Electroacoustic music is a

genre Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other for ...

of popular and Western

art music Art music (alternatively called classical music, cultivated music, serious music, and canonic music) is music considered to be of high phonoaesthetic value. It typically implies advanced structural and theoretical considerationsJacques Siron, ...

in which composers use technology to manipulate the

timbre In music, timbre ( ), also known as tone color or tone quality (from psychoacoustics), is the perceived sound quality of a musical note, sound or tone. Timbre distinguishes different types of sound production, such as choir voices and musica ...

s of acoustic sounds, sometimes by using

audio signal processing Audio signal processing is a subfield of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves— longitudinal waves which travel through air, consist ...

, such as

reverb Reverberation (also known as reverb), in acoustics, is a persistence of sound, after a sound is produced. Reverberation is created when a sound or signal is reflected causing numerous reflections to build up and then decay as the sound is abs ...

or harmonizing, on acoustical instruments. It originated around the middle of the 20th century, following the incorporation of electric sound production into compositional practice. The initial developments in electroacoustic music composition to fixed media during the 20th century are associated with the activities of the at the ORTF in Paris, the home of musique concrète, the Studio for Electronic Music in Cologne, where the focus was on the composition of '' elektronische Musik,'' and the

Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center The Computer Music Center (CMC) at Columbia University is the oldest center for electronic and computer music research in the United States. It was founded in the 1950s as the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. Location The CMC is hou ...

in New York City, where tape music, electronic music, and

computer music Computer music is the application of computing technology in music composition, to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with algorithmic composition programs. It includes the theory and ...

were all explored. Practical electronic music instruments began to appear in the early 20th century.

Tape music

Tape music is an integral part of '' musique concrète'', which uses the

tape recorder An audio tape recorder, also known as a tape deck, tape player or tape machine or simply a tape recorder, is a sound recording and reproduction device that records and plays back sounds usually using magnetic tape for storage. In its present ...

as its central musical source. The music can utilise pre-recorded sound fragments and the creation of loops, which can be altered and manipulated through techniques such as editing and playback speed manipulation. The work of

Halim El-Dabh Halim Abdul Messieh El-Dabh ( ar, حليم عبد المسيح الضبع, ''Ḥalīm ʻAbd al-Masīḥ al-Ḍab''ʻ; March 4, 1921 – September 2, 2017) was an Egyptian-American composer, musician, ethnomusicologist, and educator, who had ...

is perhaps the earliest example of tape (or, in this case, Wire recording) music. El-Dabh's ''The Expression of Zaar'', first presented in Cairo, Egypt, in 1944, was an early work using ''musique concrète''–like techniques similar to those developed in Paris during the same period. El-Dabh would later become more famous for his work at the

, where in 1959 he composed the influential piece ''Leiyla and the Poet''. US composer John Cage's assembly of the '' Williams Mix'' serves as an example of the rigors of tape music. First, Cage created a 192-page score. Over the course of a year, 600 sounds were assembled and recorded. Cut tape segments for each occurrence of each sound were accumulated on the score. Then the cut segments were spliced to one of eight tapes, work finished on January 16, 1953. The premiere performance (realization) of the 4'15" work was given on March 21, 1953 at the

University of Illinois The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (U of I, Illinois, University of Illinois, or UIUC) is a public land-grant research university in Illinois in the twin cities of Champaign and Urbana. It is the flagship institution of the Univer ...

, Urbana.

