Россия

Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, and extends across eleven time zones, sharing land borders with fourteen countries. Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous country in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia, while Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre.

Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated; the Grand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia's monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the world's first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, amidst the deaths of millions under Joseph Stalin's rule, and later played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space.

In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. A new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and become an authoritarian dictatorship. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory, including annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, Crimea in 2014 and Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, four other regions in 2022, during Russian invasion of Ukraine, an ongoing invasion.

Russia is generally considered a great power and is a regional power, possessing the Russia and weapons of mass destruction, largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the List of countries by military expenditures, third-highest military expenditure in the world. It has a Economy of Russia, high-income economy, which is the List of countries by GDP (nominal), eleventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and List of countries by GDP (PPP), fourth-largest by purchasing power parity, PPP, relying on its Russia as an energy superpower, vast mineral and energy resources, which rank as the second-largest in the world for List of countries by oil production, oil and List of countries by natural gas production, natural gas production. However, Russia International rankings of Russia, ranks very low in international measurements of democracy, Human rights in Russia, human rights and Media freedom in Russia, freedom of the press, and also has Corruption in Russia, high levels of perceived corruption. It is a Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, SCO, BRICS, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, APEC, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, OSCE, and World Trade Organization, WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as Commonwealth of Independent States, CIS, Collective Security Treaty Organization, CSTO, and Eurasian Economic Union, EAEU. Russia is home to List of World Heritage Sites in Russia, 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Etymology

According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the English name ''Russia'' first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from , used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from and the suffix .

There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective denotes Russian citizenship law, Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun , in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.

The oldest Endonym and exonym, endonyms used were ''Rus'' () and the "Russian land" (). According to the ''Primary Chronicle'', the word ''Rus'' is derived from the Rus' people, who were a Swedes, Swedish tribe, and from where the three original members of the Rurikid dynasty came from. The Finnish language, Finnish word for Swedes, , has the same origin. In modern historiography, the early medieval East Slavs, East Slavic state is usually referred to as ''Kievan Rus''', named after its capital city. Another Medieval Latin name for ''Rus'' was ''Ruthenia''.

In Russian, the current name of the country, (), comes from the Byzantine Greek name (). The name () was first attested in 1387. The name appeared in Russian sources in the 15th century and began to replace the vernacular ''Rus'' during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state. However, until the end of the 17th century, the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as ''Rus'', the "Russian land" (), or the "Muscovite state" (), among other variations.

In 1721, Peter the Great proclaimed the Russian Empire (). The name ''Rossiya'' was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state. ''Rossiya'' is distinguished from the ethnonym ''russkiy'', as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians. After the Russian Revolution and the proclamation of the Russian SFSR in 1918, the "Russian" in the title of the state was ''Rossiyskaya'', rather than ''Russkaya'', as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions. In modern Russian, the name ''Rus'' is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.

History

Early history

The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of ''Homo erectus'' migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia. Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus. Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago. Fossils of ''Denny (hybrid hominin), Denny'', an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave. Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.

The first trace of an Ust'-Ishim man, early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia. The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of Human, anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo, and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in European Russia, western Russia. Humans reached Far North (Russia), Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya. Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Beringian, Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.

The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya culture, Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia. Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic. Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo kurgan, Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, and Pazyryk burials, Pazyryk, which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare. The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family, Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.

In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Goths, Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies, was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Pannonian Avars, Eurasian Avars. The Khazars, who were of Turkic peoples, Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century. After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.

The ancestors of Russians are among the List of ancient Slavic peoples, Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe  years ago. The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kyiv, Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast, Rostov. Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.

Kievan Rus'

The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic From the Varangians to the Greeks, to the Black and Volga trade route, Caspian Seas. According to the ''Primary Chronicle'', a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg of Novgorod, Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars. Rurik's son Igor of Kiev, Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav I of Kiev, Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavs, East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate, and launched several military expeditions to Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria, Bulgaria, Paphlagonian expedition of the Rus', Byzantium and Caspian expeditions of the Rus', Persia.

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw Christianisation of Kievan Rus', the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantine Empire, Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the ''Russkaya Pravda''. The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west. By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities. Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir, Russia, Vladimir his base, leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.

Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Northern Crusades, Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.

Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the Siege of Kiev (1240), sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population. The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries. Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols. Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385), Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.

Grand Principality of Moscow

The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands". When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased. Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted List of conflicts in Eastern Europe during Turco-Mongol rule, a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Principality of Tver, Tver and Novgorod Republic, Novgorod.

Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the Golden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands; he later adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow Third Rome, claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms. Vasili III of Russia, Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, Russian states in the early 16th century.

