Nabataean religion
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The Nabataean religion was a form of
Arab polytheism The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, No ...
practiced in
Nabataea The Nabataean Kingdom (Nabataean Aramaic: 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 ''Nabāṭū''), also named Nabatea (), was a political state of the Arab Nabataeans during classical antiquity. The Nabataean Kingdom controlled many of the trade routes of the region, ...
, an ancient Arab nation which was well settled by the third century BCE and lasted until the Roman annexation in 106 CE.Patrich, Joseph. The Formation of Nabataean Art: Prohibition of a Graven Image Among the Nabateans. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1990. Print. The Nabateans were
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
and worshipped a wide variety of local gods as well as Baalshamin,
Isis Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingd ...
, and Greco-Roman gods such as
Tyche Tyche (; Ancient Greek: Τύχη ''Túkhē'', 'Luck', , ; Roman equivalent: Fortuna) was the presiding tutelary deity who governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny. In Classical Greek mythology, she is the daughter of Aphrodite a ...
and
Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Romans ...
. They worshipped their gods at temples, high places, and betyls. They were mostly
aniconic Aniconism is the absence of artistic representations (''icons'') of the natural and supernatural worlds, or it is the absence of representations of certain figures in religions. It is a feature of various cultures, particularly of cultures which a ...
and preferred to decorate their sacred places with geometric designs. Much knowledge of the Nabataeans’
grave goods Grave goods, in archaeology and anthropology, are the items buried along with the body. They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods may be classed as a ...
has been lost due to extensive looting throughout history. They made sacrifices to their gods, performed other rituals and believed in an afterlife.


