light Sūtra (金光明經文句, Jīnguāngmíng Jīng Wénjù, T 1785)
# Commentary on the Meaning of the Bodhisattva Precepts (菩薩戒義疏, Púsà Jiè Yìshū, T 1811)
# Essentials of Seated Meditation in the Practice of Calming and Contemplation (修習止觀坐禪法要, Xiūxí Zhǐguān Zuòchán Fǎyào, T 1915)
# The Four Foundations of Mindfulness (四念處, Sì Niànchù, T 1918)
# Oral Instructions on Meditation from the Great Master Zhiyi of Tiantai (天台智者大師禪門口訣, Tiāntái Zhìzhě Dàshī Chánmén Kǒujué, T 1919)
# Explanation of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Enlightening-Thought Samādhi (釋摩訶般若波羅蜜覺意三昧, Shì Móhē Bōrě Bōluómì Juéyì Sānmèi, T 1922)
# Gradual Entry into the Dharmadhātu (法界次第初門, Fǎjiè Cìdì Chūmén, T 1925)
# The Fourfold Teachings (四教義, Sì Jiàoyì, T 1929)
# Practice Methods for the Samādhi of the Expanded Teachings (方等三昧行法, Fāngděng Sānmèi Xíngfǎ, T 1940)
# Treatise on Ten Doubts about the Pure Land (淨土十疑論, Jìngtǔ Shíyí Lùn, T 1961)
# The Five Expedient Gates of Mindfulness of the Buddha (五方便念佛門, Wǔ Fāngbiàn Niànfó Mén, T 1962)
# Profound Meaning of Avalokiteśvara (觀音玄義, Guānyīn Xuányì, T 1726)
# Commentary on the Meaning of Avalokiteśvara (觀音義疏, Guānyīn Yìshū, T 1728)
# Commentary on the Sūtra of Inviting Avalokiteśvara (請觀音經疏, Qǐng Guānyīn Jīng Shū, T 1800)
# Commentary on the Sūtra on the Visualization of Amitāyus (觀無量壽經疏, Guān Wúliàngshòu Jīng Shū, T 1750)
# Notes on the Meaning of the Amitābha Sūtra (阿彌陀經義記, Āmítuó Jīng Yìjì, T 1755)

Teaching

Interpretation of the ''Lotus Sutra''

A scroll of the Lotus Sutra, Japan, Edo period
Zhiyi's exegetical works make use of a hermeneutical scheme called the fivefold profound meanings which can also be applied to any Buddhist sutra and was widely influential on later Chinese Buddhist exegesis. These five fundamental elements of interpreting a sutra are:Rhodes, Robert F. (2016)
Tiantai Hermeneutics: Zhiyi’s Interpretation of the Lotus Sutra Presented in the Miaofa lianhua jing xuanyi
In ''The Buddha’s Words and Their Interpretations,'' ed. Takami Inoue and Imre Hamar, 139–153. Kyoto: The Shin Buddhist Comprehensive Research Institute, Otani University.

# Explaining the title (shiming 釋名)
# Explaining the essence (bianti 辨體)
# Clarifying the main point (mingzong 明宗)
# Discussing the function/application (lunyong 論用)
# Classification of the arious Buddhistteachings ( panjiao 判教)

The longest section (2/3rds) of Zhiyi's ''Profound Meaning of the Wondrous Dharma Lotus Flower'' is his discussion of the title, which for Zhiyi reveals the Buddha's insight and contains the whole teaching of the ''Lotus Sutra''. In discussing the term "wondrous" or "sublime" (miao 妙), Zhiyi argues that this refers to ultimate reality itself (shixiang 實相), which is the perfect interfusion of the three truths (yuanrong sandi 圓融三諦). Furthermore, Zhiyi argues that the essential meaning of the ''Lotus Sutra'' is Suchness, the true nature of reality. Zhiyi describes the ultimate reality or Subtle Dharma in different ways, using quotes from texts like the '' Da zhidu lun'' and the ''Nirvana Sutra''. He writes that while the ultimate is "given many names" and can be described by "various terms" it is still a single truth. He uses various terms for the Subtle Dharma, such as “the true aspect of reality” (實相), “true reality” (眞實), and the Middle Way (中道), describing it as inexpressible, and beyond conceptual understanding.

Regarding the "main point" of the Sutra, Zhiyi describes it as "the cause and fruit of the Buddha’s own practice", which refers to Buddhahood itself, and the practices which lead one to it. Zhiyi sees the ''Lotus'' as the sutra which reveals the Buddha's pure insight, unmixed with any expedients and based on the ultimate truth. According to Zhiyi, previous sutras taught by the Buddha were still mixed with various secondary skillful means, but the ''Lotus'' directly communicates the Buddha's ultimate method. Regarding the function of the sutra, Zhiyi sees it as being contained in a twofold knowledge of the true and the provisional. True knowledge knows ultimate reality (the triple truth), while provisional knowledge knows the particulars, and is thus able to lead all beings through skillful means.