Tsardom of Russia

In development of the Moscow, third Rome, Third Rome ideas, the grand prince Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned as the first tsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsar Promulgation, promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government. During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Khanate of Kazan, Kazan and Astrakhan Khanate, Astrakhan along the Volga, and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains. However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the History of Sweden (1523–1611), Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade. In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were Russo-Crimean Wars, thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous Russian famine of 1601–03, famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow. In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks. In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis of Russia, Alexis, whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War (1654–1667), Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.

Imperial Russia

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, Government reform of Peter the Great, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia. He was succeeded by Catherine I of Russia, Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II of Russia, Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna of Russia, Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth of Russia, Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin. However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.

Catherine the Great, Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Enlightenment, Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Partitions of Poland, annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe. In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire, annexing Crimea. As a result of victories over Qajar dynasty, Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also Russian conquest of the Caucasus, conquered the Caucasus. Catherine's successor, her son Paul I of Russia, Paul, was Personality and reputation of Paul I of Russia, unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues. Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I of Russia, Alexander I's (1801–1825) Finnish War, wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809, and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to Russian America, reach and colonise Alaska. In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made. In 1820, Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen#First Russian Antarctic expedition, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.

Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts

During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris. Alexander I of Russia, Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.

Great liberal reforms and capitalism

Nicholas's successor Alexander II of Russia, Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War. During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and British Empire, Britain colluded over Emirate of Afghanistan, Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central Asia, Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.

The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was Assassination of Alexander II of Russia, assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists. The reign of his son Alexander III of Russia, Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.

Constitutional monarchy and World War

Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedom of speech, freedoms of speech and freedom of assembly, assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma (Russian Empire), State Duma.

Revolution and civil war

In 1914, Russian entry into World War I, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, World War I casualties, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts. In early 1917, Nicholas II of Russia, Nicholas II was February Revolution, forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and Shooting of the Romanov family, later executed during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Russian Provisional Government, Provisional Government, and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On , 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.

An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called ''Soviet (council), soviets''. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state. The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army. In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I, World War I, Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.

The Allies of World War I, Allied powers launched an unsuccessful Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, military intervention in support of anti-communist forces. In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror (Russia), White Terror. By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians. Millions became White émigrés, and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.

Soviet Union

Command economy and Soviet society

On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides Treaty on the Creation of the USSR, formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Byelorussian, Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Ukrainian republics. Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of republics of the Soviet Union, 15 republics, the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.

Following Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin, Lenin's death in 1924, a List of Troikas in the Soviet Union, troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s. Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line. The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.

Stalinism and modernisation

Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, Industrialization in the USSR, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and Collectivization in the USSR, collectivisation of Agriculture in the USSR, its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to Gulag, penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule, and millions were population transfer in the Soviet Union, deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which killed 5.7 to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR. The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.

World War II and United Nations

The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its Soviet invasion of Poland, invasion of Poland, in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. The Soviet Union later Winter War, invaded Finland, and Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940), occupied and annexed the Baltic states, as well as Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, parts of Romania. On 22 June 1941, Germany Operation Barbarossa, invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.

Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis; the latter deliberately German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war, starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet Prisoner of war, POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost. Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow. Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered. Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and Battle of Berlin, captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, the Red Army Soviet invasion of Manchuria, invaded Manchuria and Soviet–Japanese War, ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.

The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War (term), Great Patriotic War. The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. During the war, World War II casualties of the Soviet Union, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million, accounting for about half of all World War II casualties. The Economy of the Soviet Union, Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947. However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.

Superpower and Cold War

After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria. Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states. After becoming the world's second Russia and weapons of mass destruction, nuclear power, the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance, and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.

Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development

After Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of Collective leadership, collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences, Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps. The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw. At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States PGM-19 Jupiter, Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet Cuban Missile Crisis, missiles in Cuba.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, ''Sputnik 1'', thus starting the Space Age. Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the ''Vostok 1'' crewed spacecraft on Cosmonautics Day, 12 April 1961.

Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation

Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of Collectivity of leadership, collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy. In 1979, after a Saur Revolution, communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War. In May 1988, the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.

Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of ''glasnost'' (openness) and ''perestroika'' (restructuring) in an attempt to end the Era of Stagnation, period of economic stagnation and to Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union), democratise the government. This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union. On 17 March, a 1991 Soviet Union referendum, referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a New Union Treaty, renewed federation. In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President of Russia, President in Russian history when he was 1991 Russian presidential election, elected President of the Russian SFSR. In August 1991, 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.

Independent Russian Federation

Transition to a market economy and political crises

The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including Privatization in Russia, privatisation and free trade, market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy (economics), shock therapy". The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs. Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight. The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed, and millions plunged into poverty, while extreme corruption, as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.

Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation

In December, a 1993 Russian constitutional referendum, referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers. The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections. From the time Chechnya, Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an First Chechen War, intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces. Terrorism in Russia, Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts. In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble. High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.

Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding

On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin. Putin then won the 2000 Russian presidential election, 2000 presidential election, and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.

Putin won a 2004 Russian presidential election, second presidential term in 2004. Price of petroleum, High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly. Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an Authoritarianism#Examples, authoritarian state. In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was 2008 Russian presidential election, elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits; this period has been described as a "Medvedev–Putin tandemocracy, tandemocracy".

Following a 2008 Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis, diplomatic crisis with neighbouring Georgia (country), Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it occupied territories of Georgia, occupies in Georgia. It was the first List of conflicts in Europe, European war of the 21st century. The 2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia, 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years. Putin then went on to win the 2012 Russian presidential election, 2012 presidential election, which fueled the "2011–2013 Russian protests, Snow Revolution" protests.

Invasion of Ukraine

In early 2014, following Revolution of Dignity, a pro-Western revolution in neighbouring Ukraine, Russia Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, annexed Crimea after a 2014 Crimean status referendum, disputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged under Russian occupation of Crimea, Russian occupation. The annexation generated an insurgency in the Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of Russo-Ukrainian War, an undeclared war against Ukraine. Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a War in Donbas, war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, pro-Russian protests in the region, although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine. Amidst 2017–2018 Russian protests, nationwide protests against corruption, Putin was re-elected for his second consecutive term in the 2018 Russian presidential election, 2018 presidential election.

In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine, invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. The invasion marked the largest conventional warfare, conventional war in Europe since World War II, and was met with Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, international condemnation, as well as International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, expanded sanctions against Russia.

As a result, Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March, and was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council in April. In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives, Putin announced a "2022 Russian mobilization, partial mobilisation", Russia's first mobilisation since Operation Barbarossa. In the end of September, Putin proclaimed the Annexation of southeastern Ukraine by the Russian Federation, annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions, the largest annexation in Europe since World War II. Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognised and widely United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4, denounced as illegal. As a result of the invasion, hundreds of thousands of people are Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War, estimated to have been killed or injured, while Russia has been accused of War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine, numerous war crimes. The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia's Demographic crisis of Russia, demographic crisis.

In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an Wagner Group rebellion, open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defence, capturing Rostov-on-Don, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off. The leader of the rebellion, Yevgeny Prigozhin, was later 2023 Wagner Group plane crash, killed in a plane crash. Putin won his third consecutive term in the 2024 Russian presidential election, 2024 presidential election, by winning 88% of the vote, the highest percentage in a presidential election in post-Soviet Russia.

Geography

Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia. It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia and has the world's List of countries by length of coastline, fourth-longest coastline, of over . Russia lies between latitudes 41st parallel north, 41° and 82nd parallel north, 82° N, and longitudes 19th meridian east, 19° E and 169th meridian west, 169° W, extending some east to west, and north to south. Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents, and has the same surface area as Pluto.

Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the Southern Russia, southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at is the List of elevation extremes by region, highest peak in Russia and Europe); the Altai Mountains, Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at is the highest active volcano in Eurasia). The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the Boundary between Europe and Asia, traditional boundary between Europe and Asia. The Extreme points of Europe#Elevation, lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some below sea level.

Russia, as one of the world's only three countries List of countries bordering on two or more oceans, bordering three oceans, has links with a great number of seas. Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are Kuril Islands dispute, disputed with Japan), and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just apart; and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely from Hokkaido, Japan.

Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers, has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water. Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water. Lake Ladoga, Ladoga and Lake Onega, Onega in Northwest Russia, northwestern Russia are two of the List of largest lakes of Europe, largest lakes in Europe. Russia is second only to Brazil by List of countries by total renewable water resources, total renewable water resources. The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the List of rivers of Europe#Rivers of Europe by length, longest river in Europe and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent. The Siberian rivers of Ob River, Ob, Yenisey, Lena River, Lena, and Amur River, Amur are among the world's List of rivers by length, longest rivers.

Climate

The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha Republic, Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of ), and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.

The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters. In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate. The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief. The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia. Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent Wildfires in Russia, wildfires, and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.

Biodiversity

Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics. About half of Russia's territory is forested, and it has the world's largest area of forest, which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of List of mammals of Russia, 320 species of mammals, over List of birds of Russia, 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, List of freshwater fish of Russia, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism). Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, Russian Red Data Book.

Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area. They include 45 biosphere reserves, 64 National parks of Russia, national parks, and 101 Zapovednik, nature reserves. Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered Intact forest landscape, intact forest, mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia. Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.