Electronic music

In Cologne, '' elektronische Musik'', pioneered in 1949–51 by the composer Herbert Eimert and the physicist Werner Meyer-Eppler, was based solely on electronically generated (synthetic) sounds, particularly sine waves. The beginning of the development of

electronic music Electronic music is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments, digital instruments, or circuitry-based music technology in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means ( electroa ...

has been traced back to "the invention of the

valve A valve is a device or natural object that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fitting ...

acuum tubein 1906". The precise control afforded by the studio allowed for what Eimert considered to be the subjection of everything, "to the last element of the single note", to serial permutation, "resulting in a completely new way of composing sound"; in the studio, serial operations could be applied to elements such as timbre and dynamics. The common link between the two schools is that the music is recorded and performed through loudspeakers, without a human performer. The majority of electroacoustic pieces use a combination of recorded sound and synthesized or processed sounds, and the schism between Schaeffer's and Eimert's approaches has been overcome, the first major example being

Karlheinz Stockhausen Karlheinz Stockhausen (; 22 August 1928 – 5 December 2007) was a German composer, widely acknowledged by critics as one of the most important but also controversial composers of the 20th-century classical music, 20th and early 21st-century ...

's ''

Gesang der Jünglinge ''Gesang der Jünglinge'' (literally "Song of the Youths") is an electronic music work by Karlheinz Stockhausen. It was realized in 1955–56 at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk studio in Cologne and is Work Number 8 in the composer's catalog. The vo ...

'' of 1955–56.

Circuit bending

Circuit bending is the creative short-circuiting of low

voltage Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric tension, or (electric) potential difference, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a static electric field, it corresponds to the work needed per unit of charge to ...

, battery-powered electronic audio devices such as

guitar effects An effects unit or effects pedal is an electronic device that alters the sound of a musical instrument or other audio source through audio signal processing. Common effects include distortion/overdrive, often used with electric guitar in ele ...

, children's

toy A toy or plaything is an object that is used primarily to provide entertainment. Simple examples include toy blocks, board games, and dolls. Toys are often designed for use by children, although many are designed specifically for adults and pet ...

s and small synthesizers to create new musical instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with noise music, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with "bent" instruments.

Examples of notable works

* Milton Babbitt – '' Philomel'' (1964) *

Luciano Berio Luciano Berio (24 October 1925 – 27 May 2003) was an Italian composer noted for his experimental work (in particular his 1968 composition ''Sinfonia'' and his series of virtuosic solo pieces titled '' Sequenza''), and for his pioneering work ...

– '' Thema (Omaggio a Joyce)'' (1958–59) * Johanna Beyer – ''Music of the Spheres'' (1938) *

Konrad Boehmer Konrad Boehmer (24 May 1941 – 4 October 2014) was a German-Dutch composer, educator, and writer. Life Boehmer was born in Berlin. A self-declared member of the Darmstadt School, he studied composition in Cologne with Karlheinz Stockhausen and G ...

– ''Aspekt'' (1964–66), ''Apocalipsis cum figuris'' (1984) * Pierre Boulez – '' Répons'' (1981–84) * John Cage – '' Imaginary Landscape No. 1'' (1939) * Mario Davidovsky – '' Synchronisms No. 6'' for Piano and Electronic Sound (1970) *

– '' Leiyla and the Poet'' (1961) *

Karel Goeyvaerts Karel August Goeyvaerts (8 June 1923 – 3 February 1993) was a Belgian composer. Life Goeyvaerts was born in Antwerp, where he studied at the Royal Flemish Music Conservatory; he later studied composition in Paris with Darius Milhaud and analys ...

– '' Nummer 5 met zuivere tonen'' (1953) *

Jean-Michel Jarre Jean-Michel André Jarre (; born 24 August 1948) is a French composer, performer and record producer. He is a pioneer in the electronic, ambient and new-age genres, and is known for organising outdoor spectacles featuring his music, accompani ...

– ''Deserted Palace'' (1972) *

Phil Kline Phil Kline (born 1953) is an American composer, sound artist, and performer most recognized for his '' Unsilent Night'' (1992) and ''Zippo Songs'' (2004). Beginning as a guitarist and singer in the New York City art punk scene, Kline has since ...

