The portrayal of women in

American comic book An American comic book is a thin periodical originating in the United States, on average 32 pages, containing comics. While the form originated in 1933, American comic books first gained popularity after the 1938 publication of ''Action Comics'' ...

s has often been the subject of controversy since the medium's beginning. Critics have noted the roles of women as both supporting characters and lead characters are substantially more subjected to gender stereotypes, with femininity and/or sexual characteristics having a larger presence in their overall character.

History

Golden Age of Comic Books

True Bride-to-Be Romances No 18 Harvey, 1956 SA

During the

Golden Age of Comic Books The Golden Age of Comic Books describes an era of American comic books from 1938 to 1956. During this time, modern comic books were first published and rapidly increased in popularity. The superhero archetype was created and many well-known char ...

(a time during which the medium evolved from

comic strips A comic strip is a Comics, sequence of drawings, often cartoons, arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative, often Serial (literature), serialized, with text in Speech balloon, balloons and Glossary of comics ter ...

) women who were not

superheroes A superhero or superheroine is a stock character that typically possesses ''superpowers'', abilities beyond those of ordinary people, and fits the role of the hero, typically using his or her powers to help the world become a better place, ...

were primarily portrayed in secondary roles, with some examples being classified as career girls, romance-story heroines, or lively teenagers. Robbins, Trina. ''From Girls to Grrrlz: A History of Women's Comics from Teens to Zines'' (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999), pp. 7-8; Career-oriented girls included such characters as Nellie the Nurse, Tessie the Typist, and Millie the Model, each of whom appeared in comic books working jobs that non-wartime women of the era typically worked. Romance heroines were popular in the romance genre, pioneered by

Joe Simon Joseph Henry Simon (October 11, 1913 – December 14, 2011) was an American comic book writer, artist, editor, and publisher. Simon created or co-created many important characters in the 1930s–1940s Golden Age of Comic Books and served as the ...

and Jack Kirby. Typically, the heroine was either a "good girl" or "bad girl", with both roles having small effect on a male character's decision. In the

Archie Comics Archie Comic Publications, Inc., is an American comic book publisher headquartered in Pelham, New York.Betty and Veronica, who typify this dichotomy between the good Girl-Next-Door and the dangerous allure of her foil respectively. The duo got their own title in 1950, '' Betty and Veronica'', which quickly became a popular comic, featuring the two lead characters continuing to obsess over boys and fight over who would get to date Archie. Crimes by Women 2

Female costumed crimefighters were among the early comics characters. One of the comics' earliest female superheroes appeared in newspaper strips, the

Invisible Scarlet O'Neil ''Invisible Scarlet O'Neil'' is a 1940-1956 American comic strip written and drawn by Russell Stamm, who had previously been an assistant to Chester Gould on ''Dick Tracy''. The strip focused on Scarlet O'Neil, a plainclothes superhero (and one o ...

by Russell Stamm. The tough-fighting

Miss Fury Miss Fury is a fictional superheroine from the Golden Age of Comics. She first appeared as ''The Black Fury'' on April 6, 1941, a Sunday comic strip distributed by the Bell Syndicate, and created by artist June Tarpé Mills (writing as Tarpé M ...

, debuted in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist Tarpé Mills in 1941. One publisher in particular, Fiction House, featured several progressive heroines such as the jungle queen Sheena, whose sex appeal is what helped launched her comic series. As

Trina Robbins Trina Robbins (born Trina Perlson; August 17, 1938, in Brooklyn, New York) is an American cartoonist. She was an early participant in the underground comix movement, and one of the first female artists in that movement. In the 1980s, Robbins beca ...

, in ''The Great Women Superheroes'' wrote: Sheena No 4

One of the earliest female superheros is writer-artist Fletcher Hanks's minor character Fantomah, an ageless, ancient Egyptian woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in Fiction House's ''Jungle Comics'' #2 (Feb. 1940), credited to the pseudonymous "Barclay Flagg". The first widely recognizable female superhero is ''

Wonder Woman Wonder Woman is a superhero created by the American psychologist and writer William Moulton Marston (pen name: Charles Moulton), and artist Harry G. Peter. Marston's wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, Elizabeth, and their life partner, Olive Byr ...

'', from All-American Publications, one of three companies that would merge to form DC Comics. In an October 25, 1940, interview conducted by former student

Olive Byrne Mary Olive Byrne (), known professionally as Olive Richard (February 19, 1904 – May 19, 1990), was the domestic partner of William Moulton Marston and Elizabeth Holloway Marston. She has been credited as an inspiration for the comic book charac ...

