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Filipino shamans, commonly known as (also ''Balian'' or , among many other names), were
shamans Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
of the various ethnic groups of the
pre-colonial Colonialism is a practice or policy of control by one people or power over other people or areas, often by establishing colonies and generally with the aim of economic dominance. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their relig ...
Philippine islands. These shamans specialized in communicating, appeasing, or harnessing the
spirits of the dead ''Spirits of the Dead'' (french: Histoires extraordinaires, lit=Extraordinary Tales, it, Tre passi nel delirio, lit=Three Steps to Delirium), also known as ''Tales of Mystery and Imagination'', is a 1968 horror anthology film comprising three ...
and the spirits of nature. They were almost always women or feminized men ( or ). They were believed to have spirit guides, by which they could contact and interact with the spirits and deities (''
anito ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
'' or ''
diwata ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
'') and the spirit world. Their primary role were as mediums during ''pag-anito'' séance rituals. There were also various subtypes of specializing in the arts of
healing With physical trauma or disease suffered by an organism, healing involves the repairing of damaged tissue(s), organs and the biological system as a whole and resumption of (normal) functioning. Medicine includes the process by which the cells i ...
and
herbalism Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern reme ...
,
divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...
, and
sorcery Sorcery may refer to: * Magic (supernatural), the application of beliefs, rituals or actions employed to subdue or manipulate natural or supernatural beings and forces ** Witchcraft, the practice of magical skills and abilities * Magic in fiction, ...
.


Terminology

The most common native terms for shamans among Austronesian groups in
Island Southeast Asia Maritime Southeast Asia comprises the countries of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and East Timor. Maritime Southeast Asia is sometimes also referred to as Island Southeast Asia, Insular Southeast Asia or Oceanic Sout ...
are ''balian'', ''baylan'', or
cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...
s and spelling variants thereof. They are all derived from
Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian The Western Malayo-Polynesian (WMP) languages, also known as the Hesperonesian languages, are a paraphyletic grouping of Austronesian languages that includes those Malayo-Polynesian languages that do not belong to the Central–Eastern Malayo-P ...
''*balian'', meaning "shaman" (probably originally female, transvestite, or hermaphroditic) or "
medium Medium may refer to: Science and technology Aviation *Medium bomber, a class of war plane * Tecma Medium, a French hang glider design Communication * Media (communication), tools used to store and deliver information or data * Medium of ...
". Various
cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...
s in other non-Filipino Austronesian languages include , , and ''
bobohizan A ''Bobohizan'' (Tangaa' Kadazan term) or ''Bobolian'' (Bundu Liwan Dusun term) is a high priestess, a ritual specialist and a spirit medium in Kadazan-Dusun pagan rites. The office of ''Bobohizan'' or ''Bobolian'', is also the chief preserver ...
'' ( Kadazan-Dusun); ( Ma'anyan); (
Iban IBAN or Iban or Ibán may refer to: Banking * International Bank Account Number Ethnology * Iban culture * Iban language * Iban people Given name Cycling * Iban Iriondo (born 1984) * Iban Mayo (born 1977) * Iban Mayoz (born 1981) Football * ...
); (
Malay Malay may refer to: Languages * Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore ** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century ** Indonesi ...
); or ( Old Javanese); ( Balinese); ( Mongondow); ( Uma); or ( Bare'e); (
Wolio Wolio is an Austronesian language spoken in and around Baubau on Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. It belongs to the Wotu–Wolio branch of the Celebic subgroup. Also known as Buton, it is a trade language and the former court lang ...
); ( Ngaju); and (
Makassar Makassar (, mak, ᨆᨀᨔᨑ, Mangkasara’, ) is the capital of the Indonesian province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, Surabaya, Med ...
). However ''*balian''-derived terms have largely disappeared among lowland Filipinos after Christianization in the Spanish era. Some exceptions include Bikol where it persisted and acquired the Spanish feminine suffix ''-a'' as . It also survives among some Muslim Filipinos like in Maranao , although the meaning has shifted after
Islamization Islamization, Islamicization, or Islamification ( ar, أسلمة, translit=aslamāh), refers to the process through which a society shifts towards the religion of Islam and becomes largely Muslim. Societal Islamization has historically occur ...
. The linguist
Otto Dempwolff Otto Dempwolff (25 May 1871 in Pillau, Province of Prussia – 27 November 1938, in Hamburg) was a German physician, linguist and anthropologist who specialized in the study of the Austronesian language family. Initially trained as a physician, ...
has also theorized that ''*balian'' may have ultimately derived from Proto-Austronesian ''*bali'' ("escort", "accompany") with the suffix ''*-an'', in the meaning of "one who escorts a soul to the other world (a psychopomp)". However, the linguists
Robert Blust Robert A. Blust (; ; May 9, 1940 – January 5, 2022) was an American linguist who worked in several areas, including historical linguistics, lexicography and ethnology. He was Professor of Linguistics at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa. Blus ...
and
Stephen Trussel Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...
have noted that there is no evidence that ''*balian'' is a suffixed form, and thus believe that Dempwolff's interpretation is incorrect. More general terms used by Spanish sources for native shamans throughout the archipelago were derived from Tagalog and
Visayan Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
''
anito ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
'' ("spirit"), these include terms like and . However, different ethnic groups had different names for shamans, including shamans with specialized roles. These include: * Abaknon: * Aeta/Agta: ''anitu'', ''puyang'' (also ''poyang'', ''pawang'', ''pauang''), ''huhak'' (diviner) *
Bagobo The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
: * Balanguingui: ''duwarta'' * Banwaon: ''babaiyon'' (also the female ''
datu ''Datu'' is a title which denotes the rulers (variously described in historical accounts as chiefs, sovereign princes, and monarchs) of numerous indigenous peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The title is still used today, especial ...
'' of the tribe) * Bikol: , , , , * Bukidnon: * Gaddang: * Hanunó'o: , *
Higaonon Higaonon is a Manobo language spoken on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It is partially (80%) intelligible with Binukid. Higaonon is spoken in the Butuan River basin of north-central Mindanao, comprising northwestern Agusan del Sur P ...
: * Hiligaynon: * Ibaloi: *
Ifugao Ifugao, officially the Province of Ifugao ( ilo, Probinsia ti Ifugao; tl, Lalawigan ng Ifugao), is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Lagawe and it borders Benguet to the wes ...
: , , , , , , , (apprentice) * Ilocano: , , , (medium), (herbalist) * Isneg: , , * Itneg: , * Ivatan: (medium), (midwife), (diviner) * Kankana-ey: (medium), (healer), (diviner, also ) *
Kapampangan Kapampangan, Capampañgan or Pampangan may refer to: *Kapampangan people of the Philippines *Kapampangan language Kapampangan or Pampangan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary ...
: (also ) * Karay-a: , (healer), (diviner, also ) * Lumad: ''balian'', ''balyan'', ''mabalian'' *
Maguindanao Maguindanao (, Maguindanao language, Maguindanaon: ''Prubinsya nu Magindanaw''; Iranun language, Iranun'': Perobinsia a Magindanao''; tl, Lalawigan ng Maguindanao) was a Provinces of the Philippines, province of the Philippines located in the ...
: (female shaman, midwife), (medium), (medium), (healer), ( pprenticehealer, also ), (diviner) *
Mamanwa The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
: , , , (healer, also ) *
Mandaya The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
: , , *
Manobo The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
: , (also ), (mediator, keeper of traditions, also ), (healer against sorcery), or , (head shaman) * Maranao: , * Palaw'an: * Sama-Bajau: ''balyan'', ''wali jinn'', '' dukun'', ''papagan'', ''pawang'', ''bomoh'', ''kalamat'' (diviner), ''panday'' (healer, midwife) *
Sarangani Sarangani, officially the Province of Sarangani ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Sarangani; hil, Kapuoran sang Sarangani; Maguindanaon: ''Dairat nu Sarangani'', Jawi: دايرت نو سارڠني; fil, Lalawigan ng Sarangani), is a province in the Philipp ...
: * Subanen: ''balian'', ''tanguiling'' *
Suludnon The Suludnon, also known as the Panay-Bukidnon, Pan-ayanon, or Tumandok, are a culturally indigenous Visayan group of people who reside in the Capiz-Lambunao mountainous area and the Antique-Iloilo mountain area of Panay in the Visayan islands o ...
: ''banawangon'' * Tagalog: (also , , ), , , (or ), (herbalist), (healer), or (diviner), (midwife) *
Talaandig The Bukid language, ''Binukid'' or ''Bukidnon'', is an Austronesian language spoken by indigenous peoples of Northern Mindanao in the southern Philippines. The word means 'mountain' or 'highland' while means 'in the manner, or style, of the mo ...
: * Tausug: (also , ), (diviner) *
Tagbanwa The Tagbanwa people ( Tagbanwa: ) are one of the oldest ethnic groups in the Philippines, and can be mainly found in the central and northern Palawan. Research has shown that the Tagbanwa are possible descendants of the Tabon Man, thus making th ...
: , * T'boli: , (healer), (healer) *
Visayan Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
: (also , ), (also , , , ), (also , ), (also ), , , (or ), (or ), (healer), (healer), (herbalist), or (diviner), (midwife) *
Yakan Yakan may refer to: * Yakan people, a community of the Philippines * Yakan language, a language of the Philippines * Cape Yakan, in Russia People with the name * Adly Yakan Pasha (1864–1933), Egyptian politician * Fathi Yakan (1933–2009), Le ...
: According to Jaime Veneracion, Katalonan incorporates the root ''talon'' which in ancient Tagalog meant "forest" (cf. Hiligaynon, Masbatenyo,
Inabaknon The Inabaknon language, also known as Abaknon, Abaknon Sama, Capuleño, Kapul, or Capul Sinama, is an Austronesian language primarily spoken in the Island Municipality of Capul of Northern Samar, in the Eastern Visayas Region of the Philippi ...
, Capisano, Palawano, Buhid, and Agutaynen ''talon'', "forest" or "thicket"). Other scholars believed that the origin of the word catalonan is from its root word “talo” which according to them is a Tagalog word originally means "to converse", thus the word catalonan literally means someone who converse or communicate with the spirits (anito). According to Blumentritt an old Tagalog word “tarotaro” is a term describing the catalonas while possessed by the spirits (anito). In some
Malayo-Polynesian languages The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 385.5 million speakers. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken by the Austronesian peoples outside of Taiwan, in the island nations of Southeast ...
such as Tahitian “tarotaro” means ‘to pray’, while in Rapanui it means ‘a malediction or curse’. In Samoan “talo or talotalo” means ‘a prayer or to pray’. Linguist Malcolm Mintz, however, offers a different etymology. He determines that the Tagalog root word is “tulong” which means to help. Some writers such as William Henry Scott and
Luciano P. R. Santiago Luciano is an Italian, Spanish and Portuguese given name and surname. It is derived from Latin ''Lucianus'', patronymic of ''Lucius'' ("Light"). The French form is ''Lucien'', while the Basque form is ''Luken''. Single name * Luciano (rapper) ...
favoured Mintz suggestion and used the term catolonan (which is actually a Pampangan term) to refer to the priests and priestesses of the Tagalogs instead of catalona or catalonan.


