Ym (digraph)

This is a list of digraphs used in various Latin alphabets. Capitalisation involves only the first letter (''ch'' becomes ''Ch'') unless otherwise stated (''ij'' becomes ''IJ'').

Letters with diacritics are arranged in alphabetic order according to their base: is alphabetised with , not at the end of the alphabet, as it would be in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. Substantially-modified letters, such as (a variant of ) and (based on ), are placed at the end.

Apostrophe

(capital ) is used in Bari for .

(capital ) is used in Bari for .

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for when it appears in a dark or ''yin'' tone. It is also often written as .

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark

is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark

(capital ) is used in Bari and Hausa (in Nigeria) for , but in Niger, Hausa is replaced with .

A

is used in Taa, where it represents the glottalized or creaky-voiced vowel .

is used in Dutch, Finnish and other languages with phonemic long vowels for . It is also used in some English and Scots dialects, such as Northumbrian and Shetlandic, to represent . It was formerly used in Danish and Norwegian (and still is in some proper names) to represent a single vowel, which in Danish is often or , until it was replaced with the letter . There is a ligature . In Cantonese Romanisations such as Jyutping or Yale, this is used to represent , which contrasts with .

is used in Irish, where it represents between two "broad" ( velarized) consonants, e.g. ''Gael'' ('a Gael').
: In Latin, originally represented the diphthong , before it was monophthongized in the Vulgar Latin period to ; in medieval manuscripts, the digraph was frequently replaced by the ligature .
: In Modern English, Latin loanwords with are generally pronounced with (e.g. ''Caesar''), prompting Noah Webster to shorten this to in his 1806 spelling reform for American English.
: In German, is a variant of found in some proper names or in contexts where is unavailable.
: In Dutch, is an old spelling variant of the digraph but now only occurs in names of people or (less often) places and in a few loanwords from Greek and Latin.
: In Zhuang, is used for ( is used for ).
: In Revised Romanization of Korean, is used for /ɛ/.

is used in Portuguese for .

is used in Taa, where it represents the breathy or murmured . In German and English it typically represents a long vowel .

is used in many languages, typically representing the diphthong . In English, as a result of the Great Vowel Shift, the vowel of has shifted from this value to as in ''pain'' and ''rain'', while it may have a sound of in unstressed syllables like ''bargain'' and ''certain(ly)'', or in the stressed syllable of ''again(st)'' (AmE), depending on the word; while in French, a different change, ''monophthongization'', has occurred, resulting in the digraph representing . A similar change has also occurred during the development of Greek, resulting in and the both having the same sound; originally , later . In German, it represents as in ''Kaiser'' (which derived from Latin ''caesar''). However, most German words use for . In the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish, it represents , mostly in loanwords from English such as ''paint''.

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in French for , as in ''aînesse'' or ''maître'' .

is used in Irish for between a broad and a slender consonant.

is used in Portuguese for . It has, thus, the same value as , but the latter is much more common.

is used in Portuguese for at the end of a word, before a consonant, and before a vowel; and in French for ( before a vowel).

is used in Portuguese for a stressed before a consonant.

is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese it is used for before a consonant, in French it represents , and in many West African languages it represents . In Breton this digraph represents .

is used in Portuguese for a stressed before a consonant.

is used in Tibetan Pinyin for . It is alternately written .

is used in Walloon, for the nasal vowel .

is used in Lakhota for the nasal vowel

is used in the Irish for or , depending on dialect, between broad consonants. In French, it is found in a few words such as ''paonne'' representing . In Malagasy, it represents , and in Piedmontese, . In Wymysorys, it represents (also spelt ). In Mandarin Pinyin, this is used to represent .

is used in Portuguese for .

is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel .

in English is a result of various linguistic changes from Middle English, having shifted from to . In a number of dialects, this has merged with . It occasionally represents the diphthong , as in ''flautist''. Other pronunciations are in North American English ''aunt'' and ''laugh'', in ''gauge'', as in ''gauche'' and ''chauffeur'', and as in '' meerschaum'' and ''restaurant''. Due to historical reasons, this is used to transcribe in several Romanizations of Wu Chinese.

In German and Dutch, it is used for the diphthongs and respectively ( in some northern and in some southern Dutch and some Flemish dialects).

In French, represents or sometimes . It most frequently appears in the inflectional ending marking plurals of certain kinds of words like ''cheval'' ('horse') or ''canal'' ('channel'), respectively having a plural in ''chevaux'' and ''canaux''.

In Icelandic, it represents .