Government and politics

Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric federalism, symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system, wherein President of Russia, the president is the head of state, and the Prime Minister of Russia, prime minister is the head of government. It is structured as a Multi-party system, multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:
* Legislative: The Bicameralism, bicameral Federal Assembly (Russia), Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council (Russia), Federation Council, adopts federal law, declaration of war, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of Impeachment in Russia, impeachment of the president.
* Executive: The president is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Armed Forces, commander-in-chief of the Russian Armed Forces, Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. The president may issue Decree of the President of Russia, decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.
* Judiciary of Russia, Judiciary: The Constitutional Court of Russia, Constitutional Court, Supreme Court of Russia, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem Constitutionality, unconstitutional.

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant-party system#Eurasia, dominant List of political parties in Russia, political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent" and the "party of power".

Post-Soviet Russia was a flawed democracy during the presidency of Boris Yeltsin. However, following the Russia under Vladimir Putin, presidencies of Vladimir Putin and Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev, Dmitry Medvedev, it has experienced significant democratic backsliding. The political system evolved from electoral authoritarianism into a consolidated authoritarian regime. Some political scientists have characterized Putin as the head of a dictatorship, or a personalist regime. Putin's second tenure as president has led to further autocratization, which has been the most significant since the Soviet era, with some authors suggesting a regeneration of Totalitarianism, totalitarian elements. Putin's ruling policies are generally referred to as Putinism.

Political divisions

Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric federalism, symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet Asymmetric federalism, asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.

The Federal subjects of Russia, federal subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council (Russia), Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly. They do, however, differ in the degree of Autonomous administrative division, autonomy they enjoy. The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects. Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.

Foreign relations

Russia has the world's List of countries by number of diplomatic missions, sixth-largest diplomatic network . It maintains diplomatic relations with 187 member states of the United Nations, United Nations member states, two List of states with limited recognition, partially-recognised states, and two Member states of the United Nations#Observers and non-members, United Nations observer states, along with Russian embassies, 143 embassies. Russia is one of the Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is generally described as a great power, though it has been questioned whether it can retain this status. Russia is also a former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union. and the legal successor to Soviet foreign policies. It is a member of the G20, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, OSCE, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, APEC—and the leading member of organisations such as the Commonwealth of Independent States, CIS, the Eurasian Economic Union, EAEU, the Collective Security Treaty Organisation, CSTO, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, SCO. Russia was also a member of the G8 (now the G7) and part of the Russia in the Council of Europe, Council of Europe before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.

Russia maintains close relations Belarus–Russia relations, with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states. Serbia has been a Russia–Serbia relations, historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity. From the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly China–Russia relations, strengthened bilaterally and economically due to shared political interests. India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong India–Russia relations, strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era. Russia wields great political influence across the geopolitics, geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia, and the two regions have been described as being part of Russia's "backyard" or "near abroad".

Russia shares a complex Russia–Turkey relations, strategic, energy, and defence relationship with Turkey. It maintains Iran–Russia relations, cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally. Russia has also significantly developed its North Korea–Russia relations, relations with North Korea following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation. At the same time, its relations with Russia–Ukraine relations, neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—specifically the Russia–United States relations, United States and the collective countries of the Russia–European Union relations, European Union and NATO–Russia relations, NATO—have collapsed.

In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional power, regional dominance in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in the post-Soviet states of Georgia and Ukraine, as well as in Syria during its Syrian civil war, prolonged civil war in a bid to increase its influence in the Middle East. Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic, the Asia–Pacific, Africa and Latin America. Two-thirds of the world's population, specifically the developing country, developing countries of the Global South, are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically. Russia has also continued using subversive tactics to increase perceptions of its geopolitical power in its rival countries, including Cyberwarfare by Russia, cyberwarfare, Russian disinformation, disinformation campaigns, sabotage attacks, List of Russian assassinations, assassination attempts, Violations of non-combatant airspaces during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, airspace violations, electoral interferences, and nuclear saber-rattling.

Military

The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Russian Ground Forces, Ground Forces, the Russian Navy, Navy, and the Russian Aerospace Force, Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Russian Airborne Troops, Airborne Troops. , the military have 1.1 million active-duty personnel, which is the world's List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel, fifth-largest, and about 1.5 million Military reserve force, reserve personnel. It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be conscription, drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.

Russia is among the five Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, recognised List of states with nuclear weapons, nuclear-weapons states, with the world's Russia and weapons of mass destruction, largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia. Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines, and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers. , Russia maintains the world's List of countries by military expenditures, third-highest military expenditure, spending $109 billion, corresponding to about 5.9% of its GDP. It is also the List of countries by arms exports, third-largest arms exporter, and has a large and indigenous Defense industry of Russia, defence industry, which produces the majority of its military equipment.

Human rights

Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.

Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its ''Freedom in the World'' survey. Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 150th out of 167 countries in 2024. In regards to media freedom in Russia, media freedom, Russia was ranked 162nd out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2024. The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and Human rights defender, human rights activists for Elections in Russia, unfair elections, crackdowns on Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia, opposition political parties and protests, Russian undesirable organizations law, persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and List of journalists killed in Russia, killings of independent journalists, and Censorship in the Russian Federation, censorship of mass media and Internet censorship in Russia, internet.