Initiation

Most ''babaylan'' inherited their status from an older ''babaylan'' they were apprenticed to, usually a relative. In some cultures, like among the
Isneg people The Isnag people (also referred to as the Isneg and Apayao) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to Apayao Province in the Philippines' Cordillera Administrative Region. Their native language is Isneg language, Isneg (also called Isnag), a ...
, older shamans can choose apprentices from among the eligible young women of the village. A few, however, become ''babaylan'' after experiencing what has been termed a "shamanistic initiatory crisis" (also "shamanic illness" or "shamanic madness"). This includes serious or chronic illnesses, near-death experiences, sudden
seizures An epileptic seizure, informally known as a seizure, is a period of symptoms due to abnormally excessive or neural oscillation, synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. Outward effects vary from uncontrolled shaking movements involving much o ...
and trembling, depression, strange events or behavior (including climbing ''balete'' trees or disappearing for several days with no memory of the events), bouts of insanity (including those induced by
psychological trauma Psychological trauma, mental trauma or psychotrauma is an emotional response to a distressing event or series of events, such as accidents, rape, or natural disasters. Reactions such as psychological shock and psychological denial are typical. ...
from a past event), and strange visions or dreams. These are regarded as encounters with the spirits, where the soul of the person is said to be journeying to the spirit world. In cases like this, it is said that a
spirit Spirit or spirits may refer to: Liquor and other volatile liquids * Spirits, a.k.a. liquor, distilled alcoholic drinks * Spirit or tincture, an extract of plant or animal material dissolved in ethanol * Volatile (especially flammable) liquids, ...
chose the person, rather than the other way around. After being chosen, shamans go through an initiation rite. These rites are meant to gain or transfer the patronage of a spirit. Among Visayans, this ritual is known as the ''tupad'' or ''tupadan''. In cases of people with "shamanic illness", these initiation rites are regarded as the cure, where the initiate regains health or sanity by conceding to the wishes of the spirits and "answering the call". When volunteered rather than volunteering, their relatives are usually required to pay a large fee to the senior shaman for the training. Initiation rites can range from simply inducing a
trance Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the dir ...
through herbs or alcohol, to inducing personal crises through physical or psychological hardship. Extreme examples of initiation rites include getting buried alive or being immersed in water overnight. After initiation, the apprentices are then trained in the details of their role. This training includes learning about the rituals, the chants and songs, the sacrifices appropriate for each spirit, oral histories, herbs and healing practices, and magic spells, among others. They usually assist the senior shaman during ceremonies until their training is complete, which can take months to years. Each shaman can have one or more such apprentices, at varying ranks or specializations.


Spirit guides

The shaman's power to communicate with the spirit world is derived from their spirit companions that guide them and intercede for them. These spirits are usually referred to in euphemistic terms like ''abyan'' ("friend"), ''alagad'' or ''bantay'' ("guardian"), or ''gabay'' ("guide"), among other terms. Shamans have at least one ''abyan'', with more powerful shamans having many. Certain individuals like powerful leaders or warriors (especially those with shaman relatives) are also believed to have their own ''abyan'' that give them magical powers. ''Abyan'' are also believed to guide, teach, and inspire skilled artists and craftsmen in the community. ''Abyan'' spirits can be ancestor spirits, but they are more commonly non-human spirits. Shamans either had spirit companions from birth, drew their attention during the "shamanic illness", or gained their allegiance during initiation into shamanism. Spirits are believed to be social beings, with individual quirks and personalities (both good and bad). The friendship of ''abyan'' depend on
reciprocity Reciprocity may refer to: Law and trade * Reciprocity (Canadian politics), free trade with the United States of America ** Reciprocal trade agreement, entered into in order to reduce (or eliminate) tariffs, quotas and other trade restrictions on ...
. The shamans do not command them. People with ''abyan'' must regularly offer sacrifices to these spirits, usually consisting of food, alcoholic drinks, '' ngangà'', and blood from a sacrificial animal (usually a chicken or a pig)These sacrifices vary depending on the type of spirit being interacted with (Buenconsejo, 2002) in order to maintain good relations. This friendship of ''abyan'', once earned, is enduring. They become, in essence, part of the family. The ''abyan'' of a deceased shaman will often "return" to a living relative who might choose to become a shaman as well. The ''abyan'' are essential in shamanistic rituals as they prevent the shaman's soul from getting lost in the spirit world. They also communicate entreaties on behalf of the shaman to more powerful spirits or deities, as well as fight evil spirits during healing or exorcism rituals.


