Ère Des Attentats
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The (), or the French anarchist campaign of attacks from 1892 to 1894, was a period in the
history of France The first written records for the history of France appeared in the Iron Age France, Iron Age. What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as Gaul. Greek writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic grou ...
and the broader history of propaganda of the deed (1880–1914), marked by a significant wave of political violence—both from the French authorities and
anarchist Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hierarchy, hierarchy, primarily targeting the state (polity), state and capitalism. A ...
terrorists. Its chronological boundaries extend from the
Saint-Germain bombing The Saint-Germain bombing was a bomb attack carried out on 11 March 1892 in Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris, by anarchist militants Ravachol, Rosalie Soubère, Joseph Jas-Béala, and Charles Simon. The attack was seen as an act of retribution a ...
(11 March 1892) to the massacre of the anarchist convicts (22 October 1894). During this period, the French press largely shaped political discourse and public opinion, presenting these acts as interconnected events forming a progressive logic rather than isolated incidents. In response to the significant repression anarchists had suffered in France since the
Paris Commune The Paris Commune (, ) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris on 18 March 1871 and controlled parts of the city until 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard (France), Nation ...
(1871), a number of them came to consider terrorism as a legitimate means of avenging this repression, targeting symbols of power, state institutions, and emblematic places of bourgeois life. During the first part of the period,
Ravachol François Claudius Ravachol (; born Koenigstein; 14 October 1859 – 11 July 1892) was a French illegalist anarchist mainly known for his terrorist activism, impact, the myths developed around his figure and his influence on the anarchist moveme ...
, Rosalie Soubère, and other anarchist activists engaged in a series of bombings targeting those responsible for judicial persecution against anarchists—although they killed no one, Ravachol was sentenced to death, becoming a martyr for the anarchist cause. In response to these developments, the French state engaged in increasingly harsh repressive policies, which generally proved ineffective and only further radicalised anarchists in France. After the
National Assembly bombing The National Assembly bombing was a bomb attack carried out on 9 December 1893 in Paris by the Anarchism, anarchist militant Auguste Vaillant. Acting in reaction to other events of the ''Ère des attentats'', literally, "Era of Attacks", (1892– ...
(9 December 1893), a major crackdown began, leading to the passing of the first two
lois scélérates The ''lois scélérates'' ("villainous laws") – a pejorative name – were a set of three French laws passed from 1893 to 1894 under the Third Republic (1870–1940) that restricted the 1881 freedom of the press laws, after several bombings an ...
and the start of widespread
repression of January and February 1894 The repression of January and February 1894 was an episode of the Ère des attentats (1892–1894), during which France engaged in significant Political repression, state repression against Anarchism, anarchists. The passage of the lois scélérat ...
. This wave of repression triggered a new series of attacks and, in February 1894, Émile Henry carried out the Café Terminus bombing, one of the first acts of indiscriminate terrorism and a significant event in the emergence of modern terrorism. A few months later, Sante Caserio committed the last attack of the period by assassinating one of the main figures behind the repressive policies, the president of the Republic, Sadi Carnot, whom he stabbed to death in Lyon. The period ended in October 1894, when the French authorities organised the massacre of a part the anarchist convicts deported to the French Guiana penal colony. The ''Ère des attentats'' had broader ramifications. It influenced anarchists in France, who began turning toward new forms of organisation such as
anarcho-syndicalism Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchism, anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade uni ...
. It also led France to establish stronger and increasingly coordinated repressive methods in cooperation with other European powers. The era significantly impacted the arts, especially French literature, inspiring the creation of new literary figures such as
Fantômas Fantômas () is a fictional character created by French writers Marcel Allain (1885–1969) and Pierre Souvestre (1874–1914). One of the most popular characters in the history of French crime fiction, Fantômas was created in 1911 and appeared ...
. Lastly, its influence on the emergence and integration of terrorism into the modern world should not be underestimated.


General aspects


Historiography and chronology

Jean Maitron Jean Maitron (1910–1987) was a French historian specialist of the labour movement. Maitron, however, is best known for his (''DBMOF'' or, more currently, ), a comprehensive biographical dictionary of figures from the French workers' movement w ...
's 1951 history of the French anarchist movement established the term ''Ère des attentats'' for the French period of
propaganda of the deed Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...
anarchist Anarchism is a political philosophy and Political movement, movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or Social hierarchy, hierarchy, primarily targeting the state (polity), state and capitalism. A ...
attentats from 1892 to 1894. The French press was also influential in this specific view, as it shaped the narrative by writing recurring features—for example, titled 'The Dynamite' or 'The Anarchists'—which structured the public perception of anarchist terrorism in France during that period. It did not present the attacks as isolated incidents, but rather as parts of a single, unified Ère des attentats''' that followed its own internal logic. By anticipating and portraying the attacks as interconnected and inevitable, the press participated from 1892 in the construction of a discourse likely to justify security or repressive measures targeting anarchists but also promoted a specific view of the period within French public opinion. As this was one of the most active periods of the anarchist broader terrorist acts and perspectives (1880-1914), the term is also used by
metonymy Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something associated with that thing or concept. For example, the word " suit" may refer to a person from groups commonly wearing business attire, such as sales ...
in English-speaking scholarship to designate the whole trend of such attacks beyond France. Establishing an exact timeline for this period is challenging, but Hélène Millot considers that it began with the
Saint-Germain bombing The Saint-Germain bombing was a bomb attack carried out on 11 March 1892 in Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris, by anarchist militants Ravachol, Rosalie Soubère, Joseph Jas-Béala, and Charles Simon. The attack was seen as an act of retribution a ...
in March 1892 and concluded with the massacre of anarchist convicts in October 1894. For Vivien Bouhey, the period in question is broader, spanning from 1890 to 1894, without any clear event-based boundaries.