– '' Unsilent Night'' (1992), for cassettes in boomboxes * Gottfried Michael Koenig – ''Project 1'' (1964), ''Project 2'' (1966) * Alvin Lucier – '' I Am Sitting in a Room'' (1969) * Ivo Malec – ''Triola, ou Symphonie pour moi-même'' (1977–78) *

Luigi Nono Luigi Nono (; 29 January 1924 – 8 May 1990) was an Italian avant-garde composer of classical music. Biography Early years Nono, born in Venice, was a member of a wealthy artistic family; his grandfather was a notable painter. Nono beg ...

– ''La fabbrica illuminata'' (1964), ''A floresta é jovem e cheia de vida'' (1966), '' Contrappunto dialettico alla mente'' (1968), '' Como una ola de fuerza y luz'' (1971–72) * Pauline Oliveros – ''Sonic Meditations, "Teach Yourself to Fly"'' (1961) * Else Marie Pade – ''Symphonie Magnétophonique'' (1958) * Henri Pousseur – '' Scambi'' (1957), ''Trois Visages de Liège'' (1961), ''Paraboles-Mix'' (1972), ''Seize Paysages planétairesl'' (2000) * Steve Reich – '' Pendulum Music'' (1968), for microphones, amplifiers, speakers and performers *

Pierre Schaeffer Pierre Henri Marie Schaeffer (English pronunciation: , ; 14 August 1910 – 19 August 1995) was a French composer, writer, broadcaster, engineer, musicologist, acoustician and founder of Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète (GRMC). His inno ...

– '' Cinq études de bruits'' (1948) *

– ''

'' (1955–56), ''

Kontakte ''Kontakte'' ("Contacts") is an electronic music work by Karlheinz Stockhausen, realized in 1958–60 at the ''Westdeutscher Rundfunk'' (WDR) electronic-music studio in Cologne with the assistance of Gottfried Michael Koenig. The score is Nr. 12 ...

'' (1958–60), '' Mixtur'' (1964), '' Mikrophonie I & II'' (1964 and 1965), '' Telemusik'' (1966), ''

Hymnen ''Hymnen'' (German for "Anthems") is an electronic and concrete work, with optional live performers, by Karlheinz Stockhausen, composed in 1966–67, and elaborated in 1969. In the composer's catalog of works, it is No. 22. The extended work is ...

'' (1966–67), '' Oktophonie'' (1991), ''

Cosmic Pulses ''Cosmic Pulses'' is the last electronic composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen, and it is number 93 in his catalog of works. Its duration is 32 minutes. The piece has been described as "a sonic roller coaster", "a Copernican asylum", and a "tornado ...

'' (2006–2007) *

James Tenney James Tenney (August 10, 1934 – August 24, 2006) was an American composer and music theorist. He made significant early musical contributions to plunderphonics, sound synthesis, algorithmic composition, process music, spectral music, microto ...

– '' For Ann (rising)'' (1969) * Edgard Varèse – '' Poème électronique'' (1958) * Charles Wuorinen – ''

Time's Encomium ''Time's Encomium'' (Jan. 1968-Jan. 1969, 31'43") is an electronic, four channel, musical composition by Charles Wuorinen for synthesized and processed synthesized sound. Released on Nonesuch Records in 1969, the composition was commissioned by ...

'' (1969) *

Iannis Xenakis Giannis Klearchou Xenakis (also spelled for professional purposes as Yannis or Iannis Xenakis; el, Γιάννης "Ιωάννης" Κλέαρχου Ξενάκης, ; 29 May 1922 – 4 February 2001) was a Romanian-born Greek-French avant-garde c ...

– ''Persepolis'' (1971)

Electronic and electroacoustic instruments

Birotron The Birotron (pronounced by-ro-tron) is a tape replay keyboard conceived by American musician and inventor Dave Biro of Yalesville, Connecticut, US, and funded by English keyboardist Rick Wakeman in the 1970s, and Rudkin-Wiley of Pepperidge Farm F ...

