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Turmeric () is a flowering plant, ''Curcuma longa'' (), of the
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices ...
family, Zingiberaceae, the
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (; , ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow hori ...
s of which are used in cooking. The plant is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered each year for their
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (; , ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow hori ...
s, some for propagation in the following season and some for consumption. The rhizomes are used fresh or boiled in water and dried, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a coloring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries, as well as for
dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution an ...
ing, characteristics imparted by the principal turmeric constituent, curcumin. Turmeric powder has a warm, bitter, black pepper-like flavor and earthy, mustard-like aroma. Curcumin, a bright yellow chemical produced by the turmeric plant, is approved as a
food additive Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for example vinegar (pickling), salt (salt ...
by the World Health Organization, European Parliament, and United States Food and Drug Administration. Although long used in
Ayurvedic Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...
medicine, where it is also known as ''haridra'', there is no high-quality clinical evidence that consuming turmeric or curcumin is effective for treating any disease.


Origin and distribution

The greatest diversity of '' Curcuma'' species by number alone is in India, at around 40 to 45 species. Thailand has a comparable 30 to 40 species. Other countries in tropical Asia also have numerous wild species of ''Curcuma''. Recent studies have also shown that the taxonomy of ''Curcuma longa'' is problematic, with only the specimens from South India being identifiable as ''C. longa''. The phylogeny, relationships, intraspecific and interspecific variation, and even identity of other species and cultivars in other parts of the world still need to be established and validated. Various species currently utilized and sold as "turmeric" in other parts of Asia have been shown to belong to several physically similar taxa, with overlapping local names.


History

Turmeric has been used in Asia for centuries and is a major part of Ayurveda, Siddha medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, Unani, and the animistic rituals of Austronesian peoples. It was first used as a
dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution an ...
, and then later for its supposed properties in folk medicine. From India, it spread to Southeast Asia along with Hinduism and Buddhism, as the yellow dye is used to color the robes of monks and priests. Turmeric has also been found in Tahiti, Hawaii and Easter Island before European contact. There is linguistic and circumstantial evidence of the spread and use of turmeric by the Austronesian peoples into Oceania and Madagascar. The populations in Polynesia and Micronesia, in particular, never came into contact with India, but use turmeric widely for both food and dye. Thus independent domestication events are also likely. Turmeric was found in Farmana, dating to between 2600 and 2200 BCE, and in a merchant's tomb in Megiddo, Israel, dating from the second millennium BCE. It was noted as a dye plant in the Assyrians' Cuneiform medical texts from
Ashurbanipal Ashurbanipal (Neo-Assyrian language, Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , meaning "Ashur (god), Ashur is the creator of the heir") was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 669 BCE to his death in 631. He is generally remembered as the last great king o ...
’s library at Nineveh from 7th century BCE. In Medieval Europe, turmeric was called "Indian saffron."


Etymology

The name possibly derives from Middle English or Early Modern English as ' or '. It may be of Latin origin, ' ("meritorious earth").


Botanical description


Appearance

Turmeric is a perennial herbaceous plant that reaches up to tall. It has highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes. The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade. From the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is long. The simple leaf blades are usually long and rarely up to . They have a width of and are oblong to elliptical, narrowing at the tip.


Inflorescence, flower, and fruit

At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur; these are white to green and sometimes tinged reddish-purple, and the upper ends are tapered. The
hermaphrodite In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes. Many Taxonomy (biology), taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrate ...
flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three sepals are long, fused, and white, and have fluffy hairs; the three
calyx Calyx or calyce (plural "calyces"), from the Latin ''calix'' which itself comes from the Ancient Greek ''κάλυξ'' (''kálux'') meaning "husk" or "pod", may refer to: Biology * Calyx (anatomy), collective name for several cup-like structures ...
teeth are unequal. The three bright-yellow
petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...
s are fused into a
corolla Corolla may refer to: *Corolla (botany), the petals of a flower, considered as a unit *Toyota Corolla, an automobile model name * Corolla (headgear), an ancient headdress in the form of a circlet or crown * ''Corolla'' (gastropod), a genus of moll ...
tube up to long. The three corolla lobes have a length of and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends. While the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median
stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...
of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base. All other stamens are converted to
staminode In botany, a staminode is an often rudimentary, sterile or abortive stamen, which means that it does not produce pollen.Jackson, Benjamin, Daydon; ''A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Derivation and Accent''; Published by Gerald Duckworth & Co. ...
s. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum. The labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from . Three
carpels Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
are under a constant, trilobed ovary adherent, which is sparsely hairy. The fruit capsule opens with three compartments. In East Asia, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the false stem is an inflorescence stem, long, containing many flowers. The
bract In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s are light green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of .