Sex and gender

In most Philippine ethnic groups, shamans were predominantly female due to the role of the shaman (especially the medium) being an intrinsically feminine one. Among the minority of males, most belonged to a special class of shamans—the feminized men known as ''asog'' in the Visayas and ''bayok'' or ''bayog'' in Luzon.''Asog'' is from Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian ''*asug'', "shaman in ritual transvestite attire"; and Proto-Central Philippine ''*ásug'', "sterile" or "asexual". ''Asog'' is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the
Bicol Region Bicol, known formally as the Bicol Region or colloquially as Bicolandia ( bcl, Rehiyon kan Bikol; Rinconada Bikol: ''Rehiyon ka Bikol''; Waray Sorsogon, Masbateño: ''Rehiyon san Bikol''; tl, Rehiyon ng Bikol), is an administrative region of ...
. Other Visayan terms include ''bantot'', ''bayog'', ''binabaye'', and ''babayenon''. In the rest of Luzon, they are known as ''bayok'' (''bayoc''), ''bayog'', ''bayogin'' (''bayoguin'' or ''bayoquin''), ''binabae'', or ''bido''. Notably among the Sambal, the highest-ranking shaman was a ''bayok''. They are also known as ''labia'' among the Subanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Garcia, 2008; Kroeber, 1918). In modern Filipino languages, the most commonly used terms are ''bakla'', ''bayot'', or ''agi''. See also ''
Bakla In the Philippines, a baklâ (), bayot ( Cebuano) or agî ( Hiligaynon) is a person who was assigned male at birth and has adopted a feminine gender expression. They are often considered a third gender. Many bakla are exclusively attracted to ...
''
The ''asog'' assumed the voice, mannerisms, hairstyle, and dress of females. They were treated as women by the community and were considered as comparable to biological women aside from their incapability to give birth to children. Their social status and recognition also granted them access to professions related to the spiritual realm, such as shamans and religious functionaries. In ''Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas'' (1668), the Spanish historian and missionary
Francisco Ignacio Alcina Francisco Ignacio (de) Alcina SJ (also Alzina, Alçina) (February 2, 1610 – July 30, 1674) was a Spanish historian and a Jesuit missionary in the Philippines. He served as parish priest in the Visayan islands for 37 years. Most of those years ...
records that the ''asog'' became shamans by virtue of being themselves. Unlike female shamans, they neither needed to be chosen nor did they undergo initiation rites. However, not all ''asog'' trained to become shamans. Castano (1895) states that the people of Bicol would hold a thanksgiving ritual called ''atang'' that was "presided" by an "effeminate" priest called an ''asog''. His female counterpart, called a ''baliana'', assisted him and led the women in singing what was called the ''soraki'', in honor of Gugurang. Historical accounts suggest that during the precolonial period in the Philippines, female shamans predominated in the religious realm.From paragraph 26 (Brewer 1999): ''This prevalence of the male in matters spiritual was not replicated in the Philippine case, where it was the female shamans who predominated in the religious realm.'' The ''Bolinao Manuscript'' (1685), for example, records that during an Inquisitional investigation of the shamans in the town of Bolinao,
Pangasinan Pangasinan, officially the Province of Pangasinan ( pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Pangasinan, ; ilo, Probinsia ti Pangasinan; tl, Lalawigan ng Pangasinan), is a coastal province in the Philippines located in the Ilocos Region of Luzon. Its capit ...
between 1679 and 1685, animistic paraphernalia were confiscated from 148 people. Of those, 145 were female shamans, and the remaining three were transvestite male shamans, thus highlighting the statistical imbalance between the female-to-male ratio of indigenous shamans. The anonymously-written "Manila Manuscript" also emphasized the auxiliary role of gender non-conforming male shamans in relation to the female shamans. These evidences, together with the fact that there were no written accounts of female sex/male gender identification amongst the women who exercised authority within the spiritual sphere, prove that spiritual potency was not dependent upon the identification with a neuter "third" sex/gender space, but rather on the identification with the feminine – whether the biological sex was female or male. Femininity was considered the vehicle to the spirit world during the pre-colonial era, and the male shaman's identification with the feminine reinforced the normative situation of female as shaman. While Brewer (1999) agreed that it is naïve to dismiss the existence of a principal male shaman during the precolonial era, she also argued that such cases were unusual rather than the norm, and that the statistical imbalance in favour of principal male shamans occurred as a result of the influence of the male-centered Hispano-Catholic culture, such that in the late nineteenth century and in the early years of the twentieth century, in some areas like Negros, all the ''babaylan'' were male.For the previous statement regarding the Bolinao Manuscript, see paragraph 29. For the previous statement related to the Manila manuscript, see paragraph 31. For Brewer's comment regarding the spiritual potency of the shaman depending on identification with femininity and not on the identification with the neuter or third sex gender, see paragraph 34. Lachica (1996) has also hypothesized that the disappearance of female ''babaylan'' during the late Spanish colonial period was probably the influence of the male-led Catholic church that "ousted" the female ''babaylan'' since the people were looking for parallels to the male clergy. ''Babaylan'' can freely marry and have children, including male ''asog'' who were recorded by early Spanish colonists as being married to men.Early colonial accounts point out that same-sex sexual relations were common for precolonial Filipinos of both sexes, not only the ''asog''. In general, there was a great degree of sexual freedom in precolonial Filipino societies. Virginity was not valued, adultery was not perceived negatively, and there was wide use of genital piercings (''tugbuk'' and ''sakra''). (Brewer, 1999) In some ethnic groups, marriage was a prerequisite for gaining full shaman status. After the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, the practice of shamanism became clandestine due to persecution by the Catholic clergy. During this period, male shamans (particularly those specialized in the non-religious arts of herbalism and healing) became predominant. Female shamans became less common, while ''asog'' (shaman or otherwise) were punished harshly and driven to hiding. The change in women's status and the ostracization of the ''asog'', however, did not immediately change the originally feminine role of the shamans. Male shamans in the late 17th century still dressed as women during rituals, even though they did not do so in their day-to-day activities. Unlike the ancient ''asog'', they did not have sexual relations with other men, and indeed, were usually married to women.


Roles


Spirit mediums

The primary role of shamans were as spirit mediums. They were intermediaries between the physical world and the spirit world, due to their ability to influence and interact with the spirits (''
anito ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
''), both malevolent and benevolent. There are two general types of spirits usually interacted with in séance rituals. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular location or natural phenomenon (similar to
genii loci In Religion in ancient Rome, classical Roman religion, a ''genius loci'' (plural ''genii locorum'') was the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted in religious iconography as a figure holding attributes such as a cornucopia, patera ...
). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs, seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" or
totem A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or ''doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system. While ''the wo ...
s of various animals and plants. They have inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always conducted outdoors. The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits that have an independent existence. They appear in animals (usually as birds) or human-like forms,Spirits in human form are believed to be distinguishable from humans because they do not have a
philtrum The philtrum ( la, philtrum from Ancient Greek ''phíltron,'' lit. "love charm"), or medial cleft, is a vertical indentation in the middle area of the upper lip, common to therian mammals, extending in humans from the nasal septum to the tubercl ...
. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
have gender differentiation, and have personal names.Names of spirits are generally not spoken aloud outside of a shamanic ritual, as it is believed that it may provoke them. They are instead referred to in euphemistic terms like ''"dili ingon nato"'' or ''"hindi kagaya natin"'', literally meaning "those unlike us". (Buenconsejo, 2002; Tan, 2008) They are most similar to the
fairies A fairy (also fay, fae, fey, fair folk, or faerie) is a type of mythical being or legendary creature found in the folklore of multiple European cultures (including Celtic, Slavic, Germanic, English, and French folklore), a form of spirit, o ...
of European folklore.With strong parallels to human-like beings like
elves An elf () is a type of humanoid supernatural being in Germanic mythology and folklore. Elves appear especially in North Germanic mythology. They are subsequently mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's Icelandic Prose Edda. He distinguishes "ligh ...
and '' aos sí'', as well as diminutive human-like beings like brownies and pixies. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
These are the most common types of spirits to become ''abyan'', as they are the most "sociable" and can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to as ''engkanto'' (from Spanish ''encanto'') in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the "bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors. These categories are not static, however. A bound spirit can become unbound, and vice versa. Some shamans have spirit guides which are originally nature spirits that have become unbound. Not all shamanic rituals result in spirit possession. Unbound spirits always possess shamans during rituals. Either voluntarily or involuntarily. In contrast, bound spirits, as a rule, do not possess shamans. Instead, they are simply spoken to by the shaman. Bound spirits that inadvertently "stick" to humans are considered dangerous, and are the causes of spiritual illnesses, ranging from confusion, strange food cravings, lust, to unreasoning anger. Sometimes in order to speak to certain bound spirits, the shaman may need the intercession of their ''abyan'', who in turn will possess the shaman. Bound spirits can also be interacted with by non-shamans, like when offering sacrifices to the spirit of the forest before a hunt. The Katalonas performed public ceremonies for community prosperity, fertility, or seasonable weather as well as private services to diagnose and cure ailments. They were respected for these functions but they were also feared sorcerers able to work black magic. Their numbers too were large enough to put them in competition with one another. Individual success was attributed to the power of the deities with whom they identified, and who took possession of them in their frenzied dancing. The Tagalog word “olak” according to Ferdinand Blumentritt is a term for the trembling of the whole body of the catalona, when she becomes possessed by the devil (anito). As spirit mediums, they conducted séances during which they spoke with the voice of spirits (anito), assisted by an "alagar" ("alagad", meaning personal attendant) to carry on the dialogue with the supernatural, or sent their own kaluluwa (soul) to seek lost souls. In this state of trance, the catalona was called “tarotaro” iterally meaning voices for it was believed that the ancestral spirits had entered her body and were speaking from inside her. According to Blumentritt “tarotaro” is a Tagalog term describing the katalonas while possessed by the spirits, in this state, they cried tarotaro. When a catalona held the gift of prophecy, she was named masidhi (the fervent one).