Typology

According to Hélène Millot, the anarchist attacks of this period can be divided into three main categories. The first category, which is the most common, involves attacks targeting symbols of power – capital, the executive, legislative, and judicial powers, the military, or the managing class. The second category consists of acts of revenge, and the third concerns attacks that fit within the logic of indiscriminate terrorism. The idea that the attacks characterising this period were mostly individual acts is criticized by Bouhey, who notes that, on the contrary, many attacks were organised by small groups rather than completely isolated militants.


Nuances

According to John M. Merriman, when analysing anarchist terrorism overall, one must not forget that this represents only a minimal part of the
terrorism Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war aga ...
of the era. Thus,
state terrorism State terrorism is terrorism conducted by a state against its own citizens or another state's citizens. It contrasts with '' state-sponsored terrorism'', in which a violent non-state actor conducts an act of terror under sponsorship of a state. ...
—which predates the emergence of revolutionary terrorism—resulted in far more victims than anarchist terrorism. During the 1890s, anarchists killed, worldwide, at most 60 people and injured 200. In contrast, the
Semaine sanglante The ''Semaine sanglante'' ("") was a weeklong battle in Paris from 21 to 28 May 1871, during which the French Army recaptured the city from the Paris Commune. This was the final battle of the Paris Commune. Following the Treaty of Frankfurt ...
is only a single example of state terrorism. It caused 15,000 deaths—approximately 260 times more victims than anarchist terrorism in one week.


Context


Birth and development of anarchism

In the 19th century, the anarchist movement took shape. It emerged under the same conditions that saw the birth of
socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
and
Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
—namely, the
industrial revolution The Industrial Revolution, sometimes divided into the First Industrial Revolution and Second Industrial Revolution, was a transitional period of the global economy toward more widespread, efficient and stable manufacturing processes, succee ...
in
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...
and the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, which led to a massive
rural exodus Rural flight (also known as rural-to-urban migration, rural depopulation, or rural exodus) is the Human migration, migratory pattern of people from rural areas into urban areas. It is urbanization seen from the rural perspective. In Industriali ...
to
urban centers An urban area is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas originate through urbanization, and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbani ...
. The development of
heavy industry Heavy industry is an industry that involves one or more characteristics such as large and heavy products; large and heavy equipment and facilities (such as heavy equipment, large machine tools, huge buildings and large-scale infrastructure); o ...
,
urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from Rural area, rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. ...
, and, more broadly,
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
brought about significant changes in Western societies, which later extended to the entire world. Within this context, a number of thinkers and revolutionaries, including Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865),
Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin. Sometimes anglicized to Michael Bakunin. ( ; – 1 July 1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist. He is among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major figure in the revolutionary socialist, s ...
(1814–1876), and
Peter Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later s ...
(1842–1921), defined an ideological framework. While their ideologies varied and their versions of anarchism did not necessarily align on all points, they shared a commitment to abolishing all forms of domination perceived as unjust. This included economic, political, religious, domestic, and other forms of oppression, depending on the texts. The
state State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...
was a primary target of anarchist thought, as it was seen as the entity that supported and exercised many of these dominations through its
police The police are Law enforcement organization, a constituted body of Law enforcement officer, people empowered by a State (polity), state with the aim of Law enforcement, enforcing the law and protecting the Public order policing, public order ...
, army, and propaganda. The Third Republic, established after the defeat of the
Paris Commune The Paris Commune (, ) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris on 18 March 1871 and controlled parts of the city until 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard (France), Nation ...
, turned away from addressing social issues, which allowed the anarchist movement to grow and take deeper root in France.


State repression, evolutions and the 'coming vengeance'

The anarchist
social environment The social environment, social context, sociocultural context or milieu refers to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live or in which something happens or develops. It includes the culture that the individual was educated ...
was in a precarious situation in the early 1890s. It was subjected to significant state repression in the 1870s and especially the 1880s, with increased surveillance of anarchists, harsher sentences, the banning of their press, and numerous trials targeting them and, more broadly, far-left movements. In France specifically, this led to significant transformations within anarchist circles, which became increasingly radicalized in response to this repression and adopted new organizational methods. While anarchists had previously gathered in relatively large groups, the movement became more insular in order to evade the police, leading to the disappearance of such groups. They were replaced by sometimes nameless groups composed of only a few militants. Meeting places, which had previously been in halls rented by activists, changed to more private spaces, such as homes. These developments made state surveillance of anarchists more complicated and, more generally, allowed for the emergence of the phenomenon of the lone wolf within anarchist and terrorist actions. Police were caught off guard by these changes and struggled to track all the new groups, organisations, and informal gatherings that continued to emerge as repression intensified.In addition to these internal developments within the
anarchist movement in France Anarchism in France can trace its roots to thinker Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who grew up during the Restoration and was the first self-described anarchist. French anarchists fought in the Spanish Civil War as volunteers in the International Brigad ...
, neighbouring states often acted similarly toward the anarchists within their borders, which led anarchist militants in Europe to develop significant mobility. The exile or flight of a large number of them thus contributed to the rapid spread and evolution of their ideas across Europe. Moreover, the repression triggered a series of traumatic reactions within anarchist circles and among anarchist actors, who were gradually isolated from other leftist movements, such as the
socialists Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and socia ...
. In this repressive context, a certain number of anarchists came to believe that vengeance against the bourgeoisie, magistrates, police officers, or any other target perceived as responsible for this violence was legitimate. This tension erupted on 1 May 1891, during
International Workers' Day International Workers' Day, also called Labour Day in some countries and often referred to as May Day, is a celebration of Wage labour, labourers and the working classes that is promoted by the international labour movement and occurs every yea ...
, in two pivotal events. The first took place in the town of Fourmies, where
textile workers Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, and different types of fabric. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not ...
' wages had dropped by 20% over a few years, leading to discussions about launching a
strike Strike may refer to: People *Strike (surname) * Hobart Huson, author of several drug related books Physical confrontation or removal *Strike (attack), attack with an inanimate object or a part of the human body intended to cause harm * Airstrike, ...
. A group of a few hundred people, led by Maria Blondeau, gathered in front of Fourmies' church, where they encountered the army. After clashes between the groups, the commanding officer gave the order to fire on the crowd, only stopping when priests intervened. Ten people were killed by the army, including a child. That same day, a small group of anarchists marched toward Clichy. On their way, they encountered four policemen, leading to a confrontation. Some of the anarchists entered a nearby bar to buy drinks. Shortly after, the police stormed the bar to seize what they considered a "
seditious Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech or organization, that tends toward rebellion against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent toward, or insurrection against, establis ...
symbol"—a red flag carried by the group. Gunfire was exchanged. Three members of the group, Henri Decamps, Charles Dardare, and Louis Léveillé, refused to surrender and were struck with
sabers A sabre or saber ( ) is a type of backsword with a curved blade associated with the light cavalry of the early modern and Napoleonic periods. Originally associated with Central European cavalry such as the hussars, the sabre became widesp ...
. They were then taken to the Clichy police station, where they were
pistol-whipped Pistol-whipping or buffaloing is the act of using a handgun as a blunt weapon, wielding it as an improvised club. Such a practice dates to the time of muzzle loaders, which were brandished in such fashion in close-quarters combat once the weap ...
and kicked before being left without medical treatment or water. In August, during their trial, the prosecutor sought the
death penalty Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in s ...
for all three. Two of them received harsh sentences—five and three years in prison. These two events further radicalised anarchists in France. A group in the
15th arrondissement of Paris The 15th arrondissement of Paris () is one of the 20 arrondissements of Paris, arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, it is referred to as ('the fifteenth'). The 15th arrondissement, called , is situated on the Rive ...
began calling themselves "Vengeance for Fourmies". In December 1891, the first anarchist attack was thwarted when three bombs were discovered at the Clichy police station.
Jean Grave Jean Grave (; October 16, 1854, Le Breuil-sur-Couze – December 8, 1939, Vienne-en-Val) was an important activist in French anarchism and the international anarchist communism movements. He was the editor of three major anarchist periodicals, ...
, himself a witness to the period, described the shock caused by the Clichy affair among anarchists, writing:


Events


March-July 1892: Ravachol and Meunier


First attacks

On 29 February 1892, a bombing targeted an elite residence on
Rue Saint-Dominique The Rue Saint-Dominique is a street in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. It is crossed by the Esplanade Les Invalides, des Invalides. Origin of the name It was formerly known as the Chemin de la Longue Raye (1355), Chemin des Treilles (1433), Ch ...
, causing neither casualties nor significant damage. Above all, in response to the Clichy affair, a small group of anarchists—including François Ravachol, Rosalie Soubère, Joseph Jas-Béala, and Charles Simon—decided to take action and assassinate the judge responsible for the judicial persecution of the defendants, Edmond Benoît. During the night of 14–15 February 1892, Ravachol and the other anarchists managed to steal 30 kilograms of
dynamite Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and Stabilizer (chemistry), stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish people, Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern German ...
from the Soisy-sur-Seine quarry, allowing them to use this arsenal to prepare attacks. In the following days, Ravachol and Simon built the bomb, and then the group of four took the tramway to carry out the Saint Germain bombing on 11 March 1892. Soubère sat between Simon and Béala and carried the bomb, hiding it under her skirts. She then handed it to Ravachol, who, armed with two loaded pistols, entered the building, placed the bomb on the second floor in the centre of the building—since he did not know exactly where Benoît lived. He lit the fuse and fled, while Soubère and Béala stood watch outside. She remained on-site to observe the aftermath of the explosion as her companions left the area. There was one injured and no fatalities. Although these first two attacks were strategic failures, they symbolically marked the beginning of this period and thrusted France into this new era. Moreover, the Saint-Germain bombing – like most of the subsequent attacks of the ''Ère des attentats'' and many acts of modern terrorism – marked a shift in terrorist tactics. From then on, terrorism no longer merely targeted individuals for their symbolic significance but also attacked places for their symbolic value. Spaces thus became targets in their own right. Four days after the Saint-Germain bombing, on 15 March 1892, an anarchist militant from the Pieds Plats group,
Théodule Meunier Théodule Meunier (August 22, 1860 in Bournezeau, France – July 25, 1907 in Cayenne, French Guiana) was a French anarchist who, along with Emile Henry and Auguste Vaillant, was responsible for a series of bombings in Paris, France during e ...
, continued the series by carrying out the
Lobau bombing The Lobau bombing was a bomb attack in Paris, France, carried out on 15 March 1892, by the anarchist militant Théodule Meunier against the Lobau barracks. Organized four days after the Saint-Germain bombing, it was one of the first attacks of ...
, targeting a symbolic site of the repression of the Paris Commune and the French state. He went to the Lobau barracks on
rue de Rivoli The Rue de Rivoli (; English: "Rivoli Street") is a street in central Paris, France. It is a commercial street whose shops include leading fashionable brands. It bears the name of Napoleon's early victory against the Austrian army, at the Battle o ...
and placed a bomb in front of the building, which housed 800 Republican guards at the time. The bomb exploded, 'blowing away' the gate, part of the perimeter wall of the barracks, and shattering the windows of the adjacent Saint-Gervais church. However, it caused no deaths and injured no one. Meunier managed to escape. Dissatisfied with the outcome of his first attack, Ravachol decided to attempt a new bombing alone—this time targeting the prosecutor in the Clichy case, Léon Bulot. After preparing the explosive, he went to his target's residence on 27 March 1892, planted the bomb, and fled, waiting for it to detonate. The Clichy bombing killed no one but caused significant material damage.