Phytochemistry

Turmeric powder is about 60–70%
carbohydrates In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or may ...
, 6–13% water, 6–8% protein, 5–10% fat, 3–7% dietary minerals, 3–7%
essential oil An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the o ...
s, 2–7%
dietary fiber Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by the ...
, and 1–6% curcuminoids. The golden yellow color of turmeric is due to curcumin.
Phytochemical Phytochemicals are chemical compounds produced by plants, generally to help them resist fungi, bacteria and plant virus infections, and also consumption by insects and other animals. The name comes . Some phytochemicals have been used as poisons ...
components of turmeric include diarylheptanoids, a class including numerous curcuminoids, such as curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin. Curcumin constitutes up to 3.14% of assayed commercial samples of turmeric powder (the average was 1.51%); curry powder contains much less (an average of 0.29%). Some 34 essential oils are present in turmeric, among which
turmerone Tumerones are a group of related chemical compounds of the sesquiterpene class. They are found in turmeric (''Curcuma longa''), from which they derive their name, as well as other related plants such as ''Curcuma caesia''. There are multiple structu ...
,
germacrone Germacrone is a sesquiterpene which has been isolated from ''Geranium macrorrhizum''. It has shown antiviral properties in an animal model An animal model (short for animal disease model) is a living, non-human, often genetic-engineered animal ...
, atlantone, and zingiberene are major constituents.


Uses


Culinary

Turmeric is one of the key ingredients in many Asian dishes, imparting a mustard-like, earthy aroma and pungent, slightly bitter flavor to foods. It is used mostly in savory dishes, but also is used in some sweet dishes, such as the cake ''
sfouf Sfouf is a Lebanese almond-semolina cake consumed on birthdays, family reunions, and religious holidays. It is made from semolina flour flavored with turmeric, sugar, sesame paste, aniseed, and pine nuts, and raised with baking powder Baking p ...
''. In India, turmeric leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes, ''
patoleo ''Patoleo'' (singular: ''Patoli''; Goan Konkani: पातोळ्यो) are stuffed turmeric leaf wraps, a dish which is mostly prepared on the western coast of India and other Indian Ocean islands. The stuffing is made from grated coconut, ri ...
'', by layering rice flour and
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...
-
jaggery Jaggery is a traditional non-centrifugal cane sugar consumed in the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is a concentrated product of cane juice and often date or palm sap without separation of the molasses and crystals, and can ...
mixture on the leaf, then closing and steaming it in a special utensil (''chondrõ''). Most turmeric is used in the form of
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (; , ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow hori ...
powder to impart a golden yellow color. It is used in many products such as canned beverages, baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn, cereals, sauces, and gelatin. It is a principal ingredient in curry powders. Although typically used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric also is used fresh, like ginger. It has numerous uses in East Asian recipes, such as a pickle that contains large chunks of fresh soft turmeric. Turmeric is used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Various Iranian '' khoresh'' recipes begin with onions caramelized in oil and turmeric. The Moroccan spice mix ras el hanout typically includes turmeric. In South Africa, turmeric is used to give boiled white rice a golden color, known as ''geelrys'' (yellow rice) traditionally served with
bobotie Bobotie (Afrikaans: ) is a well-known South African dish consisting of spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping. Origin of name and recipe Bobotie appears to be a variant of ''Patinam ex lacte'', a dish documented by the ancient R ...
. In Vietnamese cuisine, turmeric powder is used to color and enhance the flavors of certain dishes, such as ''
bánh xèo ''Bánh xèo'' (, ) is a crispy, stuffed rice pancake popular in Vietnam. The name refers to the sound (from ''xèo'' – 'sizzling') the rice batter makes when it is poured into the hot skillet. It is a savoury fried pancake made of rice flour, ...
, bánh khọt'', and ''
mì Quảng ''Mì Quảng'' (also spelled ''mỳ Quảng''), literally "Quảng noodle", is a Vietnamese noodle dish that originated from Quảng Nam Province in central Vietnam. In the region, it is one of the most popular and nationally recognized food ite ...
''. The staple
Cambodian Cambodian usually refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Cambodia ** Cambodian people (or Khmer people) ** Cambodian language (or Khmer language) ** For citizens and nationals of Cambodia, see Demographics of Cambodia ** Fo ...
curry paste, '' kroeung'', used in many dishes, including
fish amok Fish amok or ''amok trei'' ( km, អាម៉ុកត្រី ) is a Khmer steamed fish curry (''amok'') with a mousse-like consistency, one of Cambodia's national dishes. Fish amok is believed to have been a royal Khmer dish dating back to th ...
, typically contains fresh turmeric. In Indonesia, turmeric leaves are used for Minang or Padang curry base of
Sumatra Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
, such as '' rendang'', ''
sate padang Sate padang, more commonly referred to as Padang satay is a speciality satay from Minangkabau cuisine, made from beef cut into small cubes with spicy sauce on top. Its main characteristic is the thick yellow sauce made from rice flour mixed with b ...
'', and many other varieties. In the Philippines, turmeric is used in the preparation and cooking of Kuning and Satay. In Thailand, fresh turmeric rhizomes are used widely in many dishes, in particular in the southern Thai cuisine, such as yellow curry and turmeric soup. Turmeric is used in a hot drink called "turmeric
latte Caffè latte (), often shortened to just latte () in English, is a coffee beverage of Italian origin made with espresso and steamed milk. Variants include the chocolate-flavored mocha or replacing the coffee with another beverage base such as ma ...
" or "golden milk" that is made with milk, frequently
coconut milk Coconut milk is an opaque, milky-white liquid extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of coconut milk are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food i ...
. The turmeric milk drink known as ''haldi doodh'' (''haldi'' means turmeric in Hindi) is a traditional indian recipe. Sold in the US and UK, the drink known as "golden milk" uses nondairy milk and sweetener, and sometimes black pepper after the traditional recipe (which may also use ''ghee''). Turmeric is approved for use as a
food color Food coloring, or color additive, is any dye, pigment, or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink. They come in many forms consisting of liquids, powders, gels, and pastes. Food coloring is used in both commercial foo ...
, assigned the code
E100 E100 or E-100 may refer to: Electronics * Casio Cassiopeia E-100, a pocket of knife PC * iriver E100, a portable media player Vehicles Automobiles * Baojun E100, a Chinese electric microcar * JMEV E100, a Chinese electric city car * Toyota Co ...
. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color numerous food products. Turmeric is used to give a yellow color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths, and other foodsoften as a much cheaper replacement for saffron.