(under the pseudonym 'Olive Richard') and published in '' Family Circle'', titled "Don't Laugh at the Comics", William Moulton Marston described what he saw as the great educational potential of comic books (a follow up article was published two years later in 1942). This article caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines, who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodicals and All-American Publications, two of the companies that would merge to form the future DC Comics. At that time, Marston decided to develop a new superhero. In the early 1940s the DC line was dominated by superpowered male characters such as the Green Lantern,

Batman Batman is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, and debuted in Detective Comics 27, the 27th issue of the comic book ''Detective Comics'' on ...

, and its flagship character,

Superman Superman is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, and debuted in the comic book ''Action Comics'' #1 (cover-dated June 1938 and publi ...

. According to the Fall 2001 issue of the Boston University alumni magazine, it was his wife Elizabeth Hollowy's idea to create a female superhero.Who Was Wonder Woman?
Marston introduced the idea to Max Gaines, cofounder (along with Jack Liebowitz) of All-American Publications. Given the go-ahead, Marston developed ''Wonder Woman'' with Elizabeth (whom Marston believed to be a model of that era's unconventional, liberated woman). In creating Wonder Woman, Marston was also inspired by Olive Byrne, who lived with the couple in a polygamous/ polyamorous relationship. In a 1943 issue of '' The American Scholar'', Marston wrote: Wonder Woman is an Amazon Princess; the Amazons were created by Aphrodite, according to the stories, and were made to be stronger and wiser than men. Some of Marston's early stories included Wonder Woman as president of the United States and as a modern-day Incan

Sun God A solar deity or sun deity is a deity who represents the Sun, or an aspect of it. Such deities are usually associated with power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms. The ...

, both non-traditional roles for women. Despite such portrayals of women in leadership roles, however, editor Sheldon Mayer was disturbed by the recurring

bondage Bondage may refer to: Restraints *Physical restraints **Bondage (BDSM), use of restraint for erotic stimulation ***Self-bondage, use of restraints on oneself for erotic pleasure Social and economic practices *Serfdom, feudal enslavement of peasan ...

imagery. If Wonder Woman's bracelets were chained together, she became as weak as any other woman. According to Marston this imagery of bondage was a reflection of the suffrage movement's use of bondage as well. He insisted it was important that she could be seen freeing herself, both literally and symbolically, from man-made bondage, but he also upheld some ideals of submission to "peace, restraint and good judgement". One issue dealt with Wonder Woman losing control because her bracelets had broken; she was driven mad because the bracelets represented restraint, and stated "power without self-control tears a girl to pieces". Under the control of other writers Wonder Woman often fell into more conventional female positions. After a survey was conducted among Justice Society Readers, Wonder Woman was admitted to the organization in ''All-Star Comics # 11''. Although it was published concurrently with Marston's run in ''Sensation Comics'', the writer of Justice Society kept Wonder Woman in the limited position as Secretary of the League, rarely involving her in action. In 1947 Marston died, and although his widow petitioned to be hired as writer, DC instead hired Robert Kanigher. Under his direction Wonder Woman's physical prowess declined. She was no longer depicted in chains, she became more and more submissive, and her priorities shifted to be more conventional for her gender role. Between crime fighting, Diana Prince engaged in more feminine jobs as a babysitter, fashion model, or movie star and in her classic job as Steve Trevor's secretary, with a new dedication to marrying him. A new form of bondage that Wonder Woman craved was the mantle of wife and mother. In one ''Sensational Comics'' issue, Wonder Woman tells a woman that she envied her life as a mother and wife. During World War II, women assumed jobs formerly occupied by men, becoming truck drivers, stevedores, and welders. The same was reflected into the comic books, as heroes such as Hawkman needed help and turned to their wives or girlfriends, creating a new form of heroines: the partners. Many women after World War II refused to give up their newfound freedom, creating a massive crisis in formerly assumed definitions of masculinity and femininity. The

femme fatale A ''femme fatale'' ( or ; ), sometimes called a maneater or vamp, is a stock character of a mysterious, beautiful, and seductive woman whose charms ensnare her lovers, often leading them into compromising, deadly traps. She is an archetype of ...

(prevalent in '' The Spirit'' comic book) exemplified this crisis: a strong, sexually aggressive woman who refused to stay in her traditional "proper" place. This post-war tension affected the comic book industry directly when a Senate Subcommittee was created to address a perceived rise of juvenile delinquency. Influenced largely by Fredric Wertham's book published that same year, '' Seduction of the Innocent'', a public hearing was held to determine if juvenile delinquency and comic books were linked. Wertham had specifically attacked the portrayal of many comic book women, stating: "They are not homemakers. They do not bring up a family. Mother-love is entirely absent... Even when Wonder Woman adopts a girl there are Lesbian overtones". Comic books were deemed to be a threat to the standards of American decency, and instead of undergoing government regulation, the Comics Magazine Association of America agreed to create and adhere to its own code of self-censorship. The code explicitly censors violence, sexuality and "abnormal" romance for the implicit purpose of "emphasiz ngthe value of the home and the sanctity of marriage" and a reenforcement of traditional gender roles.