(1974), Dave Biro * Buchla 100 and 200 serie (1960s–70s), Buchla Lightning I (1991) and Buchla Lightning II (1995) by

Don Buchla Donald Buchla (April 17, 1937 – September 14, 2016) was an American pioneer in the field of sound synthesis. Buchla popularized the "West Coast" style of synthesis. He was co-inventor of the voltage controlled modular synthesizer along with Rob ...

* Cembaphon (1951), Harald Bode *

Chamberlin The Chamberlin is an electro-mechanical keyboard instrument that was a precursor to the Mellotron. It was developed and patented by the American inventor Harry Chamberlin from 1949 to 1956, when the first model was introduced. There are several ...

(1946) * Clavinet * Clavioline (early 1950s) and Concert Clavioline (1953), Harald Bode * Clavivox, Circle Machine, Bass Line Generator, Rhythm Modulator, Bandito the Bongo Artist, and

Electronium The Electronium, created by Raymond Scott, is an early combined electronic synthesizer and algorithmic composition / generative music machine. Its place in history is unusual, because while in intention it is analogous to the digital algorithmic ...

(1950s–60s),

Raymond Scott Raymond Scott (born Harry Warnow; September 10, 1908 – February 8, 1994) was an American composer, band leader, pianist, record producer, and inventor of electronic instruments. Though Scott never scored cartoon soundtracks, his music is ...

* DX7 (1983), Yamaha * Elektronium (in German) *

EMS Synthi AKS The EMS Synthi A and the EMS Synthi AKS, is a portable modular analog synthesiser made by EMS of England. The Synthi A model debuted in May 1971, and then Sythni AKS model appeared in March 1972 a with a built-in keyboard and sequencer. The EMS ...

(1972) *

Fairlight CMI The Fairlight CMI (short for Computer Musical Instrument) is a digital synthesizer, sampler, and digital audio workstation introduced in 1979 by Fairlight. — with links to some Fairlight history and photos It was based on a commercial lic ...

(1978) * Gravikord (1986), Robert Grawi * Kraakdoos / Cracklebox (1960s–70s), Michel Waisvisz * Mellotron (1960s) * Melochord (1947–49), Harald Bode * Melodium (1938), Harald Bode * Moog synthesizer (1965),

Robert Moog Robert Arthur Moog ( ; May 23, 1934 – August 21, 2005) was an American engineer and electronic music pioneer. He was the founder of the synthesizer manufacturer Moog Music and the inventor of the first commercial synthesizer, the Moog synthesi ...

Ondioline The Ondioline is an electronic keyboard musical instrument, developed and built by Frenchman Georges Jenny. Sometimes referred to as the "Jenny Ondioline," the instrument is considered a forerunner of the synthesizer. First conceived by Jenny i ...

(1939), Georges Jenny * Optigan (1971) * Orchestron (1975), Vako Synthesizers * Polychord (1950) and Polychord III (1951), Harald Bode * Electronic Sackbut (1945),

Hugh Le Caine Hugh Le Caine (May 27, 1914 – July 3, 1977) was a Canadian physicist, composer, and instrument builder. Le Caine was brought up in Port Arthur (now Thunder Bay) in northwestern Ontario. At a young age, he began making musical instruments. In yo ...

Sampler (musical instrument) A sampler is an electronic or digital musical instrument which uses sound recordings (or " samples") of real instrument sounds (e.g., a piano, violin, trumpet, or other synthesizer), excerpts from recorded songs (e.g., a five-second bass guitar ...

* Synclavier (1975),

Jon Appleton Jon Howard Appleton (January 4, 1939 – January 30, 2022) was an American composer, an educator and a pioneer in electro-acoustic music. His earliest compositions in the medium, e.g. "Chef d'Oeuvre" and "Newark Airport Rock" (1967) attracted at ...

, Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron Jones * Telharmonium (1897),

Thaddeus Cahill Thaddeus Cahill (June 18, 1867 – April 12, 1934) was a prominent inventor of the early 20th century. He is widely credited with the invention of the first electromechanical musical instrument, which he dubbed the telharmonium. He studied the ...