Gods and goddesses

Most of the deities in Nabataean religion were part of the pre-Islamic Arab pantheon, with the addition of foreign deities such as
Isis Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingd ...
and
Atargatis Atargatis (; grc, Ἀτάργατις, translit=Atárgatis or arc, , translit=ʿtrʿth; syc, ܬܪܥܬܐ, translit=Tarʿaṯā) was the chief goddess of northern Syria in Classical antiquity. Ctesias also used the name Derketo ( grc-koi, Δε ...
.
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
, a
Nabataean The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Lev ...
deity whose name means, "Lord of the Mountain", he was widely worshiped in
Petra Petra ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرَاء, Al-Batrāʾ; grc, Πέτρα, "Rock", Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: ), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu or Raqēmō, is an historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan. It is adjacent to t ...
.
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
is venerated as a supreme god by the
Nabataeans The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic language, Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabian Pe ...
, oftentimes he is referred as "Dushara and all the gods".Healey, John F. The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus. Leiden: EJ. Brill, 2001. He is considered the god of the
Nabataean The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Lev ...
royal house. The fall of the
Nabatean The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Lev ...
royal house to the
Romans Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
, caused the religion to be cast aside and its main deity lost. It was then that
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
was associated with other gods, like
Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Romans ...
,
Zeus Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label=Genitive case, genitive Aeolic Greek, Boeotian Aeolic and Doric Greek#Laconian, Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label=Genitive case, genitive el, Δίας, ''D ...
, and
Helios In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Helios (; grc, , , Sun; Homeric Greek: ) is the deity, god and personification of the Sun (Solar deity). His name is also Latinized as Helius, and he is often given the epithets Hyper ...
.
Manāt ( ar, مناة  pausa, or Old Arabic manawat; also transliterated as ') was a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshiped in the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam and the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. She was among Mec ...
, she was known as the goddess of fate, and was worshipped by the followers for rain and victory over enemies. She was the wife of god
Hubal In Arabian mythology, Hubal ( ar, هُبَل) was a god worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia, notably by the Quraysh at the Kaaba in Mecca. The god's idol was a human figure believed to control acts of divination, which was performed by tossing ar ...
.
Allat Al-Lat ( ar, اللات, translit=Al-Lāt, ), also spelled Allat, Allatu and Alilat, is a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshipped under various associations throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca where she was worshipped alongs ...
, who is referred to as "the great goddess who is in Iram". She is widely known in Northern Arabia and Syria, the deity is associated with the goddess
Athena Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of ...
in the Hawran. Allat is venerated in
Palmyra Palmyra (; Palmyrene: () ''Tadmor''; ar, تَدْمُر ''Tadmur'') is an ancient city in present-day Homs Governorate, Syria. Archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period, and documents first mention the city in the early second ...
, her temple had no sign of performing blood rituals. It is believed that Allat and
Al-Uzza Al-ʻUzzā ( ar, العزى or Old Arabic l ʕuzzeː was one of the three chief goddesses of Arabian religion in pre-Islamic times and she was worshiped by the pre-Islamic Arabs along with al-Lāt and Manāt. A stone cube at Nakhla (near M ...
were once a single deity, which parted ways in the pre-Islamic Meccan tradition. Pre-Islamic Arabs believed that the goddesses Al-lāt, Al-‘Uzzá, and
Manāt ( ar, مناة  pausa, or Old Arabic manawat; also transliterated as ') was a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshiped in the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam and the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. She was among Mec ...
were the daughters of Allah though Nabataean inscriptions also describe her as Allah's wife instead. The Nabatean inscriptions also call her and Al-'Uzza as the "bride of Dushara".
Al-'Uzza Al-ʻUzzā ( ar, العزى or Old Arabic l ʕuzzeː was one of the three chief goddesses of Arabian religion in pre-Islamic times and she was worshiped by the pre-Islamic Arabs along with al-Lāt and Manāt. A stone cube at Nakhla (near ...
, in Arabic her name is believed to mean "the mightiest one". She is venerated in the city of
Petra Petra ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرَاء, Al-Batrāʾ; grc, Πέτρα, "Rock", Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: ), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu or Raqēmō, is an historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan. It is adjacent to t ...
. Her cult is mainly focused on the Quraysh and the Hurad valley north of Mecca. The goddess is connected with a type of
betyl Baetylus (also Baetyl, Bethel, or Betyl, from Semitic ''bet el'' "house of god"; compare Bethel, Beit El) are sacred stones that were supposedly endowed with life, or gave access to a deity. According to ancient sources, at least some of these ...
with star-like eyes. Al-'Uzza is associated with the Greco-Roman goddess
Aphrodite Aphrodite ( ; grc-gre, Ἀφροδίτη, Aphrodítē; , , ) is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, and procreation. She was syncretized with the Roman goddess . Aphrodite's major symbols include ...
. Pre-Islamic Arabs believed her to be one of the daughters of Allah alongside Al-lāt and Manāt. Alongside, Allat she is called the "bride of Dushara" in some Nabataean inscriptions. Al-Kutbay, one of the lesser known deities of the Nabataeans. The deity is said to have a temple in Gaia and was also venerated in Iram. There is confusion when it comes to deciding whether this deity is masculine or feminine. In Gaia, the deity is believed to be female and is therefore called Al-Kutbay. There are instances when the deity is believed to be masculine, for example in Qusrawet in Egypt, and the deity is called Kutba. The majority of the evidence leads to believe that this deity is female, for there are betyls of Al-Kutba that are similar in design to those of Al-'Uzza. Baalshamin, a Syrian deity who becomes a Nabataean god with the expansion of Nabataea into Southern Syria. His named means "Lord of Heaven", associating the deity with the skies. He is said to originate from the storm god Hadad, who was worshiped in Syria and Mesopotamia. As a deity that deals with the heavens, he is identified by many as a version of
Zeus Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label=Genitive case, genitive Aeolic Greek, Boeotian Aeolic and Doric Greek#Laconian, Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label=Genitive case, genitive el, Δίας, ''D ...
. There is a temple dedicated to Baalshamin at Si, which seems to have been the center of a pilgrimage. Qos, an ancient
Edomite Edom (; Edomite: ; he, אֱדוֹם , lit.: "red"; Akkadian: , ; Ancient Egyptian: ) was an ancient kingdom in Transjordan, located between Moab to the northeast, the Arabah to the west, and the Arabian Desert to the south and east. ...
deity, which was worshiped at Tannur. There's an association with the god
Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
and with lightning.
Hubal In Arabian mythology, Hubal ( ar, هُبَل) was a god worshipped in pre-Islamic Arabia, notably by the Quraysh at the Kaaba in Mecca. The god's idol was a human figure believed to control acts of divination, which was performed by tossing ar ...
, A deity worshiped in the Ka'bah at Mecca. It is said followers would go to the deity seeking answers to questions of lineage, marriage, and death. A sacrifice would take place to honor the god, there would be seven arrows of divination, these would be thrown and the answer would be one of the carved words on the side of the arrows. Manotu, this deity is mentioned on the tomb inscriptions at Hegra. Her name is mentioned alongside Dushara, and is used as a warning to their curse. She is believed to be the same as the goddess
Manāt ( ar, مناة  pausa, or Old Arabic manawat; also transliterated as ') was a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshiped in the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam and the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. She was among Mec ...
of the Kaaba of Mecca who was one of the daughters of Allah.
Isis Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingd ...
, foreign deity to the Nabataeans, she is originally an Egyptian goddess. She is represented by a throne at times. The goddess is seen in Petra's Khazneh, as well as the Temple of the Winged Lions.
Atargatis Atargatis (; grc, Ἀτάργατις, translit=Atárgatis or arc, , translit=ʿtrʿth; syc, ܬܪܥܬܐ, translit=Tarʿaṯā) was the chief goddess of northern Syria in Classical antiquity. Ctesias also used the name Derketo ( grc-koi, Δε ...
, she is a foreign deity to the Nabataeans, her cult center at
Hierapolis Hierapolis (; grc, Ἱεράπολις, lit. "Holy City") was originally a Phrygian cult centre of the Anatolian mother goddess of Cybele and later a Greek city. Its location was centred upon the remarkable and copious hot springs in classica ...
and is venerated in Khirbet et-Tannur; she is referred to as the grain goddess and other times as the fish goddess.Alpass, Peter. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, Leiden, NLD:Brill, 2013 She is seen seated between two lions at times. Atargatis is also connected to the betyl with star-like eyes. Shay'-al-Qawn, believed to be the protector of caravans and soldiers, people that would travel. It is said that his followers disapproved of wine. Obodat, believed to be a deified king of the Nabataeans, it is not clear whether this would be Obodas I, II, or III. His association with the royal family leads to believe that he had a private cult.
Tyche Tyche (; Ancient Greek: Τύχη ''Túkhē'', 'Luck', , ; Roman equivalent: Fortuna) was the presiding tutelary deity who governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny. In Classical Greek mythology, she is the daughter of Aphrodite a ...
, Nabataean goddess, often accompanied by the zodiac signs found in Khirbet-et-Tannur. She is often depicted with wings, the walls of a city for a crown and holding horns of plenty.Glueck, Nelson. The Zodiac of Khirbet et-Tannûr. Boston, MA : American Schools of Oriental Research,1952