Silver Age of Comic Books

Between 1961 and 1963, one of the top two comic book genres was romance comics. Many influences from this genre overlapped in the superhero comics of the era. Although superhero titles would eventually become the leading genre, DC Comics' Young Romance would end its thirty-year run in 1977. After the implementation of the Comics Code, DC Comics implemented its own in-house Editorial Policy Code regarding the portrayal of women, which stated: "The inclusion of females in stories is specifically discouraged. Women, when used in plot structure, should be secondary in importance, and should be drawn realistically, without exaggeration of feminine physical qualities".Uslan, Michael. ''Batman in the Fifties'' (2002) Introduction, p.5. , 2002 Most of DC's Silver Age superheroes each had a major female supporting character. These included three career women: journalist Lois Lane, who worked at ''The Daily Planet'' with

's alter ego, Clark Kent;

Jean Loring Jean Loring is a character appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, formerly associated with the Atom, for whom she was a supporting character and primary love interest. She first appeared in ''Showcase'' #34 (October 1961), created by writ ...

, lawyer and girlfriend of

Ray Palmer Ray Palmer may refer to: * Raymond A. Palmer, science-fiction writer and editor * Raymond F. Palmer, medical professor * Ray Palmer (pastor), American pastor and author of hymns * Ray Palmer (Arrowverse), a TV show character based on his comic boo ...

a.k.a. The Atom; and aircraft manufacturer executive Carol Ferris, the boss of Green Lantern's alter ego, Hal Jordan. Iris West was the on-again, off-again girlfriend of the Flash's alter ego, Barry Allen. Batman's supporting cast, beginning in the 1950s, occasionally included journalist Vicki Vale and heiress Kathy Kane, whose alter ego was the motorcycle-riding masked crimefighter

Batwoman Batwoman is a name used by several characters of DC Comics, both in mainstream continuity and Elseworlds. The best known Batwomen are Batwoman (Kathy Kane), Kathy Kane and Kate Kane. History * The first Batwoman (Kathy Kane), Batwoman, Kathy Ka ...

. With a tip of her cowl to the Harvey Comics character the

Black Cat A black cat is a domestic cat with black fur that may be a mixed or specific breed, or a common domestic cat of no particular breed. The Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) recognizes 22 cat breeds that can come with solid black coats. The Bombay b ...

, who preceded her by 15 years as a superheroine on a motorcycle, Batwoman used weapons as well, although hers included powder puffs, charm bracelets, perfume, a hair net, a compact mirror, and a shoulder bag utility case with matching bolo strap. During this time frame, the comics of the Silver Age of Comic Books published by Marvel and DC were different enough that if someone liked one, they were liable not to like the other. If they wanted the classic feel of the original 1940s superheroes, they would prefer DC offerings. If they wanted fast action mixed with the emotional angst reflecting a world where social unrest was slowly coming to a boil, they were more likely to read the Marvel offerings. When

Atlas Comics Atlas Comics may refer to * Atlas Comics (1950s) Atlas Comics is the 1950s comic book, comic-book publishing label that evolved into Marvel Comics. Magazine and mass market paperback, paperback novel publisher Martin Goodman (publisher), Martin ...

became Marvel Comics in 1961, many brand new women superheroes were introduced; these superheroes were given supporting roles. The first female superhero from the newly named Marvel Comics was the

Invisible Girl The Invisible Woman (Susan "Sue" Storm-Richards) is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a founding member of the Fantastic Four and was the first female superhero created by Marvel dur ...

, a.k.a. Susan Storm, charter member of the Fantastic Four. Although female characters would develop and become cornerstones of the Marvel Universe, their early treatment would show a struggle to be recognized as equals. Supergirl of DC Comics went through such a struggle as she fights against the title of "Superman's kid cousin" to earn her own title as Power Girl.

Bronze Age of Comic Books

The Bronze Age of Comics reflected many of the feminist tensions of the era. The number of female characters, both heroes and villains, increased substantially in the 1970s, in response to the feminist movement, and in an attempt to diversify readership.Wright, p. 250 However, these characters were often stereotypical, such as the man-hating Thundra or angry-feminist parody Man-killer. Meanwhile in the underground comix circle The Women's Liberation Basement Press published a one-shot comic titled '' It Ain't Me, Babe'' in 1970 that featured many of the most famous female comic icons. This would evolve into '' Wimmen's Comix'', an underground anthology series that would run through 1992, dealing with many controversial women's issues. Other all-female underground anthology series soon followed, the most notable being '' Tits & Clits Comix'' and '' Twisted Sisters'', as well as the one-shot ''Mama! Dramas'', published by Educomics. The character Ms. Marvel is an example of Marvel's struggle with the issues of feminism. Debuting in 1977 at the height of the women's liberation movement, with the honorific " Ms." part of her

cryptonym A code name, call sign or cryptonym is a Code word (figure of speech), code word or name used, sometimes clandestinely, to refer to another name, word, project, or person. Code names are often used for military purposes, or in espionage. They may ...