The final profound meaning, the classification of teachings, divides the Buddha's teachings into five different flavors or stages. They are the coarser teachings of the Avatamsaka, Tripitaka (Hinayana), Vaipulya (Mahayana) and Perfection of Wisdom teachings and the final "complete" or "round" (yuan 圆) teachings of the ''Lotus Sutra'', which is the sublime teaching that communicates absolute reality directly. The "complete" or "sublime" teaching (the two terms being synonyms) is said to be all-encompassing, integrating all teachings within it, and indeed, all phenomena (dharmas). It is also the “inseparability” (ji 即) of all things, the non-duality of all skillful means and the unity of opposites, such as samsara and nirvana or delusion and enlightenment.

For Zhiyi, the sublime teaching can be understood from the point of view of the relative truth, as the relative sublime (xiangdai miao 相待 妙) and can also be viewed as the absolute sublime (juedai miao 絶待妙) from the ultimate perspective. The relative sublime refers to when we view the sublime teaching (of the ''Lotus Sutra'') in contrast to the other "coarser" teachings, and thus, it is sublime only ''in relation'' to the coarse. It also means that the ''Lotus Sutra'' can serve as a hermeneutical key to interpret and organize all other Buddhist teachings.Ziporyn (2000), pp. 143-144 The absolute sublime meanwhile refers to a teaching that transcends all relative teachings and all dualisms, including notions of sublime or coarse, while also including all other teachings within it. Since this is a teaching beyond all discrimination and conceptualization, it is "inconceivable". Since it overcomes all distinctions and is all-inclusive, it is a teaching in which "the sublime is immediately the coarse (miao ji cu 妙卽麤) and the coarse is immediately the sublime (cu ji miao 麤卽 妙)", abandoning all distinction between sublime and coarse. The absolute sublime is also a teaching in which "there is nothing which is relative, and nothing which is absolute".

For Zhiyi, this ultimate non-dual teaching is the unique teaching only found in the ''Sublime Dharma Lotus Sutra,'' and is the essential meaning of the title. This means that while the ''Lotus'' is superior to all other sutras from a relative point of view, it is also one with the teachings of all sutras, which are identical to the ''Lotus'' from an absolute perspective.Rhodes, Robert F. (2016)
Tiantai Hermeneutics: Zhiyi’s Interpretation of the Lotus Sutra Presented in the Miaofa lianhua jing xuanyi
In ''The Buddha’s Words and Their Interpretations,'' ed. Takami Inoue and Imre Hamar, 139–153. Kyoto: The Shin Buddhist Comprehensive Research Institute, Otani University. All other sutras and teachings are thus expressions or modes of the ''Lotus Sutra'''s complete teaching. The ''Lotus'' is also the master key that "unlocks" the true meaning of all other teachings (which is none other than the ''Lotus Sutra's'' teaching of the unity of all teachings and all phenomena). Thus, the ''Lotus Sutra'' shows that all other sutras are really also the ''Lotus Sutra,'' i.e. the Buddha-wisdom of the non-duality of all things. The idea of the "round/ perfect teaching" (yuanjiao) does not originate with Zhiyi, and can be found in previous writings of Baoliang (444–509) and Huiguang (468–537). Zhiyi's unique contribution is in his adapting the term to signify the all-encompassing non-dual nature of the Buddha's teaching in the Lotus Sutra.

Trace and Original teachings

Zhiyi divides the 28 chapters of the ''Lotus Sutra'' into two parts: the ''Trace Gate'' (跡門 Ch. jimen, J. shakumon) which teaches the One Vehicle (as myriad skillful means), and the ''Root'' or ''Original Gate'' (本門, Ch. benmen, J. honmon), which teaches the eternal lifespan of the Buddha and the Buddha's ultimate intention and activities. Hans-Rudolf Kantor also notes that the basic terminology of "root and traces" (ben ji) was borrowed from Sengzhao by Zhiyi.

According to Kantor, for Zhiyi, the ''Lotus Sutra'''s internal structure "mirrors the sūtra’s intertextual relationship with all the other scriptures (sūtras)". Indeed, Zhiyi sees the ''Lotus Sutra'' as embodying the Buddha's enlightenment, which is "the non-dual 'root' which enables all the teachings of the other sūtras to function as the bipolar 'traces' that guide back to liberation." This relationship between the provisional skillful means and the ultimate teaching that is their goal (and their ultimate reality) is described by Zhiyi through the phrase "Opening the Provisional to Reveal the Real".

Trace teaching

The first 14 chapters constitute the ''Trace Gate'', since it presents the many "traces" arising from the "root" of enlightenment, and presents the Buddha as a " manifestation body". This section reveals the teaching of the One Vehicle (ekayāna) by revealing that all provisional teachings of the Three Vehicles (the Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, and Bodhisattva paths) are nothing but expedient ways (upaya) to the Single Buddha Vehicle. This teaching emphasizes the Buddha’s skillful means in presenting various methods to different kinds of beings with varying capacities. In spite of their differences, all paths taught by the Buddha are said to eventually converge in the One Vehicle that leads all beings to Buddhahood. For Zhiyi, this means that while the various doctrines and methods taught by the Buddha in all the different sutras might sometimes seem contradictory, they are ultimately describing and leading to the same state (even if beings on those paths do not know it).Swanson (1989), pp. 124-125. Zhiyi describes this aspect of the sutra by stating that it “opens the three vehicles to reveal the one vehicle.”