External influences on gods/goddesses

The majority of the Nabataean gods were foreign; they were adopted by the Nabataeans. Many of the Nabataean deities were being connected with Greco-Roman gods and goddesses, especially during the time that Nabataea was under Roman influence. The goddess
Isis Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingd ...
, is an Egyptian deity that was not only seen in Nabataean religion but also Greek and Roman. The god
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
is oftentimes mentioned as a version of Dionysius. The god
Helios In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Helios (; grc, , , Sun; Homeric Greek: ) is the deity, god and personification of the Sun (Solar deity). His name is also Latinized as Helius, and he is often given the epithets Hyper ...
, and
Eros In Greek mythology, Eros (, ; grc, Ἔρως, Érōs, Love, Desire) is the Greek god of love and sex. His Roman counterpart was Cupid ("desire").''Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia'', The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. In the earli ...
are found in Nabataean temples as well. During Nabataea's annexation to the Romans, there were tombs that named Greco-Roman gods instead of Nabataean gods. There is a shift in religion after the annexation of Nabataean land. For example, in the temple of Qasr, Aphrodite/al-'Uzza and Dushara were worshipped.


Relationships between the gods

The relationships between the Nabataeans gods are not always clear due to the lack of evidence to support the different claims. There are times when gods and goddesses are paired as husband and wife in a certain region of the kingdom, while they may not be in another. The god Dushara is sometimes said to be the husband of Allat and in other instances he is the son of Allat. Another example would be Allat, Al-'Uzza and Manat, these three deities are said to be the daughters of the high god Allah. In some regions of the Nabataean kingdom, both Allat and Al-'Uzza are said to be the same goddess.