, the heroine's name was a strong symbol of

feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...

solidarity, as was her civilian job as editor of ''Woman'' magazine (a reference to the then-new ''

Ms. Magazine ''Ms.'' is an American feminist magazine co-founded in 1971 by journalist and social/political activist Gloria Steinem. It was the first national American feminist magazine. The original editors were Letty Cottin Pogrebin, Mary Thom, Patricia Ca ...

''). The first couple of issues of her self-titled comic book even included the cover line "This Female Fights Back!" The reality, however, was decidedly mixed. The controversial Ms. Marvel rape was handled poorly by Marvel Comics: Ms. Marvel was the victim of a man's attempt to escape from Limbo, and gave birth to the child of the man that raped her; her teammates were confused as to why she would not want the child, and she subsequently fell in love with him and moved into Limbo with him. Chris Claremont, a writer most famous for the ''Uncanny X-Men'' series, shared in the disgust in the misogynistic treatment of Danvers in that story and wrote a follow-up in response. Danvers, who has returned to Earth and is living at Professor Charles Xavier's school, is visited by The Avengers. At that meeting, Danvers rebukes the team for their treatment at her being raped and manipulated by Marcus while they were being complicit in that violation, condemning it as a betrayal by them, which the team comes to agree to their profound chagrin. Throughout most of the Silver and Bronze Age, women in comics were not given leadership positions. In the 1980s, under writer-artist John Byrne, Susan Richards found new uses for her powers and developed an assertive self-confidence to use her powers more aggressively. She changed her alias from the Invisible Girl to the Invisible Woman. Eventually, the Invisible Woman would chair the Fantastic Four, while over in the Avengers, Wasp chaired the team. Enormous impact was made both within comic book storylines and amongst comic book fans by the radical portrayal of women in the '' Uncanny X-Men'' comics, which had been relaunched in 1975. Previously existing female characters were given huge increases in power-levels, new code-names, flashier costumes, and strong, confident, assertive personalities: Jean Grey went from being Marvel Girl to the nigh-omnipotent Phoenix, and Lorna Dane became Polaris. New creation Storm (Ororo Monroe) was unique in many ways: not only was she (at the time) the most famous black superhero in history, she was portrayed as incredibly powerful, confident and capable from her very first appearance. Younger/teen-age female super-heroines, which heretofore had been portrayed as inept or limited in power, were re-examined by the portrayal of Kitty Pryde, who at age 13 became the youngest member of the X-Men. In the 1980s, the X-Men met with the Morlock tribe, who kidnapped Kitty Pryde and forced her to marry one of their own. When Kitty escapes, she meets with a Japanese Sorcerer who uses mind control on her and she escapes from him as well, but changed greatly. Much credit for the "turnaround" of portrayals of female super-heroes that happened in the 1970s could be given to X-Men writer

Chris Claremont Christopher S. Claremont (; born November 25, 1950) is a British-born American comic book writer and novelist, known for his 17-year stint on ''Uncanny X-Men'' from 1975 to 1991, far longer than that of any other writer,Claremont, Chris. ''Marvel ...

: his portrayals of Storm, Jean Grey, Emma Frost, Kitty Pryde, Rogue and Psylocke in The Uncanny X-Men (as well as his work on Ms. Marvel, Spider-Woman, Misty Knight and Coleen Wing) became known in the industry and amongst fandom as "Claremont Women": smart, powerful, capable, multi-faceted women super heroes. During the events of Alan Moore's iconic work '' Batman: The Killing Joke'',

Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly in association with the superhero Batman. The character was created by television producer William Dozier, editor Julius Schwartz, writer Gardne ...

, a.k.a.

Batgirl Batgirl is the name of several superheroines appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, depicted as female counterparts and allies to the superhero Batman. Although the character Betty Kane was introduced into publication in ...

is crippled by the Joker. She eventually made the best of her situation to become Oracle, a vital information broker for the DC Universe's superhero community who also leads her own superhero team, the Birds of Prey.

Modern Age of Comic Books

In the

90s The 90s ran from 90 AD to 99 AD. Significant people * Titus Flavius Domitianus, Roman Emperor (AD 81– 96) * Nerva, Roman Emperor (AD 96 AD 96 ( XCVI) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Jul ...