For Zhiyi, the ''Lotus Sutra'''s doctrine of the One Vehicle offered an inclusive meta-doctrine for understanding all Buddhist teachings. Zhiyi described the One Vehicle as "subtle" and "wonderful" compared to lesser, coarser teachings—though this distinction is only relative. From the ultimate perspective, the One Vehicle transcends comparison since no teaching exists outside it and it thus includes all the Buddha's teachings and in fact, ''is'' all the teachings. Thus, Zhiyi saw the One Vehicle as open and all-encompassing, integrating all of Buddhism into a single holistic framework.Stone, Jacqueline (1999)
''Inclusive and Exclusive Perspectives on the One Vehicle''
/ref> This One Vehicle teaching is also called the "Round" or "Complete" Teaching (yuan jiao 圓教), since it encircles everything, and lacks any sharp edges or divisionsLusthaus, Dan
''The Chinese Buddhist Schools: Tiantai. Buddhist philosophy''
Chinese, 1998, doi:10.4324/9780415249126-G002-1. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor and Francis.

Zhiyi saw the Complete teaching of the One Vehicle as being composed of four types of unity: the oneness of the teachings (all teachings of the Buddha are non-contradictory and have one intent), the oneness of the practices (all lead to Buddhahood), the oneness of persons (all will attain Buddhahood), and the oneness of reality. According to Zhiyi, any text which is consistent with these concepts teaches "the Subtle Dharma" (''miaofa''). As Zhiyi states in the ''Profound Meaning of Lotus Sutra:'' "various terms name one ultimate reality. Only one ultimate reality is given many names."Swanson (1989), p. 125.

Zhiyi also organizes all the various skillful means taught by the Buddha through the schema of the four doctrines or four siddhantas (which he takes from the '' Da zhidu lun''). In this schema, the Buddha teaches according to (1) worldly convention; (2) suited to an individual's habits and preconceptions; (3) as therapeutic counteragents for specific defilements; and (4) in terms of Ultimate Truth.Ziporyn (2000), pp. 146-147 The ''Da zhidu lun'' also states: "All is real, all is not real, all is both real and unreal, all is neither real nor unreal - this is called the Ultimate Reality about all dharmas. In this way, all the scriptures are everywhere speaking the Ultimate Truth." Zhiyi's interpretation of the One Vehicle follows this idea that the ultimate truth is taught by the Buddha through numerous seemingly conflicting teachings which are nevertheless all true, as forms of the One Vehicle. These teachings are true and yet they are also unreal and illusory (like the three carts in the burning house parable). Thus, all Buddhists are practicing the One Vehicle which leads to Buddhahood, even those Buddhists who do not know it or who flatly reject the Mahayana. In some passages, Zhiyi takes this idea even further when he states that all dharmas (phenomena) are expressions of the ultimate truth itself. Thus he writes "all existing dharmas are marvels" since each phenomenon is revealed to be the nature and appearance of the Buddha realm. As Ziporyn writes "here the real nature of all phenomena is asserted to be none other than the principle of upaya killful meansitself, of a provisional positing that is perpetually exposed as false and superseded. The truth, in other words, is the process of falsehood (partial truth) leading to truth."

Zhiyi sees the term "lotus flower" (''lian hua'') in the sutra's title as an allegorical expression which points to the relationship between the relative three vehicles and the ultimate One Vehicle. Just like the flower blossom exists for the sake of the fruit, the relative teachings of the three vehicles exist only because of the One Vehicle. Similarly, the trace teaching exists because of the origin teaching. The provisional truth exists in order to reveal the real, and the real ultimate exists within the provisional. Thus, the term "lotus flower" in the title also symbolizes the entire teaching of the sutra, the "opening of the provisional to reveal the real" and the relationship between the three truths.

Original teaching

The latter 14 chapters constitute the ''Original Gate'' or ''Root Teaching'', which reveals that Śākyamuni Buddha is not a recently enlightened being but in fact has been a Buddha for countless aeons (it thus presents the "original" or "primordial" Buddha, 本佛). This ancient Buddha’s birth, awakening under the Bodhi tree, and apparent passing away (into nirvana) is just a skillful means. In reality, he has been ever-present in this very world, which is actually a serene pure land.

Zhiyi sees the essence of this teaching as being contained in the following passage from the ''Lotus Sutra'': "Since I have been becoming Buddha, for eternal ages in a life full of uncountable eons, I have been constantly abiding without ever extinguishing." Thus, the real Buddha, the Dharma-nature (faxing 法性), has always been Buddha, giving rise to innumerable traces (teachings which are ultimately unreal and yet skillful), while also being unchanging wisdom. The inseparability of the root (Buddha, Lotus Sutra, ultimate wisdom) and the trace (manifestations, upayas, other sutras) is the ''Lotus Sutra'''s ultimate and sublime teaching. As Zhiyi writes in his treatise on the meaning of the title of the ''Lotus'' ''Sutra'':

As for elucidating ‘root and traces’ in reference to ‘principle and things’, this is as stated Vimalakīrti nirdeśa-sūtra''">Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakīrti nirdeśa-sūtra'' ‘All dharmas are set up on account of the non-abiding root’ (wuzhu ben 無住本). Non-abiding principle (li 理) is the real mark and ultimate truth of the root-time (benshi 本時). All the dharmas are the densely intertwined conventional truths of the root-time. As the root of the real mark and ultimate truth leaves behind the traces of the conventional, the root of ultimate truth becomes manifest by pursuing the traces of the conventional. Seng Zhao’s sūtra-commentary:">Sengzhao.html" ;"title="e quote from Sengzhao">Seng Zhao’s sūtra-commentary:‘Although root and traces must be differentiated, they are inconceivably one’.