Healing

Healing was the most important role for shamans in their communities. Shamans distinguished between two kinds of illnesses, the natural (or non-spiritual) illnesses, and the spiritual illnesses. Natural illnesses do not require a shaman for healing, while spiritual illnesses do. Like in other Austronesian cultures, animistic Filipinos believed in the concept of
soul dualism Soul dualism, also called dualistic pluralism or multiple souls, is a range of beliefs that a person has two or more kinds of souls. In many cases, one of the souls is associated with body functions ("body soul") and the other one can leave the bod ...
(sometimes referred to as "twin souls" or "double souls"). A person is believed to be composed of at least two souls—the breath of life (''ginhawa'' or ''hininga'', which stays with the living body) and the astral soul (the ''kalag'' or ''kaluluwa'', which can travel to the spirit world).Other names for the astral soul include ''kaluha'', ''dungan'' (Visayan); ''kalag'' ( Bicol); ''linnawa'' (
Igorot The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines are often referred to using the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples. There are nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains ar ...
), ''kaduwa'' ( Isneg), ''ab-abiik'' ( Kankanaey), ''karurua'' ( Ilocano), ''ikaruruwa'' ( Ibanag), ''karaduwa'' (
Mangyan Mangyan is the generic name for the eight indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of the island of Luzon, the Philippines, each with its own tribal name, language, and customs. The total population may be around 280,001, ...
), ''kiyaraluwa'' (
Tagbanwa The Tagbanwa people ( Tagbanwa: ) are one of the oldest ethnic groups in the Philippines, and can be mainly found in the central and northern Palawan. Research has shown that the Tagbanwa are possible descendants of the Tabon Man, thus making th ...
), ''makatu'' ( Bukidnon), and ''kadengan-dengan'' or ''gimokud'' (
Manobo The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991) Most of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust, 2010)
The ''ginhawa'' is believed to reside in the pit of the stomach (usually the
liver The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...
), while the ''kalag'' resides in the head. The ''ginhawa'' represents the person's body and bodily urges; while the ''kalag'' represents the person's identity, mind, and strength of will. Both are required in a living person. Natural illnesses are the result of damage to the ''ginhawa''. While they do not require a shaman, they are still important, as the death of the ''ginhawa'' will also mean the death of the body. They can range from wounds, broken bones, poisoning, and snakebites. These can be treated by skilled shamans, but were more often relegated to apprentices or assistants specializing in healing or herbalism. Spiritual illnesses, on the other hand, are believed to be caused by the separation of the ''kalag'' from the ''ginhawa'' (referred to as " soul loss" in
anthropological Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...
literature). This separation happens normally during sleep, where the ''kalag'' detaches to travel through the spirit world, resulting in dreams. However, when this separation happens when the person is awake, it results in spiritual illnesses. The causes of the separation can include the ''kalag'' getting lost in the spirit world; the ''kalag'' being captured, attacked, or seduced by another spirit; or simply the refusal of the ''kalag'' to return to the ''ginhawa''. While it is not immediately lethal, the loss of the ''kalag'' can result in the loss of the person's mind and identity—thus insanity. Spiritual illnesses also include delirium, depression, trauma, fainting spells, and other mental illnesses. Evil or undesirable behavior may also be blamed on disharmony between the ''kalag'' and the ''ginhawa''. Shamans may also perform rituals to heal and strengthen the ''kalag'' of a person. These include the ritual of ''batak dungan'' or ''batakan'' among Visayan shamans. It strengthens and empowers the ''kalag'' of a person to prepare them for challenges, problems and obstacles. This ritual also protects the person from possible spiritual attack caused by malevolent spirits and sorcery.


Traditional massage

Aside from rituals and herbal medicine, an ubiquitous traditional healing method done by shamans and healers is massage with oils (''lana'') known as ''
hilot Hilot (/HEE-lot/) is an ancient Filipino art of healing. It uses manipulation and massage to achieve the treatment outcome, although techniques differ from one practitioner to another. It emerged from the shamanic tradition of the ancient Filipin ...
'' or ''haplos''.Also ''aplos'' (Bontoc); ''aptus'' (Ivatan); ''unar'' (Kalinga); ''kemkem'' (Pangasinan); ''ilot'' or ''ilut'' (Ilocano, Itawis, Zambal, & Pampango); ''ablon'' (northern Ilocano); ''ilu'' (Ibanag); ''ilat'' (Isneg); ''elot'' (Ilonggo); ''agod'' or ''agud'' (Maranao & Maguindanao); and ''hagud'' (Lumad) It is still commonly practiced to this day.


Divination

Divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...
was closely tied to healing, as it was primarily used for diagnosing illnesses. It can be done by the shamans or by specialized apprentices with the necessary skill. Various paraphernalia and rituals are used to diagnose illnesses, examples include seashells, ginger,
quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical form ...
or
alum An alum () is a type of chemical compound, usually a hydrated double salt, double sulfate salt (chemistry), salt of aluminium with the general chemical formula, formula , where is a valence (chemistry), monovalent cation such as potassium or a ...
crystal A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...
s (''tawas''), and chicken entrails. Diviners have names that indicate their preferred methods. For example, a diviner using alum crystals is known as a ''magtatawas'', while a diviner that prefers to conduct a ritual known as ''luop'' is known as a ''mangluluop''. Diviners are also able to foretell the future and perform geomancy rituals. A key mythological creature used in ''babaylan'' geomancy in the Visayas is the ''
bakunawa The Bakunawa is a serpent-like dragon in Philippine mythology. It is believed to be the cause of eclipses, earthquakes, rains, and wind. The movements of the Bakunawa served as a geomantic calendar system for ancient Filipinos and were part of t ...
'' (or ''naga''), usually depicted as a gigantic serpent or dragon with a looped tail. The movements of the ''bakunawa'' affected the physical world, from the phases of the moon, to eclipses, the weather, floods, and earthquakes. The ''bakunawa'' was central to a sixteen-point
compass rose A compass rose, sometimes called a wind rose, rose of the winds or compass star, is a figure on a compass, map, nautical chart, or monument used to display the orientation of the cardinal directions (north, east, south, and west) and their int ...
. It faces a different
cardinal direction The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively. Relative to north, the directions east, south, and west are at ...
every three months; facing north (''aminhan''), west (''katungdan''), south (''bagatnan''), and east (''sidlangan'') in a given twelve-month lunar year. The mouth of the ''bakunawa'' is believed to bring misfortune and evil, and various points in the compass all had different aspects depending on where the mouth was facing. These were consulted when making future plans like travel, trade, or marriage. When building houses, shamans were also often consulted to determine the most propitious placement of the foundations to avoid the ill luck brought by the ''bakunawa''.Similar beliefs exist throughout
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. These include the
Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
n ''nak'',
Burmese Burmese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Myanmar, a country in Southeast Asia * Burmese people * Burmese language * Burmese alphabet * Burmese cuisine * Burmese culture Animals * Burmese cat * Burmese chicken * Burmese (hor ...
''naga'', and
Thai Thai or THAI may refer to: * Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia ** Thai people, the dominant ethnic group of Thailand ** Thai language, a Tai-Kadai language spoken mainly in and around Thailand *** Thai script *** Thai (Unicode block ...
''naag''. Though the cycles do not correspond exactly, all of them were used as a sort of geomantic calendar.