Muslims, especially Salafi movement, Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia. To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings, arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians. In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations. Chechens and Ingush people, Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups. During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up Russian filtration camps for Ukrainians, filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to Filtration camp system in Chechnya, those used in the Chechen Wars. Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with Russian 2022 war censorship laws, laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.

Russia has introduced several restrictions on LGBTQ rights in Russia, LGBTQ rights. In 2013, an Russian anti-LGBTQ law, anti-LGBTQ law banning "gay propaganda" was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin. In 2020, the Russian parliament legalized a constitutional ban on Recognition of same-sex unions in Russia, same-sex marriage, and in 2021 the Ministry of Justice (Russia), Ministry of Justice designated the LGBTQ rights group Russian LGBT Network as a "foreign agent". In 2022, further amendments were made to the 2013 anti-LGBTQ law. In 2023, the Russian parliament passed a bill banning gender reassignment surgery for transgender people and the Supreme Court of Russia banned the LGBTQ movements, international LGBTQ movement as "extremist", outlawing it in the country. In 2024, the Supreme Court issued the first convictions from the latter ruling.

Law, corruption and crime

Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form of crony capitalism. Its political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy, an oligarchy, and a plutocracy. , it is the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's annual Corruption Perceptions Index, ranking 154th out of the 180 countries listed.

Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union, and is seen as a significant issue in society. It affects various sectors, including the economy, the Government of Russia, government, Law enforcement in Russia, law enforcement, Healthcare in Russia, healthcare, Education in Russia, education, and the military. Russia's informal economy, shadow economy was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018. Russian penal military units during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Penal military units have been deployed as shock troops, storm troops during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as the Storm-Z and Storm-V units. According to estimates by the BBC, around 48,000 prisoners were recruited to fight for the Wagner Group.

The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as the Russian Civil Code and the Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law. Russia has the List of countries by incarceration rate, largest incarcerated population in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world. Its incarceration rate is among the highest in Europe, although the number has fallen steadily, by 59% since 2000. , Russia's List of countries by intentional homicide rate, intentional homicide rate stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people. In 2023, Russia had the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, was described as a key hub for human trafficking, and was ranked first in Europe and 19th globally in the Global Organized Crime Index.

Economy

Russia has a World Bank high-income economy, high-income, industrialized, mixed economy, mixed Market economy, market-oriented economy following a Shock therapy (economics), turbulent transition from the Planned economy, Soviet planned model during the 1990s. It has the List of countries by GDP (nominal), eleventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and the List of countries by GDP (PPP), fourth-largest economy by GDP (purchasing power parity, PPP). , the Tertiary sector of the economy, service sector accounts for roughly 57% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (30%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, at 3% of total GDP. Russia's foreign exchange reserves are the List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves, fifth-largest in the world. It has a labour force of about 73 million, which is the List of countries by labour force, eighth-largest in the world. , Russia's List of the largest trading partners of Russia, largest trading partner by total import and export volume is China.

Russia's human development (economics), human development is List of countries by Human Development Index, ranked as "very high" in the annual Human Development Index. Roughly 70% of Russia's total GDP is driven by domestic consumption,and the country has the world's List of largest consumer markets, twelfth-largest consumer market. Russia has the List of countries by number of billionaires, fifth-highest number of billionaires in the world. However, its List of countries by income equality, income inequality remains comparatively high compared to other developed countries. The variance of natural resources among its federal subjects has also led to List of federal subjects of Russia by GDP per capita, regional economic disparities. High Corruption in Russia, levels of corruption, a shrinking labor force, and an Aging of Russia, aging and Demographics of Russia, declining population also remain major barriers to future economic growth.

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the country has faced International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, extensive sanctions and other negative financial actions from the Western world and its allies which have the aim of isolating the Russian economy from the Western financial system. However, Russia has completed its transition into a war economy, and has shown resilience to such measures broadly, maintaining economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high List of countries with highest military expenditures, military expenditure, rising Household final consumption expenditure, household consumption and List of Russian federal subjects by average wage, wages, low unemployment, and increased government spending. Yet, inflation has remained comparatively high, with experts predicting the sanctions will have a long-term negative effect on the Russian economy.

Transport and energy

Rail transport in Russia, Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's List of countries by rail transport network size, third-longest, exceeding . , Russia has the world's List of countries by road network size, fifth-largest road network, with over 1.5 million km of roads. However, its road density is among the world's lowest, in part to its vast land area. Russia's inland waterways are the List of countries by waterways length, longest in the world, totaling . It has over List of airports in Russia, 900 airports, ranking seventh in the world, of which the List of the busiest airports in Russia, busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. The largest ports include the Port of Novorossiysk, the Great Port of Saint Petersburg and the Port of Vladivostok.