, a popular feminist comic book girl was

Tank Girl ''Tank Girl'' is a British comic book character created by Alan Martin and Jamie Hewlett, and first appeared in print in 1988 in the British comics magazine ''Deadline''. After a period of intense popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s, ...

(by

Jamie Hewlett Jamie Christopher Hewlett (born 3 April 1968) is an English comic book creator, illustrator, music video director, and songwriter. He is the co-creator of the comic book ''Tank Girl'' with Alan Martin and co-creator of the virtual band Gorilla ...

and Alan Martin), who sported punk-influenced clothing and a shaved head. Her popularity in '' Deadline'' magazine was such that

a movie ''A Movie'' (styled as ''A MOVIE'') is a 1958 experimental collage film by American artist Bruce Conner. It combines pieces of found footage taken from various sources such as newsreels, soft-core pornography, and B movies, all set to a score ...

was eventually made. She represented the new modern woman as one who no longer had to live under traditional images of beauty or manners. Due to the fan–based nature of the comic book industry, many of the readers feel, either directly or indirectly, that they are involved in a social practice.By Jeffrey A. Brown, ''Black Superheroes: Milestone Comics and Their Fans'', p. 129, 2001, University Press of Mississippi, The attachment to the titles and the characters obtains a life all its own. There is a sense of social contact with the books and the characters themselves. A unique relationship is developed by the reader upon adopting these properties. This relationship has various effects in the way women are presented in comic books. This portrayal would be put to the test in the

Modern Age The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also called modern history or modern times) is the period of history that succeeds the Middle Ages (which ended approximately 1500 AD). This terminology is a historical periodization that is applie ...

. While there were many examples of strong female characters getting their own titles it was not uncommon that sex was used to sell comics as well. In the 21st century, the roles of many women have changed. Roles and choices such as single parenting, same-sex relationships, and positions of power in the workplace have come to define many women in modern society. These roles have found their way into the comic books of the 21st century as well. Lesbianism has become increasingly common in modern comic books. In 2006, DC Comics could still draw widespread media attention by announcing a new, lesbian incarnation of the well-known character

, even though openly lesbian minor characters such as Gotham City police officer Renee Montoya already existed in the franchise (Renee would become the new Question in the same story arch revealing the new Batwoman, and in fact the two were past lovers). In 1999, a new website was launched entitled " Women in Refrigerators". It featured a list of female comic book characters who had been injured, killed, or depowered within various superhero comic books and sought to analyze why these plot devices were used disproportionately on female characters. Portrayals of women characters as sex objects continues to attract comment and controversy: in 2007, Sideshow Collectibles produced a 14.25-inch "comiquette" statuette designed by

Adam Hughes Adam Hughes (born May 5, 1967) is an American comics artist and illustrator best known to American comic book readers for his renderings of pinup-style female characters, and his cover work on titles such as ''Wonder Woman'' and ''Catwoman''. H ...

that appeared to depict Mary Jane hand-washing Peter Parker's

Spider-Man Spider-Man is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko, he first appeared in the anthology comic book '' Amazing Fantasy'' #15 (August 1962) in the ...

costume. The statuette has received criticism for MJ's ostensibly highly sexualized and objectifying pose. Harley Quinn of DC Comics is most famously known for her torrid love affair with the Joker and her sex appeal to the male audience. Even if a female character isn't sexualized, there are still characteristics reflecting traditional definitions of womanhood. There is a habit amongst cartoonists when they characterize their animals as females. Around the 1980s was when the oversexualization of both males and females rose. Males became even taller, muscular, and smarter. Females, too, became taller, but only in the legs. Their breast proportions became exaggerated, as well as their waists. Characterizations of women as sex objects has declined in recent decades, and depictions of women as victims of physical brutality have significantly decreased over the past 20 years. Additionally, recent comics indicate a possible reversal of the trend of portraying characters according to rigid gender stereotypes.

Critical analysis

Overview

Prior to the Silver age of comics, comic books of all genres were available, including romance, adventure, crime, science fiction and many others. This began to change in the late 1950s and continued into the 80s, and as the superhero genre grew, others shrunk. This also began the marginalization of female voices in comics. The portrayals of female characters and superheroes were targeted towards a predominantly male demographic, rather than towards female readers. Male creators did not focus on what women wanted to read about, and therefore didn't try very hard to include female stories. Although many female superheroes were created and featured in comics, very few starred in their own series or achieved stand-alone success outside straightforward erotic works. Most female heroines in comic books were merely supporting characters; for example, the Wasp and the Invisible Girl were both introduced as team characters, fighting alongside male superheroes, and Batgirl and Catwoman both debuted as supporting characters in the Batman comics. Wonder Woman is the only female heroine studied who earned her own comic book title.Dunne, Maryjane: "The Representation of Women in Comic Books, Post WWII Through the Radical 60s". ''PSU McNair Scholars Online Journal'' 2.1 (2006): 1-13. Web. 19 Dec. 2016. It has been debated whether the perceived lack of female readership was due to male writers being uncomfortable with writing about or for women, or whether the comic book industry is male dominated due to actual lack of women's interest in comics.