Sorcery

Some shamans were believed to be able to control the physical world through incantations, talismans, potions, or their spirit intermediaries.There are various names for sorcerers in Philippine ethnic groups, different from the term for "shaman". Most of these names have negative connotations, and thus is also translated to "
witch Witchcraft traditionally means the use of Magic (supernatural), magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In Middle Ages, medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually ...
" or "
hag HAG is a Swiss maker of model trains. The company was founded by Hugo and Alwin Gahler on 1 April 1944 in St. Gallen, Switzerland. The Gahler brothers originally manufactured model trains in O scale but due to competition, particularly by Märk ...
" in English sources. They include Bikol: ''parakaraw''; Ilocano: ''managtanem'', ''managinulod'', ''mannamay''; Ivatan: ''mamkaw'', ''manulib'';
Kapampangan Kapampangan, Capampañgan or Pampangan may refer to: *Kapampangan people of the Philippines *Kapampangan language Kapampangan or Pampangan is an Austronesian language, and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary ...
: ''mangkukusim'' (or ''mangkukusino'');
Pangasinan Pangasinan, officially the Province of Pangasinan ( pag, Luyag/Probinsia na Pangasinan, ; ilo, Probinsia ti Pangasinan; tl, Lalawigan ng Pangasinan), is a coastal province in the Philippines located in the Ilocos Region of Luzon. Its capit ...
: ''manananem'', ''mangngibawanen''; Tagalog: ''mangkukulam'' (or ''mancocolam''), ''mangagaway'', ''may-galing'', ''hukluban'' (or ''hukloban'');
Visayan Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
: ''dalagangan'', ''dunganon'', ''dalongdongan'', ''busalian'', ''mamamarang'' (or ''mamalarang'', ''barangan''), ''usikan'' (or ''osikan''), ''paktolan'', ''sigbinan'', ''manughiwit'', ''mamumuyag'', ''mang-aawog'' (or ''mang-aawug'', ''mang-aaug'').
Healers are more strongly associated with sorcerers than mediums. In most cases, a healer is also a sorcerer. In order to cure or counteract sorcerous illnesses, healers must themselves know sorcery. This relationship is most apparent in
Siquijor Siquijor ( , ), officially the Province of Siquijor ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Siquijor; tl, Lalawigan ng Siquijor), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region. Its capital is the municipality also named Siquijor ...
Island, where healer-sorcerers are still common. In some cultures like the
Manobo people The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
, shamans are entirely differentiated from sorcerers. Shamans deal with the spirit world and supernatural beings but do not have magical powers of their own; while sorcerers were regarded as human beings with powers gained from magical spells or objects. Illnesses believed to be caused by sorcery are treated differently from illnesses caused by spirits. The former are treated with counter-spells, simple antidotes, and physical healing; while the latter requires the intervention or dialogue with the spirits and thus a shaman ritual. In contrast, in Visayan societies, the most powerful shamans were sorcerers known as ''dalagangan'' (also ''dalongdongan'' or ''busalian''). They could purportedly command the elements through magic spells and the strength of their ''kalag'' (or ''dungan'') which was equated with " piritualpower".People with strong ''dungan'' are known as ''dunganon''. They are described as being charismatic, very intelligent, confident, and strong-willed. They have a tendency to dominate others, and can do so without consciously being aware of it. They are natural leaders and are often respected ranking members of the community and thus tend to become sorcerers, shamans, chieftains, master craftsmen, or renowned warrior-heroes (known variously as ''bayani'', ''bagani'', or ''banwar'' in various Filipino ethnic groups). The concept of ''dungan'' is comparable to the term '' mana'' in
Pacific Islander Pacific Islanders, Pasifika, Pasefika, or rarely Pacificers are the peoples of the list of islands in the Pacific Ocean, Pacific Islands. As an ethnic group, ethnic/race (human categorization), racial term, it is used to describe the original p ...
culture as well as similar "men of prowess" concepts in other Austronesian cultures. (Aguilar, 1998)
Their alleged powers include conjuring fire or water, flight, shape-shifting, invisibility, invulnerability, and the ability to call down disasters. The '' dios-dios'' leaders of the Visayan peasant revolts in the late 19th century often claimed to possess these kinds of powers. A more common use of the power to command elements is
rainmaking Rainmaking, also known as artificial precipitation, artificial rainfall and pluviculture, is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation, usually to stave off drought or the wider global warming. According to the cloud ...
. A notable example was Estrella Bangotbanwa, a Karay-a ''ma-aram'' from southern
Iloilo Iloilo (), officially the Province of Iloilo ( hil, Kapuoran sang Iloilo; krj, Kapuoran kang Iloilo; tl, Lalawigan ng Iloilo), is a province in the Philippines located in the Western Visayas region. Its capital is the City of Iloilo, the ...
. According to local legend, she alleviated a three-year drought by performing a ritual that summoned a rainstorm. Sorcery was not restricted to shamans, but were also a common claim for leaders and warrior-heroes. In the pre-Islamic Maranao society depicted in the '' Darangen'' epic poem, heroes are born with "twin spirits" (''tonong'' in Maranao) that grant them superhuman abilities. King Awilawil o Ndaw of the kingdom of Kaibat a Kadaan for example, has a ''tonong'' named Salindagaw Masingir that can take the aspect of typhoons, floods, and pillars of fire; while King Dalondong a Mimbantas of the kingdom of Gindolongan Marogong has a ''tonong'' named Mabokelod a Romba which took the form of a giant crocodile.


Talismans and potions

Numerous types of shamans use different kinds of items in their work, such as talismans or charms known as
agimat ''Agimat'', also known as ''Anting'' or folklorized as ''Anting-anting'', is a Filipino word for "amulet" or "charm"."Tagalog-English Dictionary by Leo James English, Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, Manila, distributed by National Book ...
or anting-anting, curse deflectors such as
buntot pagi Buntot pagi or stingray tail is a type of Filipino whiplike weapon. It is most known for fighting and warding off aswangs and other similar mythical creatures in Philippine folklore. In actual combat, a Buntot Pagi is often used with a balaraw or ...
, and sacred oil concoctions, among many other objects.


Black magic

Sorcerers are also believed to have powers that cause harm to other people covertly. Healer-sorcerers who practice this kind of sorcery usually justify it as a form of criminal punishment, as a widespread belief is that black magic does not work on people who are innocent. Their targets are usually "wrongdoers" like thieves, adulterous spouses, or
land grabbers Land grabbing is the contentious issue of large-scale land acquisitions: the buying or leasing of large pieces of land by domestic and transnational companies, governments, and individuals. While used broadly throughout history, land grabbing as ...
. Sorcery of this type is seen as a kind of "justice", especially for people who can not (or failed to) legally prosecute a wrongdoer. There are also "true" sorcerers who are said to have hereditary sorcerous powers. Unlike healers, they do not consider the justice of their actions. The latter type of sorcerers are often conflated with the '' aswang'', evil
vampire A vampire is a mythical creature that subsists by feeding on the Vitalism, vital essence (generally in the form of blood) of the living. In European folklore, vampires are undead, undead creatures that often visited loved ones and caused mi ...
-like supernatural beings capable of appearing human (or were originally human). The negative counterparts of the shamans are collectively called as
witches Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have use ...
, however, these witches actually include a variety of different kinds of people with differing occupations and cultural connotations which depend on the ethnic group they are associated with. They are completely different from the Western notion of what a witch is. Notable examples of witches in a Philippine concept are the mannamay, witches known to the Ibanag people,
mangkukulam Filipino witches are the users of black magic and related practices from the Philippines. They include a variety of different kinds of people with differing occupations and cultural connotations which depend on the ethnic group they are associat ...
, witches that use materials from nature and the cursee as a form of curse, and the
mambabarang Filipino witches are the users of black magic and related practices from the Philippines. They include a variety of different kinds of people with differing occupations and cultural connotations which depend on the ethnic group they are associat ...
, witches that utilize insects as a form of curse.


Social status

''Babaylan'' were highly respected members of the community, on par with the pre-colonial
noble class Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The characteristi ...
. In the absence of the
datu ''Datu'' is a title which denotes the rulers (variously described in historical accounts as chiefs, sovereign princes, and monarchs) of numerous indigenous peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The title is still used today, especial ...
(head of the community), the babaylan takes in the role of interim head of the community. Babaylans were powerful ritual specialists who were believed to have influence over the weather and tap various spirits in the natural and spiritual realms. Babaylans were held in such high regard as they were believed to possess powers that can block the dark magic of an evil datu or spirit and heal the sick or wounded. Among other powers of the babaylan were to ensure a safe pregnancy and child birth. As a spiritual medium, babaylans also lead rituals with offerings to the various divinities or deities. As an expert in divine and herb lore, incantations, and concoctions of remedies, antidotes, and a variety of potions from various roots, leaves, and seeds, the babaylans were also regarded as allies of certain datus in subjugating an enemy, hence, the babaylans were also known for their specialization in medical and divine combat. According to William Henry Scott (Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippines Culture and Society) a Katalonan could be of either sex, or male transvestites (bayoguin), but were usually women from prominent families who were wealthy in their own right. According to Luciano P. R. Santiago (To Love and to Suffer) as remuneration for their services they received a good part of the offerings of food, wine, clothing, and gold, the quality and quantity of which depended on the social status of the supplicant. Thus, the catalonas filled a very prestigious as well as lucrative role in society. Shamans of the many ethnicities in the Philippines always have another role in the community, aside from being spiritualists. Similar to the Shinto kannushi, among the jobs of the shaman range from being a merchant, warrior, farmer, fisherfolk, blacksmith, crafstfolk, weaver, potter, musician, and even as a barber or chef, depending on the preference of the shaman, skill of the shaman, and the need of the community. Some shamans have more than two occupations at a time, especially if a community lacks people with the needed skills to take upon the role of certain jobs. This tradition of having a second job (or more than two jobs) has been ingrained in certain cultural societies in the Philippines and is still practiced today by certain communities that have not been converted into Christianity. Specific communities that have been converted into Islam have also preserved this tradition through Muslim imams.Myths of the Philippines; Gaverza, J.K., 2014, University of the Philippines Diliman Their influence waned when most of the ethnic groups of the Philippines were converted to
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
and
Catholicism The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
. Under the
Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
, ''babaylan'' were often maligned and falsely accused as
witches Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have use ...
and "priests of the devil" and were persecuted harshly by the Spanish clergy. The Spanish burned down everything they associated as connected to the native people's indigenous religion (including shrines such as the dambana), even forcefully ordering native children to defecate on their own god's idols, murdering those who disobey. Spanish friars often sought out and persecuted female shamans. In modern Philippine society, their roles have largely been taken over by folk healers, which are now predominantly male, while some are still being falsely accused as "witches". In areas where the people have not been converted into Muslims or Christians, notably ancestral domains of indigenous peoples, the shamans and their cultural traits have continued to exist with their respective communities, although these shamans and their practices are being slowly diluted by
Abrahamic religions The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish tradition ...
.