Arrest, Véry bombing, trial of Ravachol

Ravachol was arrested three days later at the restaurant ''Le Véry'', reported to the police by its namesake owner and an employee, Lhérot. This betrayal deeply angered anarchists, who viewed the owner, Véry, and the employee as the worst kind of traitors. Meunier, still at large, then joined forces with several comrades from the Pieds-Plats group—including Jean-Pierre François and Fernand Bricout—and resolved to assassinate Véry as retribution for informing on Ravachol.' The
Véry bombing The Véry bombing was a bomb attack carried out on 25 April 1892 in Paris by the Individualist anarchism, anarchist militants Théodule Meunier, Jean-Pierre François (anarchist), Jean‑Pierre François and Fernand Bricout against the restaurant ...
became the first deadly attack of the ''Ère des attentats'', killing two people and wounding at least one. Ravachol and his accomplices were put on trial by the French state. Ravachol claimed full responsibility for his bombings in an attempt to save his comrades. The French authorities were conflicted with this trial, as they had to balance the appearance of a fair process with preventing Ravachol from using it as a platform to promote anarchism. The royalist press utilised the affair to mock the Republicans, pointing out that those who had once supported revolution and insurrection were now being outflanked on their left by the anarchists. Access to the trial was restricted, and the jury was carefully selected to ensure proceedings favoured the government. Due to its highly political nature, the case foreshadowed the Dreyfus affair. Despite these measures, the state was outmanoeuvered by Ravachol’s defense, led by Louis Lagasse. Lagasse succeeded in widely publicising anarchist ideals and subverting the usual course of terrorist trials—where the accused was dehumanised and the restoration of order is the central narrative. One striking example of this was the rumor that Pierre Martinet, an imprisoned individualist anarchist theorist, had been invited by Ravachol to testify and explain the motives behind his actions. Ravachol was convicted alongside Simon, though with mitigating circumstances, while Soubère and Jas-Béala were acquitted. Initially sentenced to hard labour, Ravachol was instead put on trial a second time—this time for common-law crimes. During this second trial, he attempted to deliver a speech in defense of anarchism (preserved as Ravachol's Forbidden Speech), but the judge denied him the right to say it. He was ultimately sentenced to death. After his condemnation, Ravachol declared:


Execution of Ravachol and anarchist radicalization

The death sentence of the anarchist triggered a major protest movement among anarchists, who saw it as illegitimate and called for vengeance.
Louise Michel Louise Michel (; 29 May 1830 – 9 January 1905) was a teacher and prominent figure during the Paris Commune. Following her penal transportation to New Caledonia she began to embrace anarchism, and upon her return to France she emerged as an im ...
, for example, wrote '' Today or Tomorrow'', a text urging anarchists to free Ravachol by force and avenge him. On 11 July 1892 in Montbrison, Ravachol was guillotined—an event that threw French society into new turmoil. The anarchist press portrayed Ravachol as a martyr; songs were composed in his honor, and he was compared to
Jesus Christ Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...
—an innocent who had fought for humanity and was killed for it. His execution influenced both anarchists, who became more radical and sought revenge, and wider French society, which cast him as a
Robin Hood Robin Hood is a legendary noble outlaw, heroic outlaw originally depicted in English folklore and subsequently featured in literature, theatre, and cinema. According to legend, he was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. In some versions o ...
-like outlaw or even a literary hero—he was one of the inspirations for the character
Fantômas Fantômas () is a fictional character created by French writers Marcel Allain (1885–1969) and Pierre Souvestre (1874–1914). One of the most popular characters in the history of French crime fiction, Fantômas was created in 1911 and appeared ...
.


November 1892 : Henry and the Carmaux-Bons Enfants bombing

Meanwhile, a parallel development occurred as Émile Henry, a young anarchist, became radicalised following Ravachol's execution - despite having initially opposed
propaganda of the deed Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...
himself.In August 1892, the Carmaux strike began. This strike was triggered by the abrupt dismissal of Jean-Baptiste Calvignac, a socialist and trade unionist working in the Carmaux mine, following his election as mayor of Carmaux. What started as a small, local movement quickly spread and gained national attention, particularly from prominent
socialists Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and socia ...
such as
Jean Jaurès Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès (3 September 185931 July 1914), commonly referred to as Jean Jaurès (; ), was a French socialist leader. Initially a Moderate Republican, he later became a social democrat and one of the first possibi ...
. These figures persuaded the workers to negotiate and initially accept a return to work. Henry closely followed the strike and viewed the actions of the socialists and Jaurès as a betrayal that ultimately served only to benefit the bourgeoisie. The fact that the workers resumed work even poorer than when they had left reinforced his belief that they should have directly attacked the means of production, destroyed them, and thereby forced the bourgeoisie to negotiate. He began manufacturing explosives to target the headquarters of the Carmaux Mining Company, whose address he found in the directory. For this attack, he was likely assisted by his brother and the anarchist activist Adrienne Chailliey, a close associate of Henry who had already given him shelter several times. After assembling the bomb, he took advantage of a moment when his employer sent him on an errand in Paris to place it at the company’s headquarters. However, the building's concierge noticed the suspicious package and alerted the police. Officers arrived, retrieved the package, and, accompanied by a company employee, brought it to the police station on Rue des Bons-Enfants. There, the bomb exploded as the officers opened it, killing four policemen and the employee. The Carmaux-Bons Enfants bombing was the deadliest incident of the ''Ère des attentats''. This attack caused shock both among the police and the anarchists. The police were caught off guard, as they had been preparing for unrest and attacks in Carmaux itself, not suspecting that the target would instead be the company's headquarters in Paris. Anarchists were also surprised by the attack.
Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later ...
, Malatesta, and Malato, who were in London at the time, knew nothing about the attacker’s identity or the plan, which seemed to be unknown to most anarchist circles. Meanwhile, Henry feigned illness with his employer. In reality, he quickly fled the country, going to the United Kingdom. The anarchist press seized on the event to support it, with ''
Le Père Peinard ''Le Père Peinard'' was a weekly French Anarchism, anarchist newspaper founded in 1889. Its main author was also its founder, Émile Pouget, though other anarchists contributed as well. Alongside ''Le Révolté'' and ''l'Endehors'', it was one of ...
'' even noting that the employee was among the victims because the police had refused to move the package themselves, deeming the act 'beneath them'.