Introduction of the Comics Code Authority

There is a historical context for the lack of female representation in comics. In 1954, the comics industry was attacked by parents, psychologists, and politicians who were concerned that comic books were unfit for children. Superheroines, who had made their debut in 1941, were criticized for violating gender norms and for perceived

lesbian A lesbian is a Homosexuality, homosexual woman.Zimmerman, p. 453. The word is also used for women in relation to their sexual identity or sexual behavior, regardless of sexual orientation, or as an adjective to characterize or associate n ...

and sadomasochistic content. In response to the threat of government regulation, the

Comics Magazine Association of America The Association of Comics Magazine Publishers (ACMP) was an American industry trade group formed in the late 1940s to regulate the content of comic books in the face of public criticism during that time. It was a precursor to the Comics Magazine As ...

imitated the film industry's self-governed Hays Code with the creation of the Comics Code Authority in 1954. The code limited content of all newsstand comic books. As a result, code-approved comics portrayed women in a mostly conservative, traditional manner for the next few decades. As social norms changed, the code was occasionally revised to be less restrictive. As the

direct market The direct market is the dominant distribution and retail network for American comic books. The concept of the direct market was created in the 1970s by Phil Seuling. The network currently consists of: * four major comic distributors: ** Lunar ...

developed in the early 1980s, publishers were able to sell comics without code approval easily, so fewer publishers subjected themselves to it. The code became less important until it was completely abandoned in 2011.

Feminism in comics

The enforcement of gender roles within comics continued well past the 1950s. The roles of women in comics during the 1960s and 70s shifted to become more diverse and began to extend past traditional roles as a result of the civil rights movement, second wave feminism, and the sexual revolution, when more women in society were taking on predominantly male professions and advocating for social rights. In the 1970s, female characters in comics and other mainstream media were sometimes depicted as "playing with the boys" and taking more traditionally male-dominated roles, though they still tended to be cast as love interests or to take maternal roles. Prominent superheroines that were introduced during this period in comics were Spider-Woman, Ms. Marvel, the Cat, and Valkyrie. Despite the industry's historically and culturally backed creation of a male-dominated market, there has been an increase in female readership, as well as an increase in

convention Convention may refer to: * Convention (norm), a custom or tradition, a standard of presentation or conduct ** Treaty, an agreement in international law * Convention (meeting), meeting of a (usually large) group of individuals and/or companies in a ...

attendance by women. In addition to historical censorship, the male domination of comic book culture has been self-perpetuating. The view that comic book reading was a hobby strictly for males created a hostile environment for the female comic book reader. Women that read comics were often viewed as "doing womanhood wrong" or as individuals that "read comics wrong". This led to a cyclical pattern of hostility towards females in the comic book audience. Author Douglas Wolk states: "I remember seeing a Marvel sales plan, sometime in the early '90s--a huge document, several hundred pages long; near the back, a little section labeled "Female Readers" listed the two titles Marvel published for half of their potential audience: Barbie and Barbie Fashion". In the 1980s there was a shift in the way comics were written; instead of treating each issue of a comic as if it were the reader's first issue, or an "on ramp", as it had been done previously, comics began to be written in a way that demanded continuous readership from the beginning of a series in order for the plot to be understood. It is possible that this may have led to a further decline in female readership, as the female readers that might have tried to start during this era would find themselves confused and lost. Carol Danvers, a superhero who has been known as Ms. Marvel, Binary, and Captain Marvel, is one of Marvel's most popular female superheroes, and has been considered a feminist icon. She is considered one of the strongest superheroes created by Marvel.

Sexualized superheroes

During the late 1980s, comics had undergone a stylistic shift in terms of character proportions. The sexual characteristics of comic book characters became more exaggerated, which affected both male and female characters. Male characters were typically drawn with bigger muscles, smaller heads, broader shoulders and chests. Female characters developed larger breasts and rears, very thin waists, longer legs, large lips, and more revealing costumes. While male characters generally had a variety of poses, females often were drawn in suggestive poses that further accentuated their breasts and rears. Female characters that were deemed to represent feminist views were also portrayed in a sexualized manner. For example, when Black Widow was first introduced in the 1964 comic, '' Tales of Suspense'' #52, she wears a green dress, tight-fitting but with minimal cleavage and accentuation of her rear. She also wears a brown fur shawl on top, which covers much of her body, and keeps a hat on with her hair tied back. In the 2019 comic series, ''The Web of Black Widow'', she also wears a form-fitting green dress; however, this one is very low cut both at the front and at the back, with substantial cleavage. She also frequently pulls her dress up in a suggestive manner. The trend has become the target of satire by feminists, especially on websites like "

The Hawkeye Initiative The Hawkeye Initiative is a satirical Tumblr page similar to Women in Refrigerators that comments on the depiction and treatment of female characters and superheroes in comic books. The site features fan art of Marvel character Hawkeye (Clint Bar ...