Rituals and animals

It is very likely that in the city of Petra, there were processional ways from temple to temple, such as the Qasr el-Bint temple, the Temple of the Winged Lions and the Great Temple. The main street flowed through the city making it possible for a processional way to have taken place. There are other processional ways that could have been linked to the so-called high-places, such as el-Madh-bah, by passing the "Roman Soldier" tomb, the "Garden Temple", the Lion monument, a rock-cut altar, before arriving at the high place. Nabataeans would visit the tombs of relatives and had ritual feasting and would fill the space with incense and perfumed oils. It is also very likely that there were goods left inside the tombs, a way of remembering those who died. Remains of unusual species like raptors, goats, rams, dogs were used in some of the rituals.Rawashdeh, Saeb. Ancient Nabataean rituals uncovered and explored at IFPO workshop. Jordan Times:23 Sept. 2015 It was also not uncommon to sacrifice camels to the ancient gods, especially the god Dushara.


Sacred objects or animals

* Niches - Described as miniature temples or adyton of a temple. They contain stone pillar or betyls that were carved out of rock. *Altars - At times the Nabataeans used altars as representation of the gods. *Sacred animals - Eagles, serpents, sphinxes, griffins and other mythological figures decorate the tombs of the ancient Nabataeans. *Iconoclasm - There is little evidence of Nabataean iconoclasm. The majority of the deities were portrayed as betyls, sometimes carved in relief and others would be carried around during processions. When the gods were depicted in human form, they would oftentimes were found as "eye-idol" betyls. Because of the Greco-Roman influence there are statues of Nabataean gods. The goddess Isis is represented in human form by the Nabataeans, this could be due to the fact that she is venerated in places like Egypt and Rome. The god Dushara is represented in both betyl and statue form throughout the Nabataean kingdom.


Places of worship

The
Nabataeans The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic language, Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabian Pe ...
had numerous places for religious practice and cult worship. Known as “High places”, the shrines, temples, and altars would usually be open air structures placed atop nearby mountains. These places throughout the Nabataean kingdom would be dedicated to the worship of the same god(s), how they would go about this worship would vary from site to site. Offering would vary from material goods and foods, to live sacrifice of animals, maybe humans. The Nabataean kingdom can broke up into five religious regions each containing locations of religious significance: The Negev and Hejaz, The Hauran, Central Jordan, Southern Jordan, and finally Northwestern Saudi Arabia.Peterson, Stephanie. "The Cult of Dushara and the Roman Annexation of Nabataea." Ma Thesis, McMaster, August, 2006. All of the religious sites at these locations are in varying states of preservation, making it difficult to know which deities would have been worshiped at specific shrines, altars, and temples. It is also difficult to know the specifics of the cult practices, meaning educated speculations can be made.Anderson,Bjo. Constructing Nabataea: Identity, Ideology, and Connectivity. Classical Art & Archaeology, The University of Michigan, 2005 Committee: M.C. Root (co-chair), T. Gagos (co-chair), S. Alcock, S. Herbert, N. Yoffee.Wenning, R. 1987. Die Nabatäer-Denkmäler und Geschichte:Eine Bestandesaufnahme des archäologischen Befundes, Freiburg: Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz.


The

Negev The Negev or Negeb (; he, הַנֶּגֶב, hanNegév; ar, ٱلنَّقَب, an-Naqab) is a desert and semidesert region of southern Israel. The region's largest city and administrative capital is Beersheba (pop. ), in the north. At its southe ...
and
Hejaz The Hejaz (, also ; ar, ٱلْحِجَاز, al-Ḥijāz, lit=the Barrier, ) is a region in the west of Saudi Arabia. It includes the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif, and Baljurashi. It is also known as the "Western Provin ...