Thus, the hidden ultimate reality, which is called here "non-abiding root", "principle", or "root time," is both atemporal, devoid of arising, abiding or cessation; and yet it is also instantiated in the world, being non-dual with temporal dependent phenomena which contain and lead back to the root. Thus, by following the traces we attain the root, by knowing the provisional teachings and phenomena, we attain the ultimate (as well as the unity of the two). For Zhiyi, this is what the teaching of the ''Lotus Sutra'' intends through "revealing the root by setting forth the traces" (fa ji xian ben 發跡顯本).

Zhiyi also argues that the primordial or original Buddha embodies all three Mahāyāna buddha bodies simultaneously. This interpretation presents these three bodies as inseparable and interpenetrating, such that the reward (Saṃbhogakāya">Trikaya">three Mahāyāna buddha bodies simultaneously. This interpretation presents these three bodies as inseparable and interpenetrating, such that the reward (Saṃbhogakāya) and manifest (Nirmāṇakāya) bodies share in the Dharmakāya, Dharmakāya's timelessness. This synthesis reflects Zhiyi's principle of unity, wherein the infinite and finite are fully interfused.

Threefold Truth and Threefold Contemplation

file:Enryaku-ji (4153704143).jpg, Statue of Zhiyi at the Tendai home temple of Enryaku-ji, Mount Hiei, Japan

The foundational underpinning of Zhiyi's system is his doctrine of the threefold truth (sandi 三諦), which is seen as the ultimate "Principle" or " the Nature". Zhiyi's doctrine represents a significant adaptation of Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy. While Nāgārjuna's system centers on two truths—the conventional and the ultimate—Zhiyi expanded this framework by adding a third category: the Middle. This innovation helped bridge the gap between the apparent dichotomy in the two truths model, and offered a more integrated and holistic view of reality. Zhiyi writes that this idea can be directly found in two Chinese sutras, the ''Pusa yingluo benye jing'' ( Taisho no. 1485) and the '' Benevolent Kings Sutra'', which do mention (but do not explain) three truths. He also writes that all sutras contain the meaning of the three truths even if they do not use the term, and he cites numerous sutras like the ''Lotus'' and the '' Lankavatara'''s description of the triple body to illustrate the concept.

Zhiyi's Threefold Truth schema can be explained as follows:

# Emptiness (kong ��: This is the classic Mahayana teaching of Śūnyatā - fact that all phenomena lack inherent existence or self-nature (svabhāva). This corresponds to Nāgārjuna's ultimate truth, wherein all things are seen as empty due to their dependent origination.
# Provisional or Conventional Existence (jia ��: Despite their emptiness, all phenomena appear and function within the realm of conditioned arising. They are also provisionally posited, and exist due to conceptualization ( prajñapti), which also means that they are ultimately false. This reflects the mundane or conventional truth in Madhyamaka, which Zhiyi glosses as "the twelvefold conditioned co-arising of ignorance" and as "illusory existence".Swanson (1989), p. 146 In Zhiyi's system, this teaching also corresponds to the various skillful means taught by the Buddha.
# The Middle (zhong ��: This truth is the unity of emptiness and provisional existence. It emphasizes that reality is simultaneously empty and conventionally existent, i.e. the two truths are one truth. Emptiness is just conventionality, and vice versa, and both also contain the unity of these two (the third truth, which also contains them both). As Ziporyn writes "the difference between the first two truths, indeed even their opposition, must be preserved along with their harmony or identity." Zhiyi viewed this Middle Truth as transcending all dualistic extremes (such as existence and non-existence, being and emptiness, defilement and purity, self and other), and yet also affirming both sides of them as unified and non-contradictory. Zhiyi describes the Middle as "wondrous being identical to true emptiness."Lusthaus, Dan
''The Chinese Buddhist Schools: Tiantai. Buddhist philosophy''
Chinese, 1998, doi:10.4324/9780415249126-G002-1. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor and Francis. It can be explained as "a simultaneous affirmation of both emptiness and conventional existence as aspects of a single integrated reality." It is also described by Zhiyi as the "inconceivable" ultimate in which “any one erspectiveinterfuses with all three, and the three, one”.

Zhiyi regarded these three truths as inseparable, emphasizing their mutual integration: each truth encompasses the others in a dynamic interplay rather than existing in isolation. One can only understand them as a whole, never apart. Zhiyi describes this as: "the perfect integration of the three truths: one-in-three, three-in-one" (sān dì yuán róng yī sān sān yī, 三諦圓融一三三一). Each truth contains the other two. They are identical, three ways of saying the same thing. Thus, Zhiyi says "all dharmas are reducible to Emptiness, all are reducible to Provisional Positing, all are reducible to the Middle." Ziporyn writes that "any of these three concepts, if thought through to the end, reveals itself to be simply another way of stating the other two."

Regarding the classic Mahayana two truths theory itself, Zhiyi explains that it can be understood in at least seven ways, each one more profound than the other. At the deepest level, Zhiyi provides the following description (which also integrates the basic idea of the middle truth): "The mundane truth refers to both illusory existence and the identity of illusory existence with emptiness, and the real truth refers to the fact that 'reality includes existence, includes emptiness, and includes neither existence nor emptiness' (the threefold truth)."