Russia has one of the world's largest amounts of World energy resources, energy resources throughout its vast landmass, particularly natural gas and Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification, oil, which play a crucial role in its energy self-sufficiency and exports. It has been widely described Russia as an energy superpower, as an energy superpower. Russia has the world's largest List of countries by natural gas proven reserves, proven gas reserves, the second-largest List of countries by coal reserves, coal reserves, the eighth-largest List of countries by proven oil reserves, proven oil reserves, and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe. , it is also the List of countries by natural gas production, second-largest producer and the List of countries by natural gas exports, third-largest exporter of natural gas, as well as the second-largest List of countries by oil production, producer and List of countries by oil exports, exporter of crude oil. Russia's large oil and gas sector accounted for 30% of its federal budget revenues in 2024, down from 50% in the mid-2010s, suggesting economic diversification.

Russia is the world's third-largest energy producer . Fossil fuels account for over 64% of energy production and 87% of energy consumption. Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of the energy production and 42% of electricity consumption. Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, first nuclear power plant in 1954, and remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in Fast-neutron reactor, fast neutron reactors. Russia is the world's Nuclear power by country, fourth-largest nuclear energy producer, which accounts for roughly one-fourth of energy generation (18%).Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology. Russia is the sole country that builds and operates nuclear-powered icebreakers, which ease navigation along the Northern Sea Route, and aid in utilizing its Arctic policy of Russia, Arctic policy in its continental shelf of Russia, continental shelf.

Russia joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015, and ratified the agreement in 2019. Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia, Its greenhouse gas emissions are the List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions, fourth-largest in the world . Coal accounts for over 16% of energy generation. Russia is the Hydroelectricity#World hydroelectric capacity, fifth-largest hydroelectric producer , with hydroelectric power contributing almost a fifth to the total energy generation (17%). Though it is the List of countries by renewable electricity production, eighth-largest renewable energy producer , the use and development of other renewable energy resources remain negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for a Energy transition, renewable energy transition.

Agriculture and fishery

Agriculture, Forestry in Russia, forestry and Fishing industry in Russia, fishing contributes about 3.3% of the country's total GDP . It has the world's Land use statistics by country, fourth-largest cultivated area, at . However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural land, agricultural, with an additional 7.4% being arable land, arable. The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe. More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used Nonfood crop, industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits. The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland. Russia is the world's List of countries by wheat exports, largest exporter of wheat and the List of countries by barley production, largest producer of barley and List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities, buckwheat. It is also among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, as well as the leading producer of Fertilizer, fertiliser.

Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region. Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's Fishing industry by country, sixth-largest fishing industry, capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018. It is home to the world's finest caviar, the Beluga (sturgeon), beluga, and produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.

Science and technology

Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world's List of countries by research and development spending, tenth-highest budget. It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers. Since 1904, List of Nobel laureates by country, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in Nobel Prize in Physics, physics, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, chemistry, Nobel Prize in medicine, medicine, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, economy, Nobel Prize in Literature, literature and Nobel Peace Prize, peace. Russia ranked 60th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 45th in 2021.

Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor, Russian List of Russian mathematicians, mathematicians became among the world's most influential. Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry. Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal winners, Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.

Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Alexander Popov was among the invention of radio, inventors of radio, while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser. Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes. Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and Radiometric dating, radiogeology. Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology. Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning. Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.

Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the Vavilov center, centres of origin of Horticulture, cultivated plants. Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism. Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an List of aviation pioneers, aviation pioneer. Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems. Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis (20th century), modern synthesis. George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.

Space exploration

Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space programme in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, ''Sputnik 1'', was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest women in space, woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6. In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.

In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dogs, Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2. In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a Astronomical object, celestial body, the Moon. In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon. In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus. In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars. During the same period, ''Lunokhod-1, Lunokhod 1'' became the first space exploration rover, while ''Salyut 1'' became the world's first space station.

, Russia has 181 active satellites in space, which is the third-highest in the world. Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle programme in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's Crew Dragon Demo-2, first crewed mission, Soyuz (rocket family), Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the International Space Station, ISS. Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.

Tourism

Most foreign tourists come from China. Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains, and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway. Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.

Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and Moscow International Business Center, modern skyscrapers. Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, White Nights Festival, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals. Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the Russian Museum, State Russian, the Hermitage Museum, State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery, and for theatres such as the Bolshoi Theatre, Bolshoi and the Mariinsky Theatre, Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.