Persecution, decline, and syncretization

The Spanish colonization of the Philippines and the introduction of Catholic Christianity resulted in the extinction of most native shamanistic practices. Christianity was initially seen by native Filipinos as another type of ''
anito ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
''. The Spanish missionaries exploited this misconception in their successful conversion and occupation of most of the islands with minimal military support. Spanish
friar A friar is a member of one of the mendicant orders founded in the twelfth or thirteenth century; the term distinguishes the mendicants' itinerant apostolic character, exercised broadly under the jurisdiction of a superior general, from the ol ...
s were seen as "shamans" whose souls and spirit guides were apparently more powerful than the native ones. They desecrated religious objects, sacred trees, and sacred areas with impunity, earning the awe of the natives. They could also cure various diseases that the native shamans could not. By the late 16th century, Christian symbols and paraphernalia (like
rosaries The Rosary (; la, , in the sense of "crown of roses" or "garland of roses"), also known as the Dominican Rosary, or simply the Rosary, refers to a set of prayers used primarily in the Catholic Church, and to the physical string of knots or b ...
,
crucifix A crucifix (from Latin ''cruci fixus'' meaning "(one) fixed to a cross") is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the ''corpus'' (Lati ...
es, and
holy water Holy water is water that has been blessed by a member of the clergy or a religious figure, or derived from a well or spring considered holy. The use for cleansing prior to a baptism and spiritual cleansing is common in several religions, from ...
) became fetish objects, and
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
prayers and verses became part of the shaman's repertoire of magical chants and spells. ''Anito'' images (''taotao'') were replaced by Catholic idols and their rituals
syncretized Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
, including attributing ''anito''-like powers to the idols such as miraculous healing or the ability to possess people.Examples include the festivals of the Black Nazarene and the Santo Niño de Cebú (McCoy, 1982) These flourished as they were tolerated by the Spanish clergy as " white magic". Nature spirits (''
diwata ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
'') during this period were also syncretized with the friars themselves, becoming known as ''engkanto'' and being described as having European features, along with a propensity for deceiving, seducing, and playing tricks on people. The previously high status of the ''babaylan'' was lost. The role of women and the relative gender egalitarianism of Philippine animistic cultures, in general, became more subdued under the
patriarchal Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of Dominance hierarchy, dominance and Social privilege, privilege are primarily held by men. It is used, both as a technical Anthropology, anthropological term for families or clans controll ...
culture of the Spanish. Most ''babaylan'' were stigmatized by the Catholic clergy as
witches Witchcraft traditionally means the use of magic or supernatural powers to harm others. A practitioner is a witch. In medieval and early modern Europe, where the term originated, accused witches were usually women who were believed to have use ...
,
satanists Satanism is a group of ideological and philosophical beliefs based on Satan. Contemporary religious practice of Satanism began with the founding of the atheistic Church of Satan by Anton LaVey in the United States in 1966, although a few h ...
, or mentally unstable. The Spanish burned down everything they associated with the native people's indigenous religions (including shrines such as the '' dambana''), even forcefully ordering native children to defecate on their own gods' idols. An account of the conversion of a ''katalona'' was provided by a Spanish priest named Pedro Chirino (1604). He wrote that a blind ''katalona'' named Diego Magsanga, along with his wife (who was said to be a skilled midwife), converted to Christianity. After he was baptized he became a faithful assistant of the friars in expanding Christianity in Silang, Cavite, teaching children and adults the catechism. Chirino also reported that many people followed Magsanga and even the Jesuits could not surpass him when it came to devotion to the teachings of the Church and diligence in teaching his brethren. Magsanga was not a priest; his likely role was that of a ''hermano''. Chirino also mentioned another male ''katalona'' who, together with a group of peers he was leading, was convinced by Jesuit priest Francisco Almerique to convert to Christianity. Chirino noted that this ''katalona'' wore his hair long (which is unusual for Tagalog men) and braided it to signify his priesthood. Before he was baptized, in front of an audience, he cut his hair as a sign that the power of the ''anito'' had been broken. Shamans who were assimilated by the church syncretized their roles into
mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...
in the Christian context, becoming
faith healers Faith healing is the practice of prayer and gestures (such as laying on of hands) that are believed by some to elicit divine intervention in spiritual and physical healing, especially the Christian practice. Believers assert that the healing ...
and miracle workers. These include the ''beata'' movement in the 17th and 18th centuries, the messianic (and usually
revolutionary A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates a revolution. The term ''revolutionary'' can also be used as an adjective, to refer to something that has a major, sudden impact on society or on some aspect of human endeavor. ...
) '' dios-dios'' movement of the late 19th century, and the ''espiritista'' (or ''spiritista'') movement of the 20th century. However, their methods of worship remained basically the same. The faith healers were still, in essence, mediums; but instead of channeling ''anito'', they instead claimed to channel
saints In religious belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual res ...
, angels, or the
Holy Spirit In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is the divine force, quality, and influence of God over the Universe or over his creatures. In Nicene Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as ...
. Late-20th-century and 21st-century faith healers also frequently use western
esoteric Western esotericism, also known as esotericism, esoterism, and sometimes the Western mystery tradition, is a term scholars use to categorise a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas a ...
and
pseudoscientific Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable claim ...
terminology and practices (like " psychic energy" and
psychic surgery An alleged psychic surgeon at work Psychic surgery is a pseudoscientific medical fraud in which practitioners create the illusion of performing surgery with their bare hands and use sleight of hand, fake blood, and animal parts to convince t ...
), with little connection to traditional shamanic religions. Other shamans abandoned the animistic aspects of shamanism and became folk healers (''
arbularyo Albularyo is a Filipino language, Filipino term for a witch doctor, folk healer or medicine men. They practice folk medicine and use medicinal plants in their trade. Overview Role and functions An albularyo is a "folk doctor" commonly found in th ...
''),Derived from Spanish ''herbolario'' ("herbalist"). These generalist healers were also known by the Spanish as ''mediquillos'', ''saludadores'', or ''curanderos'' (Marco, 2001)
midwives A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery. The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; con ...
, and practitioners of traditional ''hilot'' massage therapy with oils. These modern versions of ''babaylan'' are now usually male (except midwives). They are sought out by those with minor ailments or illnesses that modern medicine can not diagnose or cure. Like ancient ''babaylan'', modern ''babaylan'' distinguish between "spiritual diseases" and "natural diseases"; the latter they will usually refer to a medical doctor. Similarly, among
Muslim Filipinos Islam was the first-recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines. Islam reached the Philippines in the 14th century with the arrival of Muslim traders from the Persian Gulf, southern India, and their followers from several sultanates in th ...
, shamans, usually male, are now relegated to folk healing and dealing with "indigenous" spirits. All other aspects of the religious life of Muslim Filipinos have been taken over by Islamic religious leaders. A direct equivalent of the Christian Filipino "faith healers" and ''albolaryo'' are Islamized shamans known as ''pandita'' or ''guru''. They follow Islam but also provide traditional healing practices and cultural rituals retained from their shamanistic past. They usually perform minor rites like ''
aqiqah ʾAqīqah (), aqeeqa, or aqeeqah is the Islamic tradition of the sacrifice of an animal on the occasion of a child's birth. Aqiqah is a type of '' sadaqah'' and it is also ''sunnah'', though not obligatory. Description According to hadith and the ...
'' (cutting the hair of the firstborn) and '' ruqqiya'' (exorcism). A version of the traditional massage therapy conducted by folk healers also exists, known as ''agud'' or ''agod'' among the Maranao and Maguindanao people. Most strongly affected by this religious shift to
Abrahamic religions The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish tradition ...
were the feminized male ''asog'' shamans. During the 17th to 18th centuries, Spanish administrators in the Philippines burned people convicted of homosexual relations at the stake and confiscated their possessions, in accordance with a decree by the president of the
Real Audiencia A ''Real Audiencia'' (), or simply an ''Audiencia'' ( ca, Reial Audiència, Audiència Reial, or Audiència), was an appellate court in Spain and its empire. The name of the institution literally translates as Royal Audience. The additional des ...
, Pedro Hurtado Desquibel. Several instances of such punishments were recorded by the Spanish priest Juan Francisco de San Antonio in his ''Chronicas de la Apostolica Provincia de San Gregorio'' (1738–1744). Feminized men were also persecuted harshly in the (then recently) Islamized ethnic groups in
Mindanao Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
. In ''Historia de las Islas de Mindanao, Iolo, y sus adyacentes'' (1667), the Spanish priest Francisco Combés records that their "unnatural crime" was punished by the Muslim peoples in Mindanao with death by burning or drowning, and that their houses and property were also burned as they believed that the behavior was contagious.