Independent comics

Many female readers sway towards independent works, where there is a lot more female representation. The independent comics industry, whose products are often referred to as indies, have become a huge source of authentically represented females in comics. More women than ever before are becoming comic book artists and writers, and many of them have flocked to the independent industry. This, combined with a large female readership, has resulted in greatly increased numbers of female-driven stories in this industry.

Manga Manga (Japanese: 漫画 ) are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long prehistory in earlier Japanese art. The term ''manga'' is u ...

, another form of graphic novel, has also led to a rise in female readership of comics. The trend towards hyper-sexualized female characters in mainstream comics is part of the reason that independent comics have become so popular among women; independent artists, regardless of gender, tend to draw both male and female characters in a similar style. When those characters do have noticeable sex characteristics, such as breasts or broader shoulders, they are not exaggerated to the point that they are in the mainstream comic book industry.

LGBTQ superheroes

Recently LGBTQ superheroes are becoming more prevalent and available. In 2011 ''Batwoman'' title DC reinvented Batwoman from a casual sidekick in need of saving to an independent lesbian superheroine. This version fights back against female stereotypes, and lacks the traditional female superhero physique. Her body sports more muscles and less chest and hip padding. She also lacks the traditional long flowing hair, instead sporting a short cut. She fights the more grotesque images of womanhood including the gorgons, her undead mother, and the ghost of her previous incarnation. In 2016,

was announced by Greg Rucka, comic book writer, to be bisexual. Although, in her early comics, Wonder Woman was known to have possible same-sex attraction subtext, her sexuality was downplayed afterwards.

Black women in comics

Black women did not start appearing regularly in comic books until the 1970s, in the

Bronze Age of comic books The Bronze Age of Comic Books is an informal name for a period in the history of American superhero American comic book, comic books usually said to run from 1970 to 1985. It follows the Silver Age of Comic Books and is followed by the Modern Ag ...

. One of the first black female superheroes, and one of the most popular female black superheroes to this day, was Storm of the X-Men, who had the power to control the weather. She first appeared in 1975. In several reincarnations of the X-Men, she is the leader.

Captain Marvel (Monica Rambeau) Monica Rambeau is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Roger Stern and artist John Romita Jr., the character debuted in '' The Amazing Spider-Man Annual'' #16 (October 1982). Monica ...

first appeared in 1982, and received her own comic in 1989. Captain Marvel had the power to transform herself into any form of energy, and obtains the properties of that energy. She has also joined

the Avengers Avenger, Avengers, The Avenger, or The Avengers may refer to: Arts and entertainment In the Marvel Comics universe * Avengers (comics), a team of superheroes ** Avengers (Marvel Cinematic Universe), a central team of protagonist superheroes o ...

on several occasions. There are several other characters who have the name Captain Marvel, one of the most famous being Carol Danvers, who is white. Despite the growth of black females in comic books after the Civil Rights Movement, there still continues to be a lack of black women in comic books. When black women are represented in comic books, they are often not fully human, like Storm, and are given stereotyped features and powers. Oftentimes, black comic book characters are stereotyped with ghetto characteristics. Black people in comics are also more likely to be considered sidekicks rather than superheroes, and they are less likely to have their own comic series about them.

Latina women in comics

The earliest Latino superheroes were The Cisco Kid and Zorro, who were introduced in short comic stories in the early 1900s. Latino roles in comics are often as side-characters that are of little importance to the plot. An exception was done in 1942, when Señorita Rio (Ritta Farrar) became the first Latina character to appear in American comics. She made her first appearance in Fiction House's ''Fight Comics'' #19. She was a rising Hollywood actress and stuntwoman, until she faked her death and became a secret agent to avenge the death of her fiancé. Her abilities include acting, singing, and dancing, as well as being skilled in Ju-Jitsu and fencing. Latinos began to appear in comic books in the 1970s, but the characters were mainly male and were associated with street life. This includes popular superheroes like White Tiger and El Aguila (The Eagle), as well as villains Senor Muerte/Senor Suerte, El Jaguar, and Cheetah. The only notable female character at the time was Fire (Beatriz da Costa), who was introduced by DC Comics in 1979. She started as a model in Rio de Janeiro before becoming an undercover agent for the Brazilian government. In one of her missions, she was exposed to pyroclastic explosions, which gave her fire-based super-human powers. Latina women did not have many appearances in comics until 1981, when Latino brothers Jaime, Mario, and Gilbert Hernandez published the first issue of Love and Rockets. In their ''Hoppers 13'' (aka ''Locas'') stories, most of the characters were prominently Chicano teenagers. Their most notable characters were Margarita "Maggie" Luisa Chascarrillo and Esperanza "Hopey" Leticia Glass, who were on an on-and-off romantic basis with each other. In the late 1980s, both Marvel and DC comics decided that they wanted to include more diversity in their characters. Thus, popular superheroes began to be re-cast with different ethnicities. This includes Wildcat, whose alter ego was initially Ted Grant, but was later temporarily replaced by his goddaughter