Sobata Located about 40k southwest from
Beersheba Beersheba or Beer Sheva, officially Be'er-Sheva ( he, בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע, ''Bəʾēr Ševaʿ'', ; ar, بئر السبع, Biʾr as-Sabʿ, Well of the Oath or Well of the Seven), is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. ...
is the city of Sobata, one of the major cities within the Nabataean kingdom. Very little archeological remains of any form of Nabataean cult worship, temples, shrines, or altars have been found. A small amount of evidence has been found for the worship of
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
.Tholbecq L. (2007) “Nabataean Monumental Architecture.” In: Politis KD (ed) The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans: An International Conference at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001, 1033-144. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Avdat Avdat ( he, עבדת, ar, عبدة, ''Abdah''), also known as Abdah and Ovdat and Obodat, is a site of a ruined Nabataean city in the Negev desert in southern Israel. It was the most important city on the Incense Route after Petra, between the 1 ...
Located in the mountains southeast of Sobata. Religious practice here focused mostly on the deified
Obodas I Obodas I (Nabataean Aramaic: ''ʿŌbōdaṯ''; grc, Ὀβόδας) was king of the Nabataeans from 96 BC to 85 BC. After his death, Obodas was worshiped as a deity. Life Obodas was the successor of Aretas II, from whom he inherited the war with ...
, who gained fame from reclaimed lands in the Negev from
Alexander Jannaeus Alexander Jannaeus ( grc-gre, Ἀλέξανδρος Ἰανναῖος ; he, ''Yannaʾy''; born Jonathan ) was the second king of the Hasmonean dynasty, who ruled over an expanding kingdom of Judea from 103 to 76 BCE. A son of John Hyrcanus, ...
, causing the formation of a “King’s cult.” There are at least two documented Nabataean temple complex atop the acropolis, the smaller of the two being dedicated to the deified Obodas III. Rawwafah Located 300 km from
Petra Petra ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرَاء, Al-Batrāʾ; grc, Πέτρα, "Rock", Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: ), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu or Raqēmō, is an historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan. It is adjacent to t ...
. A single temple in the Nabataean style has been discovered. The inscription on the lintel dates the temple to after the fall of the Nabataean kingdom.
Mampsis Mampsis ( Medieval Greek: Μάμψις) or Memphis (Ancient Greek: Μέμφις), today Mamshit ( he, ממשית), Arabic Kurnub, is a former Nabataean caravan stop and Byzantine city. In the Nabataean period, Mampsis was an important station on t ...
A Nabataean site located about 81 km from Petra. Mampsis is an important stop on the Incense trade road. Nabataean style building, caravanserai, and water systems have been discovered here.


The

Hauran The Hauran ( ar, حَوْرَان, ''Ḥawrān''; also spelled ''Hawran'' or ''Houran'') is a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan. It is bound in the north by the Ghouta oasis, eastwards by the al-Safa (Syria), al-Safa ...

Bostra Bosra ( ar, بُصْرَىٰ, Buṣrā), also spelled Bostra, Busrana, Bozrah, Bozra and officially called Busra al-Sham ( ar, بُصْرَىٰ ٱلشَّام, Buṣrā al-Shām), is a town in southern Syria, administratively belonging to the Dara ...
Located in southern
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, and was the northern capital of the Nabataean kingdom. Bostra has evidence of temples being located at major intersections of the city. At the city center is a temple complex dedicated to Dushara-A’ra. A’ra is thought to be the god of Nabataean kings and city of Bostra itself. Modern building make it difficult to find archaeological evidence of Nabataean cult worship. An inscription that reads “This is the wall which ... and windows which Taymu bar ... built for…Dushara and the rest of the gods of Bostra” is located on what is thought to be this temple. Seeia Located north of Bostra near Canatha. The settlement has three large temples, the largest is dedicated to Baalshamin. The two smaller temples are to unknown deities. One contains an inscription to the local goddess, Seeia, and may have been used to worship her. The temple complex is not Nabataean in design, but is an amalgamation of architectural building styles from the cultures on the northern Nabataean border. Sahr Temples similar in style to the ones located in Wadi Rumm, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet. Sur Temples similar in style to the ones located in Wadi Rumm, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet.
Suweida , timezone = EET , utc_offset = +2 , timezone_DST = EEST , utc_offset_DST = +3 , coordinates = , grid_position = 296/235 ...
Temples similar to those located near Petra in Wadi Rumm, Dharih, Tannur, and Qasrawet. Nabataean inscription indicate cults dedicated to Allat and Baalshamin.


Central

Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...

Khirbet Tannur Located in Central Jordan. The temple, High place, is located alone, atop the summit of Jebal Tannur. It is only accessible via a single, steep staircase pathway. The sites seclusion may indicate that it was of high religious importance to the Nabataeans. The doorway to the inner sanctuary of the temple is decorated with representations of vegetation, foliage, and fruits. Glueck identifies these as representing the Syrian goddess Atargatis. The inner sanctuary decorated with images of fruit, fishes, vegetation, thunderbolts, as well as representation of deities. Glueck attributes these iconographies to the Mesopotamian storm-god Hadad, but Tyche and
Nike Nike often refers to: * Nike (mythology), a Greek goddess who personifies victory * Nike, Inc., a major American producer of athletic shoes, apparel, and sports equipment Nike may also refer to: People * Nike (name), a surname and feminine give ...
are also represented. Starckly notes that the only named god is the
Edomite Edom (; Edomite: ; he, אֱדוֹם , lit.: "red"; Akkadian: , ; Ancient Egyptian: ) was an ancient kingdom in Transjordan, located between Moab to the northeast, the Arabah to the west, and the Arabian Desert to the south and east. ...
weather god, Qos. An inscription on a stele at the site names him as the god of Hurawa. Khirbet edh-Dharih Located 7 km south of Hurawa, the temple at Khirbet edh-Dharih is astonishingly well preserved. The temple complex is surrounded by an outer and inner courtyard, with a paved pathway to the porticoes. There are also has benches the form a theatron. The temple itself is divided into three sections, in a large open vestibule. From here is the cella, which was painted in rich, vibrant colors. At the back of the cella was the motab and betyl, a square podium flanked by stairs which was the seat of the divine. Despite its good condition, it is not known which god would have been worshipped here.