Resistance against colonial rule

A few followers of the native shamanism resisted Spanish rule and conversion, especially in areas difficult to reach for Spanish missionaries, like the highlands of
Luzon Luzon (; ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the Philippines archipelago, it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila, as ...
and the interiors of
Mindanao Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
. In Spanish-controlled areas (especially in the
Visayas The Visayas ( ), or the Visayan Islands (Bisayan languages, Visayan: ''Kabisay-an'', ; tl, Kabisayaan ), are one of the three Island groups of the Philippines, principal geographical divisions of the Philippines, along with Luzon and Mindanao ...
), entire villages would defy the policies of '' reducciónes'' (resettlement) and move deeper into the island interiors at the instigation of their ''babaylan''. Shamanistic rituals also continued to be performed secretly in some areas, though these were punished by the Spanish clergy when discovered. Open revolts led by shamans were common during Spanish rule. Aside from the early revolts in the 17th century, most of these were led by religious leaders who practiced Folk Catholicism rather than true shamanism.


17th century

The first recorded armed revolt led by a ''babaylan'' was the Tamblot uprising of
Bohol Bohol (), officially the Province of Bohol ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bohol; tl, Lalawigan ng Bohol), is an island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas Regions of the Philippines, region, consisting of the island itself and 75 m ...
in 1621–1622. It was led by a male shaman named
Tamblot Tamblot ( 1621–1622) was the name given to a ''babaylan'' (a Visayan term for mediums and religious leaders in the Philippines' pre-colonial and early colonial periods) who incited a series of uprisings against Spanish colonial rule in the ...
who saw the spread of Catholicism as a threat. He rallied around two thousand followers in an effort to "return to the old ways", but his rebellion was crushed by the Spanish authorities with the help of converted native auxiliaries. Tamblot's revolt inspired another rebellion in neighboring
Carigara, Leyte Carigara (), officially the Municipality of Carigara ( war, Bungto han Carigara; tl, Bayan ng Carigara), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 54,656 people. The ...
in the same time period. The Bankaw revolt was led by a ''
datu ''Datu'' is a title which denotes the rulers (variously described in historical accounts as chiefs, sovereign princes, and monarchs) of numerous indigenous peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The title is still used today, especial ...
'' named Bankaw and his son Pagali who was a ''babaylan''. Bankaw's rebellion was notable as Bankaw was one of the first converts to Catholicism in the Philippines. As a young man, he had formerly welcomed the ''
conquistador Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (, ; meaning 'conquerors') were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, O ...
''
Miguel López de Legazpi Miguel López de Legazpi (12 June 1502 – 20 August 1572), also known as '' El Adelantado'' and ''El Viejo'' (The Elder), was a Spaniard who, from the age of 26, lived and built a career in Mexico (then the Viceroyalty of New Spain) and, i ...
in 1565 when their expedition first landed on the islands. Like Tamblot, Bankaw and Pagali both wanted a return to the old ways. Bankaw renounced his Catholic faith and built a temple to a ''
diwata ''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
''. Their rebellion was defeated by the Spanish
Governor-general Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy t ...
Alonso Fajardo de Entenza. Bankaw was beheaded, while Pagali and eighty-one other ''babaylan'' were burned at the stake. The
Tapar rebellion Tapar can refer to: ;People: *Muhammad I Tapar, a Sultan of the Seljuq Empire from 1105–1118 * Tapar, a Visayan shaman Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spiri ...
was an uprising in
Iloilo Iloilo (), officially the Province of Iloilo ( hil, Kapuoran sang Iloilo; krj, Kapuoran kang Iloilo; tl, Lalawigan ng Iloilo), is a province in the Philippines located in the Western Visayas region. Its capital is the City of Iloilo, the ...
,
Panay Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of and has a total population of 4,542,926 as of 2020 census. Panay comprises 4.4 percent of the entire population of the country. The City o ...
led by a ''babaylan'' named Tapar in 1663. Tapar syncretized native shamanism with Catholic terminology and declared himself "God Almighty" of a new religion. He also emulated the ancient ''asog'' by dressing up in women's clothing. He and his followers killed a Spanish priest and burned the town church before escaping to the mountains. Tapar and other leaders of his movement were captured and executed by Spanish and Filipino soldiers.


18th century

A religious uprising in 1785 in Ituy (modern
Aritao Aritao, officially the Municipality of Aritao ( gad, Ili na Aritao; ilo, Ili ti Aritao; tl, Bayan ng Aritao), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 42,197 ...
), Nueva Vizcaya was led by a healer named Lagutao. He claimed that an outbreak of
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
in northern
Luzon Luzon (; ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the Philippines archipelago, it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila, as ...
was a result of the natives abandoning their ancestral beliefs. It was suppressed by neighboring Christian townsmen led by
Dominican friars The Order of Preachers ( la, Ordo Praedicatorum) abbreviated OP, also known as the Dominicans, is a Catholic mendicant order of Pontifical Right for men founded in Toulouse, France, by the Spanish priest, saint and mystic Dominic of Cal ...
.