November 1892-November 1893 : a year of lapse

This period passed without any notable attacks. Henry was not yet suspected for the bombing, having taken refuge first in the United Kingdom and then in Belgium. From these operational bases, he carried out burglaries in France alongside other illegalist anarchists, such as the ''Intransigents'' ''of London and Paris'' group and
Léon Ortiz Léon Ortiz, also known as Léon Schiroky and nicknamed the "Rocambole (character), Rocambole of Anarchy", born on 18 November 1868, in Paris and disappearing after 1901, was a French-Mexican accountant, Burglary, burglar, and Anarchism, anarchist ...
. He returned to Paris on several occasions but largely avoided attention during this year, even managing to stay there for up to a month at a time without arrest. However, suspicions against Henry gradually grew.


November-December 1893 : Spanish influence and resume of attacks

Alongside the situation in France, other countries saw similar developments emerge during the same period. In Spain, tensions grew so high that the anarchist campaign of 1893–1897 began with the attempted assassination of Arsenio Martínez Campos by the anarchist militant Paulí Pallàs, who sought revenge for the hanging of four anarchists in Jerez years earlier. After Pallàs was arrested and executed, another anarchist militant, Santiago Salvador, carried out the
Liceu bombing The Liceu bombing was a terrorist attack by the Spanish anarchist Santiago Salvador, who killed 20 to 30 people at Barcelona's Liceu, Grand Lyceum Theatre on 7 November 1893. The bombing was in response to the execution of Paulí Pallàs, who ...
on 7 November 1893 to avenge him. The Liceu bombing marked the dawn of modern terrorism—the first mass-casualty attack, where the target was now an undefined crowd. While the bombing followed its own logic tied to Spain and Catalonia’s specific context, it influenced the French ''Ère des attentats.'' Just six days after Liceu, Léon Léauthier, a destitute young anarchist, entered a Parisian restaurant, waited for a bourgeois to stand, and stabbed him—targeting the entire bourgeoisie through this stranger. The
13 November 1893 stabbing The 13 November 1893 stabbing was an attack carried out in Paris by the anarchist militant Léon Léauthier against Rista Georgevitch, a Serbian diplomat targeted because 'he looked bourgeois'. The attack, which took place in the middle of the Èr ...
thus fit the same emerging pattern: the birth of modern, indiscriminate terrorism. At the same time,
Auguste Vaillant Auguste Vaillant (; 27 December 1861 – 5 February 1894) was a French anarchist known for his bomb attack on the French Chamber of Deputies on 9 December 1893. The French government's reaction to this attack was the passing of the infamous rep ...
—a poor man struggling to provide for his family—gradually embraced anarchism. With financial support from Marguerite Wapler, the wife of Paul Reclus and an illegalist companion, who gave him 120 francs, Vaillant sought to avenge his poverty and Ravachol’s execution by targeting the
Chamber of Deputies The chamber of deputies is the lower house in many bicameral legislatures and the sole house in some unicameral legislatures. Description Historically, French Chamber of Deputies was the lower house of the French Parliament during the Bourb ...
. A meticulous planner, Vaillant acquired explosives in small quantities from multiple sellers to avoid suspicion. He conducted several reconnaissance missions around the Assembly and ultimately decided to act on 9 December 1893. His bomb was designed to wound rather than kill. That day, he carried it into the public gallery and detonated it during the
National Assembly bombing The National Assembly bombing was a bomb attack carried out on 9 December 1893 in Paris by the Anarchism, anarchist militant Auguste Vaillant. Acting in reaction to other events of the ''Ère des attentats'', literally, "Era of Attacks", (1892– ...
. The explosion caused no fatalities but injured several people, including Vaillant himself.


December 1893-February 1894 : ''Lois scélérates'' and repression

Vaillant was quickly arrested and this attack served as a pretext for French authorities to pass the first two ''lois scélérates'' ('vilainous laws')—a set of repressive laws later joined by a third in late summer 1894—explicitly targeting the anarchist movement. These laws restricted
freedom of speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The rights, right to freedom of expression has been r ...
, weakened the
presumption of innocence The presumption of innocence is a legal principle that every person Accused (law), accused of any crime is considered innocent until proven guilt (law), guilty. Under the presumption of innocence, the legal burden of proof is thus on the Prosecut ...
, facilitated
police raids A police raid is an unexpected visit by police or other law enforcement officers, which aims to use the element of surprise to seize Evidence (law), evidence or arrest suspects believed to be likely to Tampering with evidence, hide evidence, res ...
, expanded state surveillance, and normalized preventive arrests. Both the authorities and the French press widely promoted the idea that anarchists were part of a vast international conspiracy, using this narrative to justify their repression. Armed with these significant new powers, Interior Minister David Raynal sought to eradicate the anarchist movement. He ordered the compilation of lists containing names of all known anarchist militants and sympathizers, preparing police for a massive operation designed to uncover weapons caches, arrest as many anarchists as possible, and put an end to further attacks. The operation, planned to begin on the night of 31 December 1893 to 1 January 1894 to catch anarchists by surprise, was organized in absolute secrecy. In some cases, authorities even planted false evidence in targeted anarchists' homes to justify their arrest during upcoming raids. By 6:00 AM, police launched simultaneous raids across France. Hundreds of militants were targeted - in Paris alone, 50 to 60 raids occurred, with 552 conducted nationwide on that day alone. Some anarchists found their homes surrounded by soldiers with fixed bayonets. Despite numerous initial arrests, the vast majority of detainees were released due to lack of evidence. Rather than uncovering major weapons stockpiles, police only recovered scattered handguns and one artillery shell. The crackdown primarily affected less radical, well-known anarchists while inadvertently exposing the names of all the people spied upon by the police. This marked the French Republic's most repressive operation since the
Paris Commune The Paris Commune (, ) was a French revolutionary government that seized power in Paris on 18 March 1871 and controlled parts of the city until 28 May 1871. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard (France), Nation ...
. The trial of Vaillant was rushed through by French justice system, which denied him any recourse and accelerated proceedings to secure a death sentence. His lawyer received the letter informing him of his duty to defend Vaillant just one week before the trial, prompting him to withdraw. Fernand Labori, former lawyer of
Clément Duval Clément Duval (1850-1935) was a French Anarchism, anarchist. He is best known as the principal founder of illegalism, an anarchist tendency that he extensively inspired, practiced, and theorized. Born into a modest Socialism, socialist family, ...
, founder of illegalism, and future defender of
Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, ; ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of Naturalism (literature), naturalism, and an important contributor to ...
in the Dreyfus affair, took over the case. Though Vaillant maintained he had never intended to kill and only sought to wound, he became the first person condemned to death in 19th century France without having himself killed. The plight of his impoverished family—particularly his daughter, Sidonie Vaillant—moved many Parisians, who petitioned for clemency.
Georges Clemenceau Georges Benjamin Clemenceau (28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French statesman who was Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909 and again from 1917 until 1920. A physician turned journalist, he played a central role in the poli ...
and a group of socialist deputies intervened, appealing to president Sadi Carnot for a pardon, but to no avail. As Interior Minister David Raynal declared that "terror now lies in the anarchists’ camp," a socialist militant named Jules-Louis Breton penned a prophetic statement about Carnot—one that would later earn him a two-year prison sentence:


February-June 1894: Resurgence of attacks, indiscriminate terrorism, Carnot's assassination

In response to the
repression of January and February 1894 The repression of January and February 1894 was an episode of the Ère des attentats (1892–1894), during which France engaged in significant Political repression, state repression against Anarchism, anarchists. The passage of the lois scélérat ...
and Vaillant's execution (6 February 1894), Émile Henry returned to Paris determined to assassinate president Carnot. Finding police presence around the
Élysée Palace The Élysée Palace (, ) is the official residence of the President of France, President of the French Republic in Paris. Completed in 1722, it was built for Louis Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, a nobleman and army officer who had been appointed g ...
too heavy, he instead targeted the
Café Terminus The Café Terminus was a popular cafe in the late 19th century near the Gare Saint-Lazare, located in Paris, France. It is infamously known as the target of Terminus bombing, a bomb attack by French Anarchist Émile Henry on February 12, 1894. H ...
. After observing a
Romani Romani may refer to: Ethnic groups * Romani people, or Roma, an ethnic group of Indo-Aryan origin ** Romani language, an Indo-Aryan macrolanguage of the Romani communities ** Romanichal, Romani subgroup in the United Kingdom * Romanians (Romanian ...
orchestra perform, he lit his bomb's fuse with his cigar and hurled it toward the musicians before fleeing. He was captured shortly afterward. The Café Terminus attack and Henry's trial proved pivotal in the emergence of modern terrorism. Like the Liceu bombing and the 13 November stabbing months earlier, Henry now targeted society at large - the public itself became the enemy. While not the first such attack, Henry became the first to openly defend this strategy. Unlike Léauthier (who avoided embracing this new terrorism for fear of execution) and Salvador (whose trial came later), Henry publicly claimed responsibility. During his trial, Henry declared his act as vengeance for anarchist repression. Unlike Ravachol or Vaillant, he presented himself not as a vigilante but as a combatant willing to kill or die fighting. He rejected the court's legitimacy, was sentenced to death, refused appeal, and demanded immediate execution by guillotine.Henry’s attack took both anarchists and French society as a whole by surprise. The completely indiscriminate nature of the bombing was particularly shocking. In anarchist circles, such an indiscriminate attack was met with considerable distance. Most anarchists rejected this act, as it did not target a specific figure of power or the bourgeoisie. The Café Terminus bombing, due to its extreme violence and indiscriminate nature, was one of the events signaling the end of the ''Ère des attentats''. In reality, after this attack, anarchist attacks slowed down until they eventually stopped. Anarchists increasingly recognised the weakness of terrorist strategy, as it led to harsher state repression without necessarily gaining popular support—something that became particularly evident with the indiscriminate nature of the Terminus bombing. Following Henry's arrest, his friend
Désiré Pauwels Désiré Joseph Pauwels (1864–1894) was a Belgian anarchist active with France's propaganda by deed anarchists. Early life Désiré Joseph Pauwels was born January 29, 1864, in Courcelles, Belgium. His father died soon after his birth. ...
sprang into action. On the evening of 12 February 1894, the same day as the Café Terminus bombing, Pauwels rented a room at the Hôtel des Carmes, posing as a traveller arriving from Barcelona, which he did by speaking Spanish with an employee. He brought luggage that likely contained the explosives he used to assemble the bombs. Eight days later, he rigged two hotel rooms with explosives, called the police officers who had arrested Ravachol to come visit him—claiming to be a poor man on the verge of suicide—and then waited for the bombs to explode. The 20 February bombings did not kill his intended targets but instead took the life of the owner's wife who was sleeping in the next room. Pauwels then decided to carry out another attack, this time targeting
La Madeleine church The Church of Sainte-Marie-Madeleine (, ), or less formally, La Madeleine (), is a Catholic parish church on Place de la Madeleine in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. It was planned by Louis XV as the focal point of the new Rue Royal, leading t ...
, a gathering place for the Parisian bourgeoisie. He went there with a bomb, but it exploded as he was entering the building. Severely injured by the Madeleine bombing, he most likely committed suicide with a bullet to the head to avoid being arrested by the police. He became the target of ridicule in the French press. The attack showed the growing shift in police investigations towards
forensic science Forensic science combines principles of law and science to investigate criminal activity. Through crime scene investigations and laboratory analysis, forensic scientists are able to link suspects to evidence. An example is determining the time and ...
, as his body was so disfigured by the explosion that the nascent forensic police had to take over the case and succeeded in identifying him. On April 4, 1894, a bomb exploded at the Foyot restaurant, directly across from the
French Senate The Senate (, ) is the upper house of the French Parliament, with the lower house being the National Assembly (France), National Assembly, the two houses constituting the legislature of France. It is made up of 348 senators (''sénateurs'' and ...
. The device, hidden in a flowerpot placed on a window ledge, injured four anarchists who were seated nearby, including
Laurent Tailhade Laurent Tailhade (; April 16, 1854, Tarbes – November 1, 1919, Combes-la-Ville) was a French satirical poet, anarchist polemicist, essayist, and translator, active in Paris in the 1890s and early 1900s. In April 1894, Tailhade was injured in ...
and his partner, Julia Miahle. The police quickly blamed the anarchists without conducting a serious investigation. More recent research suggests the attack may have been an act of
state terrorism State terrorism is terrorism conducted by a state against its own citizens or another state's citizens. It contrasts with '' state-sponsored terrorism'', in which a violent non-state actor conducts an act of terror under sponsorship of a state. ...
, possibly carried out either by the French police — aiming to justify the passage of the third ''loi scélérate'' then under discussion — or by the
Okhrana The Department for the Protection of Public Safety and Order (), usually called the Guard Department () and commonly abbreviated in modern English sources as the Okhrana ( rus , Охрана, p=ɐˈxranə, a=Ru-охрана.ogg, t= The Guard) w ...
, the secret police of the Russian Empire seeking to stir unrest in France. Two days before Henry's execution, on 19 May 1894, one Célestin Nat walked for some time along the Quai des Augustins, searching for a target—he stabbed a bourgeois under the left ear with a tire-point before fleeing. The victim, Louis Blanc, an olive oil company owner, survived. Nat was later arrested, and upon searching him, the authorities found a notebook containing ''La Chanson du Père Duchesne (''the song sung by
Ravachol François Claudius Ravachol (; born Koenigstein; 14 October 1859 – 11 July 1892) was a French illegalist anarchist mainly known for his terrorist activism, impact, the myths developed around his figure and his influence on the anarchist moveme ...
on his way to the guillotine), verses from
Auguste Vaillant Auguste Vaillant (; 27 December 1861 – 5 February 1894) was a French anarchist known for his bomb attack on the French Chamber of Deputies on 9 December 1893. The French government's reaction to this attack was the passing of the infamous rep ...
’s tomb, and Émile Henry’s manifesto. Henry was executed on 21 May 1894 under the guard of five hundred policemen. Georges Clemenceau and
Maurice Barrès Auguste-Maurice Barrès (; 19 August 1862 – 4 December 1923) was a French novelist, journalist, philosopher, and politician. Spending some time in Italy, he became a figure in French literature with the release of his work ''The Cult of the S ...
attended, both expressing disapproval of his conviction and execution. Clemenceau began questioning the vicious cycle of 'repression-terrorism', while Barrès complained that Henry had been executed—precisely what he himself had demanded, meaning Henry had obtained what he wanted from the authorities. On 25 June 1894, in response to the
repression of January and February 1894 The repression of January and February 1894 was an episode of the Ère des attentats (1892–1894), during which France engaged in significant Political repression, state repression against Anarchism, anarchists. The passage of the lois scélérat ...
and his refusal to address Sidonie Vaillant’s demands, Sante Caserio—an Italian anarchist who spoke no French—arrived in Lyon with the intent to assassinate Sadi Carnot. Though unfamiliar with the city, he met a few fellow companions and was positioned along Carnot’s route at the exact spot where an attack would be possible. As the president passed by, Caserio lunged at him and stabbed him to death before being severely beaten and arrested. This marked the final attack and one of the most significant of the ''Ère des attentats.'' Sadi Carnot became the first French president to die in office.