Southern

Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...

Petra Petra ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرَاء, Al-Batrāʾ; grc, Πέτρα, "Rock", Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: ), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu or Raqēmō, is an historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan. It is adjacent to t ...
Capital of the Nabataean Kingdom in around 312 BC. The city is famous for its marvelous
rock-cut architecture Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. Intensely laborious when using ancient tools and methods, rock-cut architecture was presumably combined with quarry ...
. Located within the Shara Mountains, Dushara was the primary male god accompanied by the female trinity:
Al-'Uzzá Al-ʻUzzā ( ar, العزى or Old Arabic l ʕuzzeː was one of the three chief goddesses of Arabian religion in pre-Islamic times and she was worshiped by the pre-Islamic Arabs along with al-Lāt and Manāt. A stone cube at Nakhla (near Me ...
,
Allat Al-Lat ( ar, اللات, translit=Al-Lāt, ), also spelled Allat, Allatu and Alilat, is a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshipped under various associations throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca where she was worshipped alongs ...
, and
Manāt ( ar, مناة  pausa, or Old Arabic manawat; also transliterated as ') was a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshiped in the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam and the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. She was among Mec ...
. A Stele dedicated to the Edomite god Qos is located within the city. Nabataeans worshiped pre-Islamic
Arab gods The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
and goddesses, along with deified kings, such as
Obodas I Obodas I (Nabataean Aramaic: ''ʿŌbōdaṯ''; grc, Ὀβόδας) was king of the Nabataeans from 96 BC to 85 BC. After his death, Obodas was worshiped as a deity. Life Obodas was the successor of Aretas II, from whom he inherited the war with ...
. Temple layout and design shows influence from Rome, Greek, Egyptian, and Persian temple architecture. The temples of
Qasr al-Bint The Qasr al-Bint is a religious temple in the Nabataean city of Petra.  It faces the Wadi Musa and is located to the northwest of the Great Temple and to the southwest of the Temple of the Winged Lions. One of the best preserved of the ancient ...
and temple of the Winged Lion are examples of this. The podium within the Temple of the Winged Lion housed the altar, where sacrifices would have been made, or the betyl of the worshiped deity. Based on the idols and imagery found within the Temple of the Winged Lion, it is theorized to be dedicated to Dushara. The High Place is located atop the mountains that surround Petra. Used as a place for offering gifts and sacrificing animals, maybe humans, to the gods, The High place consists of a pool for collecting water, two altars, and a large open courtyard.
Hawara Hawara is an archaeological site of Ancient Egypt, south of the site of Crocodilopolis ('Arsinoë', also known as 'Medinet al-Faiyum') at the entrance to the depression of the Fayyum oasis. It is the site of a pyramid built by the Pharaoh Amene ...
Temple with 20m long processional way which leads to a courtyard with a view of Jebel Qalkha. The design of the Betyls as well as the remains of offering points to the possible worship of
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
, maybe even Jupiter. Wadi Ramm Temple to Allat. Rock sanctuary to Ayn esh-Shallaleh located behind temple to
Allat Al-Lat ( ar, اللات, translit=Al-Lāt, ), also spelled Allat, Allatu and Alilat, is a pre-Islamic Arabian goddess worshipped under various associations throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula, including Mecca where she was worshipped alongs ...
. Betyls and cult niches to Dushara and Baalshamin.


Northwestern

Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...