Theremin The theremin (; originally known as the ætherphone/etherphone, thereminophone or termenvox/thereminvox) is an electronic musical instrument controlled without physical contact by the performer (who is known as a thereminist). It is named afte ...

(1928),

Leon Theremin Leon Theremin (born Lev Sergeyevich Termen rus, Лев Сергеевич Термéн, p=ˈlʲef sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ tɨrˈmʲen; – 3 November 1993) was a Russian and Soviet inventor, most famous for his invention of the theremin, one o ...

* Tuttivox (1953), Harald Bode *

UPIC UPIC (Unité Polyagogique Informatique CEMAMu) is a computerised musical composition tool, devised by the composer Iannis Xenakis. It was developed at the ''Centre d'Etudes de Mathématique et Automatique Musicales'' ( CEMAMu) in Paris, and was ...

(1977),

and CEMAMu * Warbo Formant organ (1937), Harald Bode

Centers, associations and events for electroacoustics and related arts

Important centers of research and composition can be found around the world, and there are numerous conferences and festivals which present electroacoustic music, notably the International Computer Music Conference, the international conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, the Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference, and the Ars Electronica Festival (Linz, Austria). A number of national associations promote the art form, notably the Canadian Electroacoustic Community (CEC) in Canada, the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS) in the US, the Australasian Computer Music Association in Australia and New Zealand, and

Sound and Music Sound and Music is the UK's national agency for new music, established on 1 October 2008 from the merger of four existing bodies working in the contemporary music field: the Society for the Promotion of New Music (SPNM), the British Music Inform ...

(previously the Sonic Arts Network) in the UK. The '' Computer Music Journal'' and ''

Organised Sound ''Organised Sound'' is an international peer-reviewed academic journal which focuses on the rapidly developing methods and issues arising from the use of technology in music today. Background Published three times a year, it concentrates upon t ...

'' are the two most important peer-reviewed journals dedicated to electroacoustic studies, while several national associations produce print and electronic publications.

Festivals

There have been a number of festivals that feature electroacoustic music. Early festivals such as

Donaueschingen Festival The Donaueschingen Festival (german: Donaueschinger Musiktage, links=no) is a festival for new music that takes place every October in the small town of Donaueschingen in south-western Germany. Founded in 1921, it is considered the oldest festiva ...

, founded in 1921, were some of the first to include electroacoustic instruments and pieces. This was followed by ONCE Festival of New Music in the 1950s, and since the 1960s there has been a growth of festivals that focus exclusively on electroacoustic music. * 60x60 (Intl.) * Ars Electronica (Austria) * Berlin Atonal (Germany) * Cybersonica (UK) *Dias de Música Electroacústica (Intl.) * Electro-music (UK) * Electroacoustic Music Days (Greece) * Electronic Music Midwest (US) * Electrofringe (Australia) *

Expo '70 The or Expo 70 was a world's fair held in Suita, Osaka Prefecture, Japan between March 15 and September 13, 1970. Its theme was "Progress and Harmony for Mankind." In Japanese, Expo '70 is often referred to as . It was the first world's fair ...

(Japan) * International Computer Music Conference (Intl.) * International Electroacoustic Music Festival (Cuba) * Les Siestes Electroniques (France) * Music For People & Thingamajigs Festival (US) * New Interfaces for Musical Expression (Int.) *Numusic (Norway) * NWEAMO (US) * Olympia Experimental Music Festival (US) *ONCE Festival of New Music (US) *Présences Électroniques (France) * Pro Musica Nova (Germany) * Spark Festival (US) *

TodaysArt TodaysArt is the annual international festival for Art, Music and Technology in The Hague, Netherlands that takes place in the end of September. It is also the name of the cultural production agency ''TodaysArt (Stichting The Generator)'' that ...

(The Netherlands)

Conferences and symposiums

Alongside paper presentations, workshops and seminars, many of these events also feature concert performances or sound installations created by those attending or which are related to the theme of the conference / symposium.

References

Works cited

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