Traditional uses

In 2019, the
European Medicines Agency The European Medicines Agency (EMA) is an agency of the European Union (EU) in charge of the evaluation and supervision of medicinal products. Prior to 2004, it was known as the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products or Euro ...
concluded that turmeric herbal teas, or other forms taken by mouth, on the basis of their long-standing traditional use, could be used to relieve mild digestive problems, such as feelings of fullness and
flatulence Flatulence, in humans, is the expulsion of gas from the intestines via the anus, commonly referred to as farting. "Flatus" is the medical word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels. A proportion of intestinal gas may be swallowed environm ...
. Turmeric grows wild in the forests of South and Southeast Asia, where it is collected for use in classical Indian medicine (Siddha or Ayurveda). In Eastern India, the plant is used as one of the nine components of along with young plantain or banana plant, taro leaves, barley (),
wood apple Wood apple is a common name for several trees of Aurantioideae with edible fruits and may refer to: *''Aegle marmelos'' ("Bael" in Hindi), a tree native to India *''Limonia acidissima ''Limonia acidissima'' is the only species within the monotypi ...
(), pomegranate (), '' Saraca indica'', ('' Arum''), or , and rice paddy. The Haldi ceremony called in Bengal (literally "yellow on the body") is a ceremony observed during wedding celebrations of people of Indian culture all throughout the Indian subcontinent. In Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, as a part of the Tamil–Telugu marriage ritual, dried turmeric tuber tied with string is used to create a
Thali necklace A mangala sutra (), or thaali (ISO: ''tāḷi''), is a necklace that the groom ties around the bride's neck in the Indian subcontinent, in a ceremony called ''Mangalya Dharanam'' (). The necklace serves as a Visual markers of marital status ...
. In western and coastal India, during weddings of the
Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people *Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece See also * * ...
and
Konkani people The Konkan people ( Konkani) Konkanis The Konkan people (Konkani language, Konkani) Konkanis The Konkan people (Konkani language, Konkani) Konkanis The Konkan people (Konkani language, Konkani) Konkanis The Konkan p ...
, Kannada Brahmins, turmeric tubers are tied with strings by the couple to their wrists during a ceremony, ''Kankana Bandhana''. Turmeric makes a poor fabric
dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution an ...
, as it is not light fast, but is commonly used in Indian clothing, such as saris and Buddhist monks' robes. During the late Edo period (1603–1867), turmeric was used to dilute or substitute more expensive safflower dyestuff in the production of . Friedrich Ratzel reported in ''The History of Mankind'' during 1896, that in Micronesia, turmeric powder was applied for embellishment of body, clothing, utensils, and ceremonial uses.
Native Hawaiians Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaii ...
who introduced it to Hawaii ( haw, ōlena) make a bright yellow dye out of it.