Yolanda Montez Wildcat (DC Comics), Wildcat (Yolanda Montez) is a fictional superheroine in DC Comics' shared universe, the DC universe. Her first appearance was in ''Infinity Inc.'' #12 (March 1985) and she was created by Roy Thomas, Dannette Thomas and Don Ne ...

. However, in this comic book age, more Latino superheroes were more acclaimed than Latina superheroes. More originally created Latina characters began to appear in the 1990s and 2000s, including commonly known characters such as Renee Montoya, Anya Corazon (Spider-Girl), and Lorena Marquez (Aquagirl).

Currently, the most mainstream Latina superhero is Miss America (America Chavez). She was first introduced in the Marvel Comics by writers

Joe Casey Joe Casey is an American comic book writer. He has worked on titles such as '' Wildcats 3.0'', ''Uncanny X-Men'', '' The Intimates'', '' Adventures of Superman'', and '' G.I. Joe: America's Elite'' among others. As part of the comics creator grou ...

and Nick Dragotta in 2013, but became so acclaimed that she was given her own series written by openly gay writer Gabby Rivera. Though Chavez is claimed to be a Puerto Rican, she has no actual biological roots to Latin America. She grew up in a Utopian Parallel, a reality that is out of time and in the presence of the being known as the Demiurge, and had two mothers. What is most notable about Chavez' character is that although she is illustrated as the conventional beautiful and young female superhero, she is also given masculine characteristics, including super strength and marksmanship. Latina women in comics have created a positive societal impact. When Hurricane Maria devastated Puerto Rico in September 2017, comic book writers and artists contributed in making an anthology called ''Ricanstruction: Reminiscing & Rebuiliding Puerto Rico''.

Edgardo Miranda-Rodriguez Edgardo Miranda-Rodriguez (born June 21, 1970) is a writer at Marvel Entertainment, Editor-in-Chief at Darryl Makes Comics LLC, Art Director/Owner at Somos Arte and Studio Edgardo creative services, and creator of ''La Borinqueña'', an original c ...

produced and wrote some of the stories in the comics, and included his original character La Borinqueña fighting along well-known superheroes. Marisol Rios De La Luz, aka La Borinqueña, is an Afro-Boricua Earth and Environmentalist college student that later discovers her powers and abilities to fly, dive, use super strength, and control storms. 100% of the proceeds contribute to the reconstruction and the hurricane relief of Puerto Rico.

Moving forward

The portrayal of women in comics is still highly contested. Despite the more realistic portrayal of women in independent comics, the mainstream comic book industry still sometimes struggles with portraying women realistically. There continues to be a difference in the way female superheroes are treated (by both their on-page counterparts and their writers) when compared to male superheroes of the same caliber. However, more recently steps have been made towards equality and de-sexualization with specific stories and comics. There is a distinct effort being made by some to address these issues; there is a Gender in Comics panel at San Diego Comic Con which, in 2014, "included noted comic book journalists, editors, writers and behind-the-scenes figures all currently working to further awareness of the gender issues within the comic book industry". One of the panelists, Laura Hudson, said this in regards to gender roles in comics and the criticism that they are facing:

The panel spoke about how ingrained a lot of these false gender-based ideas have become thanks to decades of unchallenged existence. "A metaphor I use a lot is it's like working in a bell factory.... If you work in the bell factory long enough you stop hearing the bells. I think super hero comics has stopped hearing the bells for a long time, but now you have other people coming in from the outside and he gender issues in super hero comics arevery apparent. Having the Internet, having these other perspectives that are suddenly in front of us and are not subject to gatekeepers and are far more able to be heard exposes a lot of hese issues.SDCC: Gender in Comics, by Brett White. Published Aug 11, 2014. https://www.cbr.com/sdcc-gender-in-comics/

Notes

''Wonder Woman'' #7 (Winter 1943)
"The Secret City of the Incas", ''Sensation Comics'' #18 (June 1943)
"The Unbound Amazon", ''Sensation Comics'' #19 (June 1943)

References

;Specific ;General * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Portrayal Of Women In Comics History of American comics Depictions of people in comics Women and comics Women in the United States