The threefold ultimate reality is thus a single integrated whole. To describe this unified triple truth, Zhiyi used the simile of a drunk man who perceives the sun as spinning around, while in reality there is just one sun (a simile found in the '' Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra''). According to Donner and Stevenson, the triple truth was also seen by Zhiyi as a tetralemma, which includes emptiness, and conventional existence, alongside the simultaneous affirmation and simultaneous negation of existence and emptiness. However, Zhiyi also warned that one must not cling to this idea of "one truth" either, since ultimately it is beyond all words and concepts. Thus, the single truth can also be described as "no truth": "the one truth is no truth; all truth is at rest. Each and every one is inexpressible. It is necessary to say "no truth" for the sake of those who have not fulfilled attainment, and in their attachments give rise to delusion. For those who have real attainment, there is ruth for those vainly speculating, there is none."

Each aspect of the one truth has a corresponding contemplative aspect. This is known as the Threefold Contemplation (sanguan 三观) and is based on a passage from the ''Pusa yingluo benye jing'' ( Taisho no. 1485):

# Entering Emptiness from the Conventional (zong jia ru kong 從假入空): This practice begins by contemplating the dependent, conditioned nature of all phenomena, thereby discerning their emptiness of self-existence (svabhava). This corresponds to the contemplation of the two truths and aligns with the insight of arhats and bodhisattvas following foundational Buddhist teachings.
# Entering the Conventional from Emptiness (zong kong ru jia 從空入假): Having recognized emptiness, one sees that emptiness is also empty and "re-enters" the conventional. This step reaffirms the practical, provisional existence of things (as interdependent arisings), enabling compassionate engagement with the provisional world. This corresponds to the wisdom of bodhisattvas in Mahayana teachings.
# Contemplation of the Middle Way (zhong dao di yi yi di 中道第一義课): This practice harmonizes the previous two insights, transcending conceptual distinctions. Emptiness and existence are "simultaneously illumined and simultaneously eradicated". The middle reflects the wisdom of the Buddha and the ultimate teaching. It is a non-dual simultaneous contemplation of the two truths.

Zhiyi emphasized that the highest form of contemplation is "perfect and immediate calming and contemplation," where all three truths are perceived as a unified whole in a single instant of awareness. According to Zhiyi, "the supreme truth of the middle path" is "the reality of non-duality", as well as "the enlightened perception of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas", and is thus beyond all words and concepts, even though it can be called by various names like "Buddha-nature" (佛性 ''fóxìng''), Thusness (Skt. ''tathātā,'' 如如 ruru), '' tathāgatagarbha'' (如来藏 rulaizang), and the ''Dharmadhatu'' (法界 fajie). In his commentary to the ''Vimalakirti Sutra,'' Zhiyi also glosses the contemplation of the middle as "the long-abidingness of phenomena (dharmas)" (法久住, fǎ jiǔ zhù, which can also mean the "enduring presence of the Dharma") which "infers the permanence of the Dharmakaya".Ng Yu-Kwan (1993). ''T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Madhyamika,'' pp. 146-147. Tendai Institute of Hawaii Buddhist Studies Program. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. He also states that the enduring presence of dharma/s "means to lead eingsto realize buddha-nature and so to abide in the Great Nirvana".

According to Paul Swanson, Zhiyi's triune doctrine arose from the need to make explicit the relationship between the first and second truths of classical Indian Mahayana (an issue which also may have led to the development of Yogacara's "three natures"). Zhiyi developed his theory of a threefold truth by drawing on Nāgārjuna's ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā,'' which explains the two truths as: "We state that whatever is dependent arising, that is emptiness. That is dependent upon convention. That itself is the middle path" (MMK, XXIV.18). Swanson also notes that various scholars have criticized Zhiyi for adding a third "truth", when no Indian author explains Madhyamaka this way. However, according to Swanson, the major point of Zhiyi's analysis is that reality is a single integrated truth (which may be explained with two or three aspects). As such, it is not a deviation from classical Madhyamaka.Swanson (1989), pp. 7-8. Swanson thinks that one of the main reasons for this development is that it was a useful device for undoing Chinese misunderstandings of the two truths (such as seeing them as referring to being and non-being, to two separate levels of reality or to an essential reality and its functions).

From the practical point of view, Ziporyn writes that the Tiantai threefold truth implies that all teachings and views can be ultimate, all can lead to liberation (depending on circumstances). Unlike with the earlier Buddhist theory of the simile of the raft, in which conventional truths are to be discarded upon awakening (as one no longer needs a raft after crossing a river), in the Tiantai model, conventional truths are the endowment of liberation and are not abandoned. Rather, they are fully mastered by bodhisattvas when they reach buddhahood in order to save all beings. Thus, conventional truths are not just the means to attain buddhahood but are also "the very content of buddhahood". As Ziporyn writes "ultimate truth is simply a name for the totality of conventional truths and the virtuosic mastery of being able to move unobstructed from one conventional truth to another, as the situation demands, to the comprehension of the way they fit together or can function together, or the way in which they are each, as it were, “versions” of the other. Ultimate truth is the non-obstruction between conventional truths, the fact that they all interpenetrate, that in their non-absoluteness each is simply a different way of saying what the others say."Ziporyn, B. (2013). The Three Truths in Tiantai Buddhism. In A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, S.M. Emmanuel (Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118324004.ch16

The Sublime mutual inclusion

Zhiyi understood reality as a single integrated whole in which each part contains the whole. This is the doctrine of "mutual entailment" or mutual inclusion (''huju'' 互具).Ziporyn, Brook. (2000). ''Evil and/or/as the Good'', pp. 112-113. Leiden, The Netherlands: Harvard University Asia Center. https://doi.org/10.1163/9781684170340 This interfused holism has been described in different ways, such as "the interinclusiveness of the ten realms" or "the interpenetrating unity of all aspects of reality".Swanson (1989), pp. 12, 154. According to Swanson, for Zhiyi "everything contains everything else, and the whole contains all things." For Zhiyi, the teaching of mutual inclusion is entailed by the three truths. This is because the third truth of the Middle transcends and includes all extremes, such as self and other, "inside" or "outside", whole or part, the one and the many. This means that any specific phenomenon (dharma) cannot be ultimately separate from all others and thus "entails" or includes all other phenomena in the universe or "is identical to the entire dharma-realm." This also means that each religious teaching or practice leads to and includes the entirety of Buddha's teaching, which is the sublime intent of the ''Lotus Sutra'' as understood by Zhiyi.

This holism is also another meaning of the term "wondrous" or "sublime" (miao) found in the title of the ''Sublime Dharma Flower Sutra.Ziporyn (2000), p. 140.'' Common glosses of this term include "inconceivability", "beyond conceptual understanding," and even "miraculous". Swanson writes ''the gist of Zhiyi's standpoint is that the term 'subtle' (miao) refers to any teaching, doctrine, practice, and so forth, which includes the concept of unity or integration." Zhiyi explains this unified sublime reality thus:

If we speak of the non-differentiated dharma, where even the extremes are identical to the Middle, then there is nothing that is not the Buddha-dharma, all hat would be otherhas been swept clean. How then could the Buddha-dharma be relative to or dependent on the Buddha-dharma itself? This Buddha is precisely the Dharma realm. Outside the Dharma-realm where is there any other dharma with which it can be compared and thereby given any determination? Compared to what would it be coarse? In contrast to what would it be marvelous? In this case there is nothing to be depended on or compared with, and also nothing broken off - not knowing what else to call it, we give it the forced-name, Absolute.

The absolute sublime reality is thus one which transcends all concepts, otherwise it would still be relative. In going beyond concepts and relations, it must also include all things and their opposites.

Zhiyi further explained this idea with the term "Three Thousand ealmsin a Single Thought Moment ( Chinese: ; pinyin: ''yīniàn sānqiān''). Zhiyi states in a famous passage: "a single thought iterally, “one mind”comprises ten dharma-realms." The ten realmsm considered exhaustive of all cosmology, are: the hell, ghost, animal, asura, human, deva, sravaka, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva and Buddha realms. Each of these states of existence can be experienced in one's own mind, understood as ways of seeing the world, as well as actual realms of existence one can be reborn in. While sentient beings experience a limited part of this interfused reality (and thus experience suffering), Buddhas see the whole, and respond to the needs of beings with skillful means (which are also partial) that lead them to the truth (of the whole).

According to this teaching, the ten realms of existence of Buddhist cosmology are all interconnected and interpenetrating.Swanson (1989), p. 11. Furthermore each realm (or phenomenon) contains all others or "inherently entails" all others, hence they are "mutually inclusive" (in the same way that each of the three truths contain the others).Stone, Jacqueline. ''Finding Enlightenment in the Final Age'', In Lopez Jr. Donald S. (ed.) "Buddhist Scriptures", p. 513. Penguin Books. Each thing or thought has a kind of potential which can be "opened up" to reveal all other things; every thing leads to everything else, and so "the whole is present in each part; every particular is itself the whole".Ziporyn (2000), pp. 160-162 Thus we can say that "one short thought contains all of reality" and "the Buddha and ordinary worldlings, body and mind, cause and effect, subject and object, sentient and non-sentient are mutually encompassed in every moment of thought."Swanson (1989), p. 13. This does not mean that each phenomenon literally contains every thing else however, but that "as a sound is contained in a musical instrument", each phenomenon has the same nature (xing), which can lead to or become all other things. So, while we can say that all phenomena entail all other phenomena, they don't contain all phenomena pre-existent within it (a non-Buddhist view called satkaryavada which existed in India and is explicitly rejected in Tiantai).

Brook Ziporyn describes this view of reality which holds to the mutual inclusion of the whole in each individual thing as "ontological ambiguity" and as "omnicentric holism". For Zhiyi, given the vast web of contexts in the universe which define each phenomenon (dharma), no phenomenon has a clear singular identity of its own. Each thing is a nexus of all other things and exists in an inconclusive and infinitely multisided way. Furthermore, no single phenomenon is an exclusive core or center of reality, each and every phenomena is the center. This means that every phenomenon (dharma) in the universe is a skillful means of the Buddha, and a natural expression of Buddhahood. In spite of this, individual phenomena do not lose their individuality. It is precisely through their provisional individuality that they are able to function as skillful means leading to Buddhahood.Ziporyn (2000), p. 154. Ziporyn compares this to how the setup of a joke can be both serious by itself and funny (in the context of the whole joke and its punchline). An important implication of this teaching is that, for Zhiyi, one does not overcome suffering by seeking to destroy it, but by seeing it within the context of the whole universe, and by seeing it as non-dual with the bliss of Buddhahood.