Hegra HEGRA, which stands for ''High-Energy-Gamma-Ray Astronomy'', was an atmospheric Cherenkov telescope for Gamma-ray astronomy. With its various types of detectors, HEGRA took data between 1987 and 2002, at which point it was dismantled in order ...
A Cult ritual circle on top of the mountain Jibel Ithlib rests on a rocky outcropping. Small betyls and cult niches to other gods appear around the Jibel Ithlib site. Inscription of “Lord of the Temple,” may refer to Dushara. Marseha cults located here. Today Hegra is known as Mada’in Saleh.


Processional ways

The processional way that would lead to the places of worship would vary from site to site. Some places would be bargain rock, lacking any decorated on the processional way. While others, like
Petra Petra ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرَاء, Al-Batrāʾ; grc, Πέτρα, "Rock", Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: ), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu or Raqēmō, is an historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan. It is adjacent to t ...
, would have carvings, monuments, sculpture, betyls, and occasionally obelisks lining the processional way. Petra’s processional way consists of a lion relief known as the Lion Fountain, there is also the Garden Tomb, and the Nabataean Quarry, two standing obelisks in an Indian style.


Temple layout

Nabataean temples vary greatly in design with no single standard layout. The Nabataeans adopted and adapted different elements of the temple designs from the cultures that they traded with.
Indian Indian or Indians may refer to: Peoples South Asia * Indian people, people of Indian nationality, or people who have an Indian ancestor ** Non-resident Indian, a citizen of India who has temporarily emigrated to another country * South Asia ...
,
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
,
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
, Persian,
Egyptian Egyptian describes something of, from, or related to Egypt. Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to: Nations and ethnic groups * Egyptians, a national group in North Africa ** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of years of ...
, and Syrian elements of temple design can be seen to varying degrees of incorporation.


Betyls

Betyl Baetylus (also Baetyl, Bethel, or Betyl, from Semitic ''bet el'' "house of god"; compare Bethel, Beit El) are sacred stones that were supposedly endowed with life, or gave access to a deity. According to ancient sources, at least some of these ...
s are blocks of stone which represent the gods of the Nabataeans. The term “betyl” derives from the Greek Βαιτύλια and a myth the Greeks told of
Ouranos In Greek mythology, Uranus ( ), sometimes written Ouranos ( grc, Οὐρανός, , sky, ), is the personification of the sky and one of the Greek primordial deities. According to Hesiod, Uranus was the son and husband of Gaia (Earth), with w ...
who created animated stones that fell from heaven.Wenning, Robert. “The Betyls of Petra”. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 324 (2001): 79–95. Betyls were commonly placed on altars or platforms and religious rituals were performed there. Infrequently, betyls have been found in tombs. Dr.
Gustaf Dalman Gustaf Hermann Dalman (9 June 1855 – 19 August 1941) was a German Lutheran theologian and orientalist. He did extensive field work in Palestine before the First World War, collecting inscriptions, poetry, and proverbs. He also collected physic ...
was the first to classify the many different types of betyls. The different types of betyls according to Dr. Dalman: #Plain betyls ##Rectangular slab (Pfeiler, block, stela) ## High rectangular slab with a rounded top ## Semicircular or hemispherical slab #Dome-shaped spherical betyl (squat
omphalos An omphalos is a religious stone artifact, or baetylus. In Ancient Greek, the word () means "navel". Among the Ancient Greeks, it was a widespread belief that Delphi was the center of the world. According to the myths regarding the founding of ...
, ovoid) #Eye betyls betyls #Face stelae Eye betyls and face stelae are of interest to scholars due to the inconsistency in what is largely understood as Nabataean aniconism. There is debate on whether the betyls were viewed as containers for gods or if they were seen as representations of the gods themselves. Grooves in the floors of niches and holes in the tops of altars have led to the conclusion that betyls may have been stored for safe-keeping then transported to the worship site.


Rituals


Offerings

Offerings of libations (most probably wine) and incense played an important role in Nabataean communal worship. There are speculations that the Nabataeans offered oils or perhaps other goods but the only definite offerings are libations and incense.
Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
confirms that libations and frankincense were offered daily to the sun (
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
).Healey, John F. “Images and Rituals.” The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus. Boston: Brill, 2001. 169–175. Print. There is also evidence of silver and gold offerings to gods, but the text this is found in is not clear on if this could be a tithe.


Sacrifices

Sacrifices of animals were common and Porphyry’s De Abstenentia reports that, in Dumat Al-Jandal, a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans.