Demographics

Russia had an estimated population of 146.0 million in 2025 (143.6 million excluding Crimea and Sevastopol), down from 147.2 million in the 2021 Russian census, 2021 census. It is the List of European countries by population, most populous country in Europe and List of countries and dependencies by population, ninth-most populous country in the world. With a list of countries by population density, population density of , Russia is one of the world's List of countries and dependencies by population density, most sparsely populated countries, with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its European Russia, western part. The country is Urbanization by country, highly urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in List of cities and towns in Russia by population, urban areas. , the total fertility rate across Russia is estimated to be 1.41 children born per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate, the lowest in the world. Subsequently, it has one of the List of countries by median age, oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 41.9 years.

Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a Demographic crisis of Russia, demographic crisis. In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration. However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Russia, COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022–present), Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened, owing to high military fatalities and Russian emigration during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, renewed emigration. Recent studies have shown that between 15-45% of Russian emigrants have returned to Russia, though these numbers are not conclusive.

Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities. There are over Ethnic groups in Russia, 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities. Over four-fifths of Russia's population was of Ethnic groups of Europe, European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs, with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric peoples, Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples. Russia has the third-largest Immigration to Russia, immigrant population in the world, with over 12 million immigrants residing in the country . The vast majority of the Immigrants hail from post-Soviet states, with about half of them being from Ukrainians in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhs in Russia, Kazakhstan .

Language

Russian is the official language, official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia. It is the most spoken first language, native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

Russia is a Multilingualism#Europe, multilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country. According to the Russian Census (2010), Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 3.1 million spoke Tatar language, Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian language, Ukrainian. The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to List of official languages in Russia, establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development. However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to List of endangered languages in Russia, many languages becoming endangered.

Religion

Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion. The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church, See also the results' '
main interactive mapping
'' and the static mappings: The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with th
All-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010)
th
Russian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ)
the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture." Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".

Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of peoples of the Caucasus, peoples in the North Caucasus and some Turkic peoples in the Idel-Ural, Volga-Ural region. Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva. A negligible population practices other religions—such as Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism), Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism), other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism, various movements of Hinduism, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophy, Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism—among other faiths. Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country: notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.

In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice (Russia), Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholic Church, Catholics or Protestants—25% were spiritual but not religious, believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheism, atheists, 6.5% were Muslims, 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Slavic Native Faith, Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Shamanism in Siberia, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were Judaism, religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.

Education

Russia has an adult literate, literacy rate of 100%, and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18. It grants free education to its citizens by constitution. The Ministry of Education (Russia), Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education, while the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia), Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education. Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the List of countries by tertiary education attainment, sixth-highest proportion of tertiary education, tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62%.

Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional, some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate. An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.

Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:first-degree courses usually take five years. The oldest and largest List of institutions of higher education in Russia, universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University. There are ten highly prestigious Template:Federal universities of Russia, federal universities across the country.

Health

Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance programme. The Ministry of Health (Russia), Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.

Russia spent 7.39% of its GDP on healthcare in 2021. Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations. Russia has one of the world's most female-biased human sex ratio, sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female, due to its high male mortality rate. , the overall List of countries by life expectancy, life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73 years (68 years for males and 78 years for females), and it has a very low Infant mortality, infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live birth (human), live births).

The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases. Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese. However, Russia's historically high Alcohol consumption in Russia, alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country, as it remains List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita, one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade. Tobacco consumption by country, Smoking is another health issue in the country. The country's List of countries by suicide rate, high suicide rate, although Suicide in Russia, on the decline, remains a significant social issue.

Culture

Russian literature, Russian writers and Russian philosophy, philosophers have played an important role in the development of Western literature, European literature and thought. The Russians have also influenced classical music, Russian ballet, ballet, theatre, List of Russian mathematicians, mathematics, Sport in Russia, sport, List of Russian artists, painting, and Cinema of Russia, cinema. The nation has also made pioneering Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records, contributions to science and technology and space exploration.

Russia is home to List of World Heritage Sites in Russia, 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 21 of which are cultural, while 31 more sites lie on the tentative list. The large global Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in Coat of arms of Russia, its coat of arms and Russian heraldry, heraldry. The Russian Bear and Personification of Russia, Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country. Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.

Holidays

Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays. The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Christmas in Russia, Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays. Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February. International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that the flower vendors of Moscow often see profits "fiften times" more compared to other holidays. May Day#Russia, Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.

Victory Day (Russia), Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated on 9 May as an annual Moscow Victory Day Parade, large parade in Moscow's Red Square and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event. Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union, and Unity Day (Russia), Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the Battle of Moscow (1612), 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish–Russian War (1609–1618), Polish occupation of Moscow.

There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January. Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday. Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space. Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.

Art and architecture

Early Russian painting is Russian icons, represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art. The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia. In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential. The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov, Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romanticism, Romantic historical canvases. Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.

In the 1860s, a group of critical Realism (arts), realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings. The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of Symbolism (arts), symbolism, represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich. The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.