Indicator

Turmeric paper, also called curcuma paper or in German literature, ''Curcumapapier'', is paper steeped in a tincture of turmeric and allowed to dry. It is used in chemical analysis as an indicator for acidity and alkalinity. The paper is yellow in acidic and neutral solutions and turns brown to reddish-brown in alkaline solutions, with transition between pH of 7.4 and 9.2.


Adulteration

As turmeric and other spices are commonly sold by weight, the potential exists for powders of toxic, cheaper agents with a similar color to be added, such as lead(II,IV) oxide ("red lead"). These additives give turmeric an orange-red color instead of its native gold-yellow, and such conditions led the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue import alerts from 2013 to 2019 on turmeric originating in India and Bangladesh. Imported into the United States in 2014 were approximately of turmeric, some of which was used for food coloring, traditional medicine, or
dietary supplement A dietary supplement is a manufactured product intended to supplement one's diet by taking a pill, capsule, tablet, powder, or liquid. A supplement can provide nutrients either extracted from food sources or that are synthetic in order ...
. Lead detection in turmeric products led to recalls across the United States, Canada, Japan, Korea, and the United Kingdom through 2016. Lead chromate, a bright yellow chemical compound, was found as an adulterant of turmeric in Bangladesh, where turmeric is used commonly in foods and the contamination levels were up to 500 times higher than the national limit. Researchers identified a chain of sources adulterating the turmeric with lead chromate: from farmers to merchants selling low-grade turmeric roots to "polishers" who added lead chromate for yellow color enhancement, to wholesalers for market distribution, all unaware of the potential consequences of lead toxicity. Another common adulterant in turmeric, metanil yellow (also known as acid yellow 36), is considered by the British Food Standards Agency as an illegal
dye A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution an ...
for use in foods.


Medical research

Turmeric and curcumin have been studied in numerous clinical trials for various human diseases and conditions, with no high-quality evidence of any anti-disease effect or health benefit. There is no scientific evidence that curcumin reduces inflammation, . There is weak evidence that turmeric extracts may be beneficial for relieving symptoms of knee osteoarthritis, as well as for reducing pain and muscle damage following physical exercise. There is good evidence that turmeric is an allergen.


See also

* '' Alpinia zerumbet'' * ''
Curcuma xanthorrhiza ''Curcuma zanthorrhiza'', known as temulawak, Java ginger, Javanese ginger, or Javanese turmeric is a plant species, belonging to the Zingiberaceae, ginger family.Mahendra, B: “13 Jenis Tanaman Obat Ampuh”, page 95. Penebar Swadaya, 2005 It ...
'' * '' Curcuma zedoaria'' * Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia * '' Etlingera elatior'' * ''
Kaempferia galanga ''Kaempferia galanga'', commonly known as kencur, aromatic ginger, sand ginger, cutcherry, is a monocotyledonous plant in the ginger family, and one of four plants called galangal. It is found primarily in open areas in Indonesia, southern Ch ...
''


References


External links

* {{Authority control
longa Longa may refer to: Music * Longa (music), a musical note twice as long in duration as a breve, appearing primarily in Early music * Longa (Middle Eastern music), a genre in Turkish and Arabic music People * Francisco de Longa (1783–1842), Spani ...
Flora of tropical Asia Spices Rhizomatous plants Crops originating from India Food additives Food colorings Indian spices Plant dyes Plants used in Ayurveda Plants described in 1753 Sri Lankan spices Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus