Brahman

In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), ''Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions'', Oxford University Press, , pages 51–58, 111–115;
For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), ''Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara'', Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35 It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth, consciousness and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. ''Brahman'' as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists in the universe.

''Brahman'' is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world". ''Brahman'' is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads.Stephen Philips (1998), ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida'' (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, , pages 1–4 The Vedas conceptualize ''Brahman'' as the Cosmic Principle. In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as '' Sat-cit-ānanda'' (truth-consciousness-bliss) and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.

''Brahman'' is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman ( sa, आत्मन्), (Self), personal, impersonal or '' Para Brahman'', or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being.Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, , pages 124–127 In non-dual schools such as the Advaita Vedanta, the substance of ''Brahman'' is identical to the substance of Atman, is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.Arvind Sharma (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction'', Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86

Etymology and related terms

Sanskrit (ब्रह्मन्) ''Brahman'' (an ''n''-stem, nominative ', from a root ''-'' "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge") is a neuter noun to be distinguished from the masculine '—denoting a person associated with ''Brahman'', and from Brahmā, the creator God in the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti. ''Brahman'' is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. ''Brahman'' is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world", while Sinar states ''Brahman'' is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".

In Vedic Sanskrit:
* ''Brahma'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuterNot Masculine or Feminine (see Grammatical gender). gender) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote". Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, ''History of Religions'', Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268–269
* ''Brahmana'' (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems ''brha'' (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit ''-man-'' which denotes some manifest form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".

In later Sanskrit usage:
* ''Brahma'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman (''ब्रह्मन्'')'' (stem) (neuter gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below.
* ''Brahmā'' (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singular), ''Brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa.

These are distinct from:
* A ''brāhmaṇa'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced ), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
* A ''brāhmaṇa'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as " Brahmin". This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, ''Brahmāṇi''. See Vedic priest.
* '' Ishvara'', (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless ''Brahman''. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal ''Brahman''.
* '' Devas'', the expansions of ''Brahman''/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme ''Brahman'' (See '' Para Brahman''). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.

History and literature

Vedic

''Brahman'' is a concept present in Vedic Samhita