August-October 1894: repression, massacre and mutations


Repression

The president's death triggered a major crackdown on anarchists. The third ''loi scélérate'' was passed, Caserio was sentenced to death, and the following month, around 30 anarchists—ranging from theorists to mere sympathisers—were arrested and put on trial. The
Trial of the Thirty The Trial of the Thirty (French: ''Procès des trente'') was a trial in 1894 in Paris, France, aimed at legitimizing the '' lois scélérates'' passed in 1893–94 against the anarchist movement and restricting press freedom by proving the exis ...
, aimed at crushing the anarchist movement, marked a turning point: unlike previous repression campaigns, the French state lost control when the jury acquitted nearly all the defendants, choosing to end the cycle of conflict with anarchists. After 1894, French authorities avoided creating new anarchist martyrs, systematically commuting death sentences to life imprisonment or deportation to penal colonies. Meanwhile, the presence of anarchists in the penal colony of
French Guiana French Guiana, or Guyane in French, is an Overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France located on the northern coast of South America in the Guianas and the West Indies. Bordered by Suriname to the west ...
was deeply resented by the colonial and penitentiary administration, which believed that French judges were too lenient with them and that it was necessary to 'eradicate this rabble'. The authorities devised a plan to eliminate the imprisoned anarchists and sent a convict named Plista to infiltrate them. Not a revolutionary himself, Plista presented an escape plan that some of the anarchists initially supported. The colonial administration was aware of this plan and made preparations to suppress it, using it as a pretext to justify the anarchists’ executions. However, the anarchists eventually realised the trap and withdrew from the escape plan before it could begin. Two guards, Mosca and Crétallaz, who had been waiting for an uprising all day with troops ready to intervene, grew impatient. They entered the first barracks they found and shot two convicts. Instead of remaining passive, about 15 anarchists, including Léauthier and Charles Simon (Cookie), decided to resist and attacked the guards. This led to a violent clash and the outbreak of a revolt—the two guards were killed despite being the only ones armed with firearms. The army, already prepared to intervene, stormed the colony and pursued the fugitives the next day in a large-scale manhunt - all were killed summarily the next days. This event marked the end of the ''Ère des attentats''.