Specific dates

There are few primary sources regarding religious festivals the Nabataeans celebrated. It has been noted that the presence of two inscriptions to
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
-A’ra dated in the month of
Nisan Nisan (or Nissan; he, נִיסָן, Standard ''Nīsan'', Tiberian ''Nīsān''; from akk, 𒊬𒊒𒄀 ''Nisanu'') in the Babylonian and Hebrew calendars is the month of the barley ripening and first month of spring. The name of the month is ...
could indicate a spring festival.


Funerary rituals


Meaning of tomb architecture

The famous rock-cut tombs of the Nabataeans were not decorated just for show, they were meant to be comfortable homes for the dead. Like the Egyptians, the Nabataeans believed that the deceased lived on and must be fed after death. Therefore, those who could afford to placed gardens for entertainment and eating halls for feasting around their tombs. Eagles—the symbol of
Dushara Dushara, (Nabataean Arabic: 𐢅𐢈𐢝𐢛𐢀‎ ''dwšrʾ'') also transliterated as Dusares, is a pre-Islamic Arabian god worshipped by the Nabataeans at Petra and Madain Saleh (of which city he was the patron). Safaitic inscriptions imply he ...
—were sometimes carved above doorways for protection.


Curses

Many tombs were fashioned with inscriptions that conveyed who was meant to be buried in the tomb, as well as communicated the social status and piety of the owner. Inscriptions on tombs became popular throughout Nabataea. They list actions (e.g. selling or mortgaging the tomb, etc.) that should not be undertaken as well as detail fines and punishments for those who ignore curses etched into the inscriptions on the face of the tomb. The curses detailed in the inscriptions are often formulaic, e.g. “and the curse of nsert name of godon anyone who reads this inscription and does not say nsert blessing or other phrase. The inscriptions of
Mada'in Saleh Hegra ( grc, Ἕγρα), known to Muslims as Al-Hijr (), also known as Mada’in Salih ( ar, مَدَائِن صَالِح, madāʼin Ṣāliḥ, lit=Cities of Salih), is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula within Medina Provin ...
and other large Nabataean cities name both the owners and curses as well as the types of people who are supposed to be buried in the tomb. Petran tombs, however, besides the Tomb of Sextius Florentinus, the Turkmaniyah Tomb and other exceptions, did not have inscriptions.


Concepts of the afterlife

Little is known about how the Nabataeans viewed the afterlife, but assumptions have been made based on the material goods they left behind. Since tombs and
grave goods Grave goods, in archaeology and anthropology, are the items buried along with the body. They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods may be classed as a ...
remain a valuable link to understanding the lives of any ancient culture, import is placed on the layout of the tombs at
Petra Petra ( ar, ٱلْبَتْرَاء, Al-Batrāʾ; grc, Πέτρα, "Rock", Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: ), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu or Raqēmō, is an historic and archaeological city in southern Jordan. It is adjacent to t ...
,
Bosra Bosra ( ar, بُصْرَىٰ, Buṣrā), also spelled Bostra, Busrana, Bozrah, Bozra and officially called Busra al-Sham ( ar, بُصْرَىٰ ٱلشَّام, Buṣrā al-Shām), is a town in southern Syria, administratively belonging to the Dara ...
,
Mada'in Saleh Hegra ( grc, Ἕγρα), known to Muslims as Al-Hijr (), also known as Mada’in Salih ( ar, مَدَائِن صَالِح, madāʼin Ṣāliḥ, lit=Cities of Salih), is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula within Medina Provin ...
and other prominent cities. Known grave goods include an alabaster jug found at Mamphis and assorted vessels left over from funerary feasts.Perry, Megan A. "Life and Death in Nabataea: The North Ridge Tombs and Nabataean Burial Practices." Near Eastern Archaeology65.4 (2002): 265-270. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials. Web. 16 Nov. 2015. Based on the emphasis placed on familial burial niches, dining halls, and grave goods the Nabataeans thought the afterlife was a place where you could eat and be merry with your friends and family.


See also

*
Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included indigenous Arabian polytheism, ancient Semitic religions, Christianity, Judaism, Mandaeism, and Iranian religions such as Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism, and rarely Buddhism. Arabian polytheism, the d ...
*
Religion in Ancient Rome Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...


References

{{reflist


Further reading

* Moutsopoulos, N.
Observations sur les representations du Panthéon Nabatéen
. In: ''Balkan studies'' 33 (1992): 5-50. Nabataea