The history of Architecture of Russia begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the architecture of Kievan Rus', church architecture of Kievan Rus'. Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by Byzantine architecture#Legacy, Byzantine architecture. Following Mongol occupation, Kievan Rus' cut its ties with the Byzantine Empire, and Russian architecture saw native innovations, such as the invention of the iconostasis. Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends to the Grand Principality of Moscow, which influenced the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin. The 16th century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture. In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.

After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the Elizabethan Baroque, works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century, Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed. During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture. Under Alexander I, Empire style became the ''de facto'' architectural style. The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire, Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style. In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend. Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau architecture in Russia, Art Nouveau, Constructivism (art), Constructivism, and Stalinist architecture, Socialist Classicism.

Music

Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances. In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton Rubinstein, Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein. The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Georgy Sviridov, and Alfred Schnittke.

During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two Bard (Soviet Union), balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava, and performers such as Alla Pugacheva. Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms. By the 1980s, Rock music in Russia, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria (band), Aria, Aquarium (band), Aquarium, DDT (band), DDT, and Kino (band), Kino; the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure. Russian pop, Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.

Literature and philosophy

Russian literature is among the world's most influential and developed. It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed. By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin. From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama. Romantic literature permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.

The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol. Then, during the Age of Literary realism, Realism, came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire, while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction. In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist. Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov, non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky, and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky. The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, and Konstantin Balmont. It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style. Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era. Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov and Isaac Asimov, who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers. Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.

During the post-Soviet 1990s writers are already not recognised as very special guides by most Russians. At the beginning of the 21st century, the most discussed figures, Russian postmodernism, postmodernists Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin remained the leading Russian writers.

Russian philosophy has been influential. Religious and spiritual philosophy is represented by works of Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher), Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, Vasily Rozanov, and others. Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society.

Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of Agrarianism, agrarian populism. Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism. Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism. Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars. Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism. Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism. Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher and writer in the second half of the 20th century. Aleksandr Dugin, known for his fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".

Cuisine

Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation, and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread in Europe#Finland and Russia, Bread, of many varieties, is very popular across Russia. Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (dairy product), Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads. Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring.

Russia's List of national drinks, national non-alcoholic drink is kvass, and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century. The country has the world's highest vodka consumption, while Beer in Russia, beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage. Russian wine, Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century. Russian tea culture, Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.

Mass media and cinema

There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik (news agency), Sputnik, and Interfax. Television in Russia, Television is the most popular medium in Russia. Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, , Komsomolskaya Pravda, , Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One Russia, Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT (TV network), RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations. Russia has the Video games in Russia, largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as ''Battleship Potemkin'', which was named the List of films considered the best, greatest film of all time at the Expo 58, Brussels World's Fair in 1958. Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors. Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography, All-Union Institute of Cinematography. Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism. Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including ''Chapaev (film), Chapaev'', ''The Cranes Are Flying'', and ''Ballad of a Soldier''.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today. In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Academy Award, Oscar-winning War and Peace (film series), film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic ''War and Peace'', which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union. In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's ''White Sun of the Desert'' was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.

Sports

Association football, Football is the most popular sport in Russia. The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960, and reached the finals of Euro 1988. Russian clubs PFC CSKA Moscow, CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008. The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008. Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, and the 2018 FIFA World Cup. However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.

Ice hockey in Russia, Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team, Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence. Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport. The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007, and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams. The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.

Historically, Russia at the Olympics, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games. Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics, and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best. Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing. Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players. Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow, and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi. However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to Doping in Russia, doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.

See also

* Outline of Russia

Notes

References

Sources

*
* , also vi
Archive.org

Further reading

* Bartlett, Roger P. (2005). ''A history of Russia'
online
*
*
* Breslauer, George W.; Colton, Timothy J. (2017). ''Russia Beyond Putin'' (Daedalus (journal), Daedalus
online
* Brown, Archie, ed. (1982). ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'
online
*
* Florinsky, Michael T. ed. ''McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1961).
* Frye, Timothy. ''Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia'' (2021
excerpt
* Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. ''Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia'' (Yale UP, 2019
excerpt
* Hosking, Geoffrey A. ''Russia and the Russians: a history'' (2011
online
* Kort, Michael. ''A Brief History of Russia'' (2008
online
*
*
*
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. ''A History of Russia'' (9th ed. 2018
9th edition 1993 online
* Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020
excerpt
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century'' (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009
excerpt
* Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014
excerpt
800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
* Walker, Shauin. ''The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past'' (2018, Oxford UP
excerpt

External links

Government

Official Russian governmental portal


(archived 4 October 2013)

General information
*
*

Russia
''The World Factbook''. Central Intelligence Agency.

Russia
at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 22 October 2008)

Russia
from BBC News

Russia
at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''

Key Development Forecasts for Russia
from International Futures

Other

Post-Soviet Problems
from th
Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
(archived 15 December 2012)

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