In the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish, stands for long or short , as in ''caul'' ('cabbage') or ''dauncya'' ('to dance').

is used in German for the diphthong in declension of native words with ''au''; elsewhere, is written as . In words where ä, u is separated in two syllables, mostly of Latin origin, is pronounced as , as in '' Matthäus'' (one German form for ''Matthew'').

was used in French but has been replaced by the trigraph eau.

is used in English in ways that parallel English , though it appears more often at the end of a word.
In Cornish, represents the diphthong or . In Welsh, represents the diphthong .

is used in English in ways that parallel English , though it appears more often at the end of a word. Unlike , functions almost the same as (the sound in ''key'') at the end of variant spellings of names like ''Lindsay'' and ''Ramsay''.

In French, it is usually used to represent /ɛj/ before a vowel (as in ''ayant'') and /ɛ.i/ before a consonant (as in ''pays'').

In Cornish, represents the sounds , , , or .

(a split digraph) indicates an English 'long a', historically but now most commonly realised as .

is used to notate in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī.

B

is used in Pinyin for in languages such as Yi, where ''b'' stands for . In Hungarian, it represents geminated . In English, doubling a letter indicates that the previous vowel is short (so ''bb'' represents ). In ISO romanized Korean, it is used for the fortis sound , otherwise spelled ; an example is hobbang. In Hadza it is the rare ejective . In several African languages it is implosive . In Cypriot Arabic it is .

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''bdellatomy.'' When not initial, it represents , as in ''abdicate.''

is used in Bavarian and several African languages for the .

is used in transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages for a murmured voiced bilabial plosive (), and for equivalent sounds in other languages. In Juǀʼhoan, it's used for the similar prevoiced aspirated plosive . In Irish, it stands for the phonemes and , word-initially as the lenition of for example ('my boat'), ('would be'). In the orthography used in Guinea before 1985, was used in Pular (a Fula language) for the voiced bilabial implosive , whereas in Xhosa, Zulu, and Shona, represents the implosive and represents the plosive . In some orthographies of Dan, is and is .

is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded ; that is, it is pronounced either or (in any position); (before a consonant or finally); or (before a vowel); examples are ''mabm'' ('mother') or ''hebma'' ('this').

is used in Sandawe and romanized Thai for , and in Irish it represents as the eclipsis of .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced labiodental affricate .

is used in Shona for a whistled sibilant cluster .

C

is used in Andean Spanish for loanwords from Quechua or Aymara with , as in ''Ccozcco'' (modern ''Qusqu)'' (' Cuzco'). In many European languages, before front vowels represents a sequence such as , e.g. English ''success'', French ''occire'', Spanish ''accidente'' (dialectally or ); this is not the case of Italian, where a before a front vowel represents a geminated , as in ''lacci'' . In Piedmontese and Lombard, represents the sound at the end of a word. In Hadza it is the glottalized click . In English internet slang, can sometimes replace the letters or at the ends of words, such as with ''thicc'', ''protecc'', ''succ'' and ''phucc''.

was used for or in Old English (''ecg'' in Old E and nglish sounded like 'edge' in Modern English, while ''frocga'' sounded like 'froga'), where both are long consonants. It is used for the click in Naro, and in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless dental click .

is used in several languages. In English, it can represent , , , or . See article.

is used in Manx for , as a distinction from which is used for .

is used in Romani and the Chechen Latin alphabet for . In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it was used for .

is used in the Italian for before the non-front vowel letters . In English, it usually represents whenever it precedes any vowel other than . In Polish, it represents whenever it precedes a vowel, and whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ć appearing in other situations. In Romanian, it represents . The digraph is found at the end of a word (deci, atunci, copaci) or before the letters a, o, or u (ciorba, ciuleandra); the sound made by the letter c in front of the letters e or i becomes in front of the three aforementioned vowels, making the addition of the letter i necessary.

is used in Friulian for such as in words ''cjocolate'' . It's also used in local orthographies of Lombard to represent derived from Latin ⟨cl⟩.

is used in many Germanic languages in lieu of or to indicate either a geminated , or a with a preceding (historically) short vowel. The latter is the case with English ''tack'', ''deck'', ''pick'', ''lock'', and ''buck'' (compare ''backer'' with ''baker''). In German, indicates that the preceding vowel is short. Prior to the German spelling reform of 1996, it was replaced by for syllabification. The new spelling rules allow only syllabification of the as a whole:
:*Old spelling: ''Säcke'': ''Säk-ke'' ('sacks')
:*New spelling: ''Säcke'': ''Sä-cke''
:Among the modern Germanic languages, is used mainly in Alsatian, English, German, Luxembourgish, Scots, Swedish, and other West Germanic languages in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. Similarly, is used for the same purpose in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic, Norwegian, and other West Germanic languages in the Netherlands and Belgium. Compare the word ''nickel'', which is the same in many of these languages except for the customary or spelling. The word is '' nickel'' in English and Swedish, '' Nickel'' in German, and ''nikkel'' in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic and Norwegian.
:It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the voiceless dental click (equivalent to ).
:It is also used in Cornish for at the end of a syllable after a short vowel; only in loanwords (mostly from English) in the Standard Written Form (SWF), more widely in Kernowek Standard.