19th century

The 19th century saw the rise of the ''dios-dios'' "shamans". ''Dios-dios'' (literally " god pretender" or "false god", from Spanish ''dios'') were religious leaders so named because of their penchant for identifying themselves with Christian religious figures. They led
cult In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
-like religious movements, promising prosperity, supernatural powers, or healing to their followers. Most were mere
charlatan A charlatan (also called a swindler or mountebank) is a person practicing quackery or a similar confidence trick in order to obtain money, power, fame, or other advantages through false pretenses, pretense or deception. Synonyms for ''charlatan ...
s selling amulets and magical pieces of paper. Their members were mostly from the illiterate rural poor who had little knowledge of formal Catholic teachings and were living in extreme poverty under colonial rule. There are numerous examples of ''dios-dios'' leaders in the 19th century. They include Lungao, a healer from
Ilocos Ilocos Region ( ilo, Rehion/Deppaar ti Ilocos; pag, Sagor na Baybay na Luzon/Rehiyon Uno; tl, Rehiyon ng Ilocos) is an administrative region of the Philippines, designated as Region I, occupying the northwestern section of Luzon and part of ...
who claimed he was Jesus Christ in 1811; Ignacio Dimas, who led the "Tres Cristos" ("Three Christs") of Libmanan, Nueva Cáceres (modern
Camarines Sur Camarines Sur ( bcl, Habagatan na Camarines; tl, Timog Camarines), officially the Province of Camarines Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Bicol Region on Luzon. Its capital is Pili and the province borders Camarines Norte and ...
) who claimed they had supernatural powers over diseases in 1865; Benedicta, an old woman and a healer who called herself "La Santa de Leyte" ("The Saint of Leyte") in 1862 and prophesied that the island of
Leyte Leyte ( ) is an island in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is eighth-largest and sixth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 2,626,970 as of 2020 census. Since the accessibility of land has be ...
would sink; Clara Tarrosa, an eighty-year-old ''babaylan'' in
Tigbauan Tigbauan, officially the Municipality of Tigbauan ( krj, Banwa kang Tigbauan; hil, Banwa sang Tigbauan; tl, Bayan ng Tigbauan), is a 2nd class municipality in the province of Iloilo, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a populati ...
, Iloilo in the late 1880s who proclaimed herself the
Virgin Mary Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother o ...
and isolated herself and her followers from Spanish rule; Francisco Gonzalez (alias "Francisco Sales" or "Fruto Sales") of
Jaro, Leyte Jaro (IPA: haɾo, officially the Municipality of Jaro ( war, Bungto han Jaro; tl, Bayan ng Jaro), is a 3rd class municipality in the province of Leyte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 43,758 people. History In ...
who claimed in 1888 that he was a king sent to save people from another great flood by leading them to a city that would rise from the waves; and many more. These movements were usually suppressed by the Spanish by imprisoning their leaders or exiling them. The ''dios-dios'' movement was initially purely religious, only reacting defensively to Spanish persecution. However, by the 1880s, some ''dios-dios'' groups became more violently anti-colonial. The first such group was the one led by Ponciano Elofre, a ''
cabeza de barangay A ''cabeza de barangay'' (literally "head of hebarangay), also known as ''teniente del barrio'', was the leader or chief of a barangay or barrio in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period.Scott, William Henry. ''Barangay Sixteenth-Cen ...
'' of a ''
sitio A ''sitio'' (Spanish for "site") in the Philippines is a territorial enclave that forms part of a barangay. Typically rural, a ''sitios location is usually far from the center of the barangay itself and could be its own barangay if its popul ...
'' of
Zamboanguita Zamboanguita ( ceb, Lungsod sa Zamboanguita; tl, Bayan ng Zamboanguita), officially the Municipality of Zamboanguita, is a 4th class municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Negros Oriental, Philipp ...
, Negros Oriental. He took the name " Dios Buhawi" ("Whirlwind God") and proclaimed himself the savior of the people. He declared that they would stop paying taxes to the Spanish government. He formed a community of around two thousand followers (whom the Spanish authorities called the ''babaylanes'') and would regularly attack Spanish-controlled towns. Emulating the ancient ''asog'' shamans, he dressed in women's clothing and assumed feminine mannerisms even though he was married to a woman. He claimed supernatural powers much like the ancient ''dalagangan''. He was killed while attacking the town of
Siaton Siaton ( ceb, Lungsod sa Siaton; tl, Bayan ng Siaton), officially the Municipality of Siaton, is a 1st class municipality and the southernmost settlement in the province of Negros Oriental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a po ...
in 1887. His wife and relatives attempted to continue the movement, but they were eventually captured and exiled by Spanish authorities. The remnants of the group either descended to banditry or joined other later ''dios-dios'' movements. Another ''dios-dios'' uprising was led by a shaman named
Gregorio Lampinio Gregorio is a masculine given name and a surname. It may refer to: Given name * Gregorio Conrado Álvarez (1925–2016), Uruguayan army general and de facto President of Uruguay from 1981 until 1985 * Gregorio Álvarez (historian) (1889–1986), A ...
(better known as "Gregorio Dios", and also known as "Hilario Pablo" or "Papa") in
Antique An antique ( la, antiquus; 'old', 'ancient') is an item perceived as having value because of its aesthetic or historical significance, and often defined as at least 100 years old (or some other limit), although the term is often used loosely ...
from 1888. The uprising was formed near
Mount Balabago Mount is often used as part of the name of specific mountains, e.g. Mount Everest. Mount or Mounts may also refer to: Places * Mount, Cornwall, a village in Warleggan parish, England * Mount, Perranzabuloe, a hamlet in Perranzabuloe parish, C ...
, a sacred pilgrimage site for shamans. Lampinio led a force of around 400 people. They collected ''contribuciones babaylanes'' (a
revolutionary tax Revolutionary tax is a major form of funding for violent non-state actors such as guerrilla and terrorist organizations. Those outside the organization may consider it to be a euphemism for "protection money."Guardia Civil by 1890. The last significant ''dios-dios'' rebellion in the 19th century was led by Dionisio Magbuelas, better known as Papa Isio ("Pope Isio"). He was a former member of the Dios Buhawi group. He organized his own ''babaylanes'' group from remnants of Elofre's followers and led an uprising in Negros Occidental in 1896 against Spanish rule. After the Philippines was ceded to the United States after the
Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...
, he was initially made "military chief" of La Castellana, Negros Occidental under the American government. However, he picked up armed resistance again in 1899 in the
Philippine–American War The Philippine–American War or Filipino–American War ( es, Guerra filipina-estadounidense, tl, Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano), previously referred to as the Philippine Insurrection or the Tagalog Insurgency by the United States, was an arm ...
. He surrendered on August 6, 1907, to American authorities and was sentenced to death. This was later commuted to life imprisonment and he died in the Manila Bilibid Prison in 1911.


20th century

Concurrent with Papa Isio's rebellion in Negros Occidental against American rule, the ''dios-dios'' movement in eastern Visayas turned their attention to the new American colonial government. Calling themselves the Pulajanes ("those who wear red"), they were led by Faustino Ablen ("Papa Faustino") in
Leyte Leyte ( ) is an island in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is eighth-largest and sixth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 2,626,970 as of 2020 census. Since the accessibility of land has be ...
; and Pablo Bulan ("Papa Pablo"), Antonio Anugar, and Pedro de la Cruz in
Samar Samar ( ) is the third-largest and seventh-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 1,909,537 as of the 2020 census. It is located in the eastern Visayas, which are in the central Philippines. The island is divided in ...
. Like their predecessors, they claimed supernatural powers and used fetishistic amulets, holy oils, and magic spells in battle. They attacked both American troops and local Filipinos cooperating with the American colonial government. The last Pulajanes leader was killed in 1911.


See also

*
Philippine mythology Philippine mythology is the body of stories and epics originating from, and part of, the indigenous Philippine folk religions, which include various ethnic faiths distinct from one another. Philippine mythology is incorporated from various ...
*
Bobohizan A ''Bobohizan'' (Tangaa' Kadazan term) or ''Bobolian'' (Bundu Liwan Dusun term) is a high priestess, a ritual specialist and a spirit medium in Kadazan-Dusun pagan rites. The office of ''Bobohizan'' or ''Bobolian'', is also the chief preserver ...
* Gabâ *
Hun and po ''Hun'' () and ''po'' () are types of souls in Chinese philosophy and traditional religion. Within this ancient soul dualism tradition, every living human has both a spiritual, ethereal, yang soul which leaves the body after death, and also a co ...
* Kahuna * Mana * Miko *
Negros Revolution The Negros Revolution ( fil, Himagsikang Negrense; ceb, Rebolusyong Negrense; es, Revolución negrense), commemorated and popularly known as the Fifth of November ( es, links=no, Cinco de noviembre) or Negros Day ( hil, Adlaw sang Negros; ce ...
*
Santería Santería (), also known as Regla de Ocha, Regla Lucumí, or Lucumí, is an African diaspora religions, African diasporic religion that developed in Cuba during the late 19th century. It arose through a process of syncretism between the tradit ...
* Tamblot Uprising *
Two-spirit Two-spirit (also two spirit, 2S or, occasionally, twospirited) is a modern, , umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender-variant) ...
*
Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people The indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people (sometimes referred to as ''Anitism'', or, less accurately, using the general term ''animism'') were well documented by Spanish missionaries, mostly in the form of epistolary accounts (''relac ...
*
Usog Usog or balis is a topic in psycho-medicine in Filipino Psychology (but considered just as a Filipino superstition in Western Psychology) where an affliction or psychological disorder is attributed to a greeting by a stranger, or an evil eye hex ...
* Pasma


Notes


References


External links


UP Babaylan

Babaylan Files



Center for Babaylan Studies



Further reading

* ''Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippines Culture and Society'' by William Henry Scott * ''To Love and to Suffer: the development of the religious congregations for women in the Spanish Philippines'', 1565-1898 by
Luciano P.R. Santiago Luciano Perez-Rivera Santiago (21 June 1942 – 1 February 2019) was a Filipino people, Filipino writer, historian, and psychiatrist best known for his award-winning books on Philippine history and the arts. He was a psychiatrist by profession. E ...
* ''Shamanism, Catholicism, and Gender Relations in Colonial Philippines'', 1521-1685 by Carolyn Brewer * ''The Religious System and Culture of Nias'', Indonesia by Peter Suzuki * ''Ethnic Groups of Insular Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Andaman Islands, and Madagascar'' by Frank M. LeBar and George N. Appell * ''The Polynesian Wanderings'' by William Churchill * ''The Threshold of the Pacific'' by
Charles Elliot Fox Charles Elliot Fox (26 September 1878 – 28 October 1977) was an Anglican missionary and teacher in Melanesia. Career Fox was born in Stalbridge, Dorset, England, and educated in New Zealand, graduating Master of Arts from Auckland University ...
, Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, and Frederic Henry Drew * ''The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'' {{Philippine mythology Asian shamanism Filipino religious leaders Austronesian spirituality Feminism and spirituality Healthcare in the Philippines Indigenous Philippine folk religions, Sham Religious occupations Southeast Asian traditional medicine Traditional healthcare occupations Women and religion