The inconceivable mind

While reality is a unified whole, it can be explained in different ways according to Zhiyi, such as through the schemas of the Three Subtle Dharmas (sentient beings, Buddha and mind) and the Ten Suchnesses to explain the various realms and how they have the same nature of the threefold truth. Regarding the Three Dharmas, Zhiyi quotes from the ''Avatamsaka'' Sutra which states: "there is no distinction between the mind, Buddha, and sentient beings." Since the Three Dharmas are non-dual and the mind is the most accessible of the three, one can contemplate the whole of reality, including Buddhahood itself, by contemplating one's own mind.Swanson (1989), p. 135.

Zhiyi explains this by citing another passage from the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'' which states that "if one disports one's mind in the dharmadhatu (all of reality) as if in space, then one will know the objective realm of all Buddhas." According to Zhiyi one can understand this in terms of the threefold truth:

The dharmadhatu is the middle. Space is emptiness. The mind and Buddhas are conventional existence. The three together are the objective realm of all Buddhas. This means that if one contemplates he thoughts ofone's mind, one can become endowed with all Buddha-dharmas.

Zhiyi also calls the single reality "the inconceivable mind" (不思議心 ''pu ssu i hsin''), which contains all three thousand dharmas and the threefold truth. However, this "inconceivable mind" must not be understood as a kind of idealism in which reality arises from a single pure mind (a concept which would become influential in later Chinese Buddhism, especially in Zen). While this model presents a certain kind of non-duality, it emphasizes the ontological primacy of the " one mind" as pure and true, while perceiving worldly phenomena as illusory by-products of deluded consciousness. Zhiyi, however, proposed a different interpretation of Mahayana non-dualism. He rejected the idea that phenomena arise from an original mind or foundational consciousness. Instead, he described a relationship beyond vertical causation (mind generating phenomena) or horizontal containment (all things existing ''within'' mind). As Zhiyi writes:

Were the mind to give rise to all phenomena, that would be a vertical elationship Were all phenomena to be simultaneously contained within the mind, that would be a horizontal elationship Neither horizontal nor vertical will do. It is simply that the mind is all phenomena and all phenomena are the mind... his relationshipis subtle and profound in the extreme; it can neither be grasped conceptually nor expressed in words. Therefore, it is called the realm of the inconceivable.

Zhiyi’s view reinterprets the world not as a mere realm of delusion, but as one with enlightenment itself, the “real aspect of all dharmas”. Thus, Buddhist practice is not about returning to a supposed original purity but about awakening to wisdom directly within the complexities of ignorance and worldly experience.

Classification of teachings

In order to provide a comprehensive framework for Buddhist doctrine, Zhiyi sometimes described the various Buddhist teachings into the five types or "five flavors" of the teaching, each suitable for certain types of beings. This classification schema (panjiao) is based on a passage from the ''Nirvana Sutra'' which compares five phases of the teachings to the extraction of ghee from milk. Zhiyi also uses another simile: the sun's progression throughout the day. These five teaching flavors are:

* Huayan Period: Corresponding to the Buddha's enlightenment, this stage is represented by the early morning sun illuminating only the mountain peaks and by fresh milk. It highlights the ultimate and "sudden" teaching of the '' Huayan Sutra'', which is supreme, but hard to understand by most.
* Tripiṭaka Period: Representing the Buddha's teachings on the foundational doctrines of the Small Vehicle, like impermanence and the Four Noble Truths. It is the first of the gradual teachings. This stage is likened to the sun reaching the valleys, and is also compared to cream.
* Vaipulya Period: During this period, the Buddha emphasized gradual Mahāyāna teachings and criticized earlier Small Vehicle doctrines. It corresponds to the sun shining on the plains, where objects cast shadows according to their shapes. It is further compared to curds.
* Prajñāpāramitā Period: This stage focuses on the doctrine of emptiness, aimed at practitioners across the Three Vehicles. It is compared to adults enduring the bright midday sun, while children may be blinded by it. Zhiyi compares it to butter. It is the last of the gradual teachings.
* Lotus and Nirvāṇa Period: Representing the culmination of the Buddha's teaching in the ''Lotus'' and ''Nirvana sutra'', this period reveals the ultimate purpose and complete picture of all earlier teachings. It is "perfect/complete/round" because it integrates all teachings and also transcends them. It is what leads to the “inconceivable liberation” (acintya-vimokṣa, busiyi jietuo 不思議解脫). This teaching is symbolized by the sun at its zenith, where no shadows are cast, as well as by ghee.

Later Tiantai figures would draw on the work of Zhiyi to develop the more extensive system of the "Five Periods and Eight Teachings." Japanese scholars like Sekiguchi Shindai have shown that this more developed system is the work of Zhanran and that Zhiyi never uses the term "Five Periods and Eight Teachings", though he does describe the other sets of categories (to a lesser extent), but never as part of a single system. All these various categories would be later systematized by Zhanran.

In his ''Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra'', Zhiyi explains that there are three categories of teachings: the sudden teaching (realizing the truth all at once), the gradual teaching (a step by step set of teachings) and the variable (which takes sudden or variable methods as needed).