Transition to anarcho-syndicalism

This period brought significant shifts among French anarchists: as time passed, they increasingly sought new forms of organization and struggle to continue their fight from different angles. Many French anarchists exiled in London during this time were struck by the strength of the British labor movement. Upon returning to France, they helped develop
anarcho-syndicalism Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchism, anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade uni ...
, which gradually replaced the exclusive use of
propaganda of the deed Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...
—at least in France. Reflecting on these changes and criticizing this idea of a 'natural' evolution toward anarcho-syndicalism at the end of the ''Ère'' ''des attentats'', Uri Eisenzweig highlights a key paradox: the terrorists of this period still employed propaganda of the deed, even though the method had been widely criticized and rethought as early as 1885—long before the wave of attacks began. He thus argues that many protagonists' turn to violence stemmed from socio-cultural motivations rather than a genuine engagement with anarchist theory.


Legacy


Influences


Literature

This unique period in France's history marked the peak of interest and fascination with anarchism within French society. Many writers and artists, such as Jean Ajalbert,
Francis Vielé-Griffin Francis Vielé-Griffin (pseudonym of Egbert Ludovicus Viélé, 26 May 186412 November 1937), was a French symbolist poet. He was born at Norfolk, Virginia, USA, the son of General Egbert Ludovicus Viele, and moved to France with his mother (the ...
, Maurice Beaubourg,
Paul Claudel Paul Claudel (; 6 August 1868 – 23 February 1955) was a French poet, dramatist and diplomat, and the younger brother of the sculptor Camille Claudel. He was most famous for his verse dramas, which often convey his devout Catholicism. Early lif ...
,
Bernard Lazare Bernard Lazare (; 14 June 1865, Nîmes – 1 September 1903, Paris) was a French literary critic, political journalist, polemicist, and anarchist. He is known as the first Dreyfusard. Life He was born Lazare Marcus Manassé Bernard (he later s ...
,
Camille Mauclair Séverin Faust (December 29, 1872, Paris – April 23, 1945), better known by his pseudonym Camille Mauclair (), was a French poet, novelist, biographer, travel writer, and art critic. Background Mauclair was a great admirer of Stéphane Mallarm ...
, Stuart Merrill, Lucien Muhlfeld, Adolphe Retté,
Saint-Pol-Roux Paul-Pierre Roux, called Saint-Pol-Roux (15 January 1861, quartier de Saint-Henry, Marseille – 18 October 1940, Brest), was a French Symbolist poet. Life Marseille Saint-Pol-Roux was born to a middle-class family in Marseille, where his ...
,
Octave Mirbeau Octave Henri Marie Mirbeau (; 16 February 1848 – 16 February 1917) was a French novelist, art critic, travel writer, pamphleteer, journalist and playwright, who achieved celebrity in Europe and great success among the public, whilst still app ...
, and
Stéphane Mallarmé Stéphane Mallarmé ( , ; ; 18 March 1842 – 9 September 1898), pen name of Étienne Mallarmé, was a French poet and critic. He was a major French Symbolist poet, and his work anticipated and inspired several revolutionary artistic schools o ...
, were deeply interested with these events. According to Eisenzweig, it represented a convergence between the crisis of language that defined modern literature and the crisis of language underlying the bombings of the era. He noted that what captivated most of these writers was not anarchism itself but rather the imagery of the bombing—a kind of substitute for language. For instance, Mallarmé was influenced by this period and commented on it, yet he never addressed anarchism directly. All his writings revolved around the image of the bomb or the ''attentat'', without any reference to anarchism. On this subject, he wrote:


International police cooperation

On the security front, France adopted a policy of 'territorial defense' during this period, meaning it cooperated with other European powers only when it served its interests and thus acted in a largely unilateral manner. Following the first wave of bombings, France expelled a number of foreign anarchists from its territory without notifying neighboring countries—prompting displeasure from British authorities, who pressured the French government to prevent such incidents from recurring. However, by early 1894, France began compiling lists of foreign anarchists on its soil and shared these with Italy and Spain when deporting them. This crackdown was part of the broader era of propaganda by the deed (1880–1914) and later contributed—through related, though not identical, motivations—to the convening of the International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists (1898), a precursor to
Interpol The International Criminal Police Organization – INTERPOL (abbreviated as ICPO–INTERPOL), commonly known as Interpol ( , ; stylized in allcaps), is an international organization that facilitates worldwide police cooperation and crime cont ...
.


Terrorism

The ''Ère des attentats'' marked an important period for the emergence of modern terrorism. On one hand, it saw the shift toward targeting locations themselves, but it also represented the birth of indiscriminate terrorism. While this strategy did not necessarily persist within anarchist terrorism, it was later adopted by other terrorist groups well into the early 21st century.


See also

* Timeline of the Ère des attentats * ''Paris'' (Zola novel) *
Propaganda of the deed Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...
*
Insurrectionary anarchism Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory and tendency within the anarchist movement that emphasizes insurrection as a revolutionary practice. It is critical of formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on ...
*
Illegalism Illegalism is a tendency of anarchism that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the late 1890s and early 1900s as an outgrowth of individualist anarchism. Illegalists embrace criminality either openly or secret ...


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


See also

* Timeline of the Ère des attentats *
Propaganda of the deed Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...
*
Insurrectionary anarchism Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory and tendency within the anarchist movement that emphasizes insurrection as a revolutionary practice. It is critical of formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on ...
*
Illegalism Illegalism is a tendency of anarchism that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the late 1890s and early 1900s as an outgrowth of individualist anarchism. Illegalists embrace criminality either openly or secret ...
{{Portal bar, Anarchism, Crime, France, History History of anarchism 1891 in Europe 1892 in Europe 1893 in Europe 1894 in Europe Anti-anarchism Police brutality in France Anarchism in France 1890s protests Protests in France Political riots in France Attacks on parades in Europe May Day protests 1890s trials Trials in France 19th-century political riots 1890s in Paris Propaganda of the deed Building bombings in Paris Mass murder in Paris Explosions in 1891 Explosions in 1892 Explosions in 1893 Explosions in 1894 Mass murder in 1891 Mass murder in 1892 Mass murder in 1893 Mass murder in 1894 Letter and package bombings Attacks on office buildings in France Attacks on police stations in France 1891 in labor relations 1892 in labor relations 1893 in labor relations 1894 in labor relations Terrorist incidents in the 1890s Political repression in France French words and phrases