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''cnidarian.'' When not initial, it represents , as in ''acne.''

is used in Seri for a labialized velar plosive, . It is placed between and in alphabetical order.

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for .

is used in the Hungarian for a voiceless postalveolar affricate, . It is considered a distinct letter, named ''csé'', and is placed between and in alphabetical order. Examples of words with cs include ''csak'' ('only'), ''csésze'' ('cup'), ''cső'' ('pipe'), ''csípős'' ('peppery').

is used in English for in a few words of Greek origin, such as ''ctenoid.'' When not initial, it represents , as in ''act''.

is used in languages such as Nahuatl (that is, based on Spanish or Portuguese orthography) for . In Nahuatl, is used before a vowel, whereas is used after a vowel.

is used in modern scholarly editions of Old English for the sound , which was spelled , or in manuscripts. In Middle English these were all replaced by Latin .

is used in Esperanto as an unofficial surrogate of , which represents .

is used in Polish for as in ('hello'). In Kashubian, represents . In French and Catalan, historical contracted to the ligature , and represents the sound . In Hungarian, it was formerly used for the sound , which is now written .

D

is used in Naro for the click , and in Juǀʼhoan for the prevoiced ejective .

is used in English to indicate a with a preceding (historically) short vowel (e.g. ''jaded'' has a "long a" while ''ladder'' has a "short a"). In Welsh, represents a voiced dental fricative . It is treated as a distinct letter, named ''èdd'', and placed between and in alphabetical order. In the ISO romanization of Korean, it is used for the fortis sound , otherwise spelled ; examples are '' ddeokbokki'' and ''bindaeddeok''. In Basque, it represents a voiced palatal plosive , as in ''onddo'', ('mushroom'). In several African languages it is implosive . Latin delta (ẟ, lowercase only) is represented by "dd" in Modern Welsh.

is used in English for in certain contexts, such as with ''judgement'' and ''hedge''

is used in the Albanian, Swahili, and revived Cornish for the voiced dental fricative . The first examples of this digraph are from the Oaths of Strasbourg, the earliest French text, where it denotes the same sound developed mainly from intervocalic Latin -''t''-.
In early traditional Cornish (yogh), and later , were used for this purpose. Edward Lhuyd is credited for introducing the grapheme to Cornish orthography in 1707 in his ''Archaeologia Britannica''. In Irish it represents the voiced velar fricative or the voiced palatal approximant ; at the beginning of a word it shows the lenition of , for example ''mo dhoras'' ('my door' cf. ''doras'' 'door').
:In the pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, was used for the voiced alveolar implosive in Pular. It is currently written . In the orthography of Shona it is the opposite: represents , and . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages, represents a dental stop, .
:In addition, is used in various romanization systems. In transcriptions of Indo-Aryan languages, for example, it represents the murmured voiced dental plosive , and for equivalent sounds in other languages. In Juǀʼhoan, it's used for the similar prevoiced aspirated plosive . In the romanization of Arabic, it denotes , which represents in Modern Standard Arabic.

is used in Faroese, French and many French-based orthographies for . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as or ; this sound is also written , , , or . It is also formerly used in Indonesian as .

is used in Hmong’s Romanized Popular Alphabet for . In Navajo, it represents , and in Xhosa it represents . In Hadza it is ejective .

is used in Tlingit for (in Alaska, is used instead).

is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated and nasally released .

is used in Yélî Dnye for nasally released . In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded ; that is, it is pronounced either or (in any position); (before a consonant or finally); or (before a vowel); examples are ''pedn'' ('head') or ''pednow'' ('heads').

is used in Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated .

is used for the click in Naro.

is used in Malagasy for . See . It is used in Fijian for 'ndr' nasalized ().

is used in Juǀʼhoan for the prevoiced ejective .

is used in German, Swedish, and Sandawe orthography as well as the romanization of Thai for . In Irish it represents as the eclipsis of .

is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced dental affricate .

is used in some Zapotecan languages for a voiced postalveolar fricative . (It is placed between and in alphabetical order.) In Juǀʼhoan it is used for the prevoiced uvularized plosive .

is used in Xhosa for . In Shona, it represents . In Tagalog it is used for . In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as or . This sound is also written , , , , or .

is used in several languages, often to represent . See article.

is used in the Polish and Sorbian alphabets for , the voiced alveolo-palatal affricate, as in ''dźwięk'' . is never written before a vowel ( is used instead, as in ''dziecko'' 'child').

is used in the Polish for a voiced retroflex affricate (e.g. 'jam').

is used in Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Lithuanian, and Latvian to represent . See article.

E

is used in Taa, where it represents the glottalised or creaky

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