Zhiyi also describes "four teachings" (四教) which arise from and actualize the three contemplations:Chappell (1987), p. 253
* The Tripitaka Teachings (zàngjiào, 藏教) which represents the Hinayana teachings on the four noble truths, renunciation and attainment of arhatship. Zhiyi writes that these teachings rely on entering emptiness "through the analysis of provisional existence," and remains incomplete as it relies on the duality between existence and emptiness.
* The Shared Teachings (tōngjiào, 通教) which emphasizes the understanding of emptiness through "experiencing provisional existence (as empty)", a principle that applies across all Buddhist paths. It prepares practitioners for deeper Mahayana insights but is not itself complete, since it relies on mere negation and is thus only a partial truth.
* The Distinct Teachings (biéjiào, 别教) which are exclusively Mahayanist and rely on "entering provisional existence from emptiness." This teaching establishes the middle truth, but this is an "Exclusive Middle" (danzhong 但中), a middle which transcends (but does not include) the previous teachings, and also includes "non-emptiness". Thus it is "distinct" or "separate".Ziporyn (2000), p. 116. In this teaching, spiritual progress unfolds gradually through fifty-two bodhisattva stages, which are distinct and require the cutting off of the defilements. It also lacks the full integration of the Complete teaching, since it does not include within it the Hinayana for example or evil persons like Devadatta.Ziporyn (2000), p. 126 Despite reaching the middle truth, its methods are seen as somewhat cumbersome due to reliance on gradualism and dualism.
* The Complete/Round Teaching (yuánjiào, 圆教) which directly reveals the complete ultimate truth "all at once" without reliance on provisional methods. This is the holistic truth of the “Non-exclusive Middle” (不但''中 budan zhong'') which includes all the four teachings within it. It also corresponds to the third contemplation, and to the ultimate meaning of the One Vehicle, presenting the middle truth in an immediate and comprehensive manner, as opposed to all the other teachings which are “partial” (pian 偏). Intended for bodhisattvas with the sharpest spiritual faculties, the complete teaching is regarded as the most profound and all-encompassing. It includes even the actions of evil persons like Devadatta (as taught in the ''Lotus Sutra''). In this teaching, each stage of the path includes all other stages. Furthermore, in the Round Teaching, one "cuts off the defilements by not cutting them off" (bu duan er duan). The ''Mohe Zhiguan'' sets out to explain the Dharma from this perspective.

In spite of these classification schemes, Zhiyi did not see the various classes of teaching as necessarily hierarchical, since each one had the same intent of the One Vehicle and thus had its own role to play in the Buddha's Dharma. The ''Lotus'' teachings are only superior from the relative point of view (since it communicates the ultimate intent of the Buddha directly), but from the ultimate perspective (the absolute sublime), all the flavors and teachings are the same as the Complete teaching.

Buddhahood

In his ''Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra'' , Zhiyi explains Buddhahood by means of three ways of understanding the causes for Buddhahood and three ways of understanding the result of Buddhahood. The three ways of understanding the causes (which are really three ways of saying the same thing) are: (1) the truth of Three Thousand Realms in One Thought; (2) the fact that all realms other than Buddhahood contain Buddhahood; (3) all realms are of the nature of the threefold truth. The three ways of understanding the result of Buddhahood itself are: (1) Buddhahood pervades the entire universe as the nature of reality; (2) the inconceivable lifespan of the original Buddha who has always been Budha; (3) Buddha manifests in limitless forms for the benefit of all beings.
Therefore, according to Zhiyi, the Buddha-realm is deeply integrated with all other aspects of reality, inseparable from all things:Swanson (1989), pp. 134-135.

How can there be any dharma distinct from the Buddha? There cannot. All of the hundred realms and thousand suchnesses are the objective realm of the Buddha.

Buddhahood is not detached from the rest of reality, but pervades all the other nine realms and dwells within them. The difference is that a Buddha knows reality as it really is. As such, the three subtle dharmas (sentient beings, Buddhas and mind) are interfused, a single whole in which the three dharmas "are not distinct" as the ''Avatamsaka'' says''.''

Zhiyi also developed the Chinese Buddhist theory of “eliciting and responding” (ganying 感應, or "sympathetic resonace"), which is a uniquely Chinese theory of how Buddhas and bodhisattva relate to sentient beings. According to Zhiyi, sentient beings, through their devotion and their suffering, elicit or stimulate the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, who respond or resonate with skillful means. This relationship is possible because of the threefold truth, which means that sentient beings and Buddhas are at once distinct and also non-dual. Thus, in his ''Profound Meaning of Guanyin'' (''Guanyinxuanyi'' 觀音玄義), Zhiyi writes that "we must speak of the eliciting and the response as neither one nor different". For Zhiyi, there is an inconceivable unity and difference (and both, and neither), in the relationship between beings and Buddhas due to the principles of equality and non-dwelling. This means that Buddhas are in the minds of all beings, and at the same time, all beings are in the minds of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. This interfusion is true because beings and buddhas are ultimately not fixed to any single identity (non-dwelling), and are equally distributed, omnipresent and all-pervasive (equality).

Buddha-nature

Zhiyi’s view of the key Mahayana doctrine of buddha-nature (佛性 foxing, the inner Buddha potential within all beings) integrates ideas from the ''Lotus,'' ''Nirvana'' and ''Vimalakīrti

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