Crambus
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The genus ''Crambus'' includes around 155 species of
moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s in the family
Crambidae The Crambidae are the grass moth family of lepidopterans. They are variable in appearance, the nominal subfamily Crambinae (grass moths) taking up closely folded postures on grass stems where they are inconspicuous, while other subfamilies includ ...
, distributed globally. The adult stages are called crambid snout moths (a name shared with the rest of the family Crambidae, to distinguish them from Pyralidae snouth moths), while the larvae of ''Crambus'' and the related genus '' Herpetogramma'' are the sod webworms, which can damage
grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...
es.


Life cycle

Sod webworms have a
bivoltine Voltinism is a term used in biology to indicate the number of broods or generations of an organism in a year. The term is most often applied to insects, and is particularly in use in sericulture, where silkworm varieties vary in their voltinism. ...
life cycle with four stages:
egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the a ...
,
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...
,
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
and
imago In biology, the imago (Latin for "image") is the last stage an insect attains during its metamorphosis, its process of growth and development; it is also called the imaginal stage, the stage in which the insect attains maturity. It follows the f ...
(adult). They
overwinter Overwintering is the process by which some organisms pass through or wait out the winter season, or pass through that period of the year when "winter" conditions (cold or sub-zero temperatures, ice, snow, limited food supplies) make normal activi ...
as larvae in their final or penultimate
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ass ...
in the thatch or
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former te ...
. With the coming of warmer weather, the larvae will
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
te, and moths will appear in late spring or early summer. The first generation of eggs is laid in June, with larvae appearing in June and lasting until July. Adult moths appear from July until August. Under favorable conditions, a second generation will occur, with the adult stage laying eggs in early October.


Egg

The
eggs Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...
of ''Crambus'' species are dry and nonadhesive, with an oval to elliptical shape. The eggs of most species are white to creamy white when first laid, but later turn bright orange or red. The size of the eggs varies between species, but ranges from 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm.


Larva

The color of the
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...
e also varies from greenish to beige, brown, or gray, with most larvae having dark, circular spots that extend over the entire body. From the first instar to the third instar, the head capsule will appear black, but later instars have a light brown head capsule with various black sculpturation. At the first instar, the head capsule is 0.19–0.23 mm wide, growing to 1.23–2.21 mm by the last instar. The length of whole larvae is at the first instar and at the last instar. ''Crambus'' larvae, known as "sod webworms", feed primarily on
grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...
es. In turfgrass species, their primary host plants are cool-season grasses, with fewer records on warm-season grasses. Some species also feed on
maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
,
wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
, rye,
oats The oat (''Avena sativa''), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural, unlike other cereals and pseudocereals). While oats are suitable for human con ...
,
timothy-grass Timothy (''Phleum pratense'') is an abundant perennial grass native to most of Europe except for the Mediterranean region. It is also known as timothy-grass, meadow cat's-tail or common cat's tail. It is a member of the genus ''Phleum'', consis ...
, and other grasses in
pasture Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine ...
s, and
meadow A meadow ( ) is an open habitat, or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows may be naturally occurring or artifi ...
s, with the most damage occurring in areas with permanent
sod Sod, also known as turf, is the upper layer of soil with the grass growing on it that is often harvested into rolls. In Australian and British English, sod is more commonly known as ''turf'', and the word "sod" is limited mainly to agricult ...
. The damage caused is more pronounced during times of
drought A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D.  Jiang, A.  Khan, W.  Pokam Mba, D.  Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...
.


Pupa

The
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
develops in a
silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...
en cocoon attached to soil particles, plant debris and fecal pellets. The cocoon resembles a small lump of earth, while the pupa itself is pale yellow at first, darkening to a mahogany brown. The pupae are long by wide.


Imago

The adult moth is whitish or light gray to tan. Many species have patterns of colors, including silver, gold, yellow, brown and black. The moths are approximately long, with wingspans of . Like other
snout moth The Pyralidae, commonly called pyralid moths, snout moths or grass moths, are a family of Lepidoptera in the ditrysian superfamily Pyraloidea. In many (particularly older) classifications, the grass moths (Crambidae) are included in the Pyralida ...
s, they have long labial
palpi Pedipalps (commonly shortened to palps or palpi) are the second pair of appendages of Chelicerata, chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to the chelicerae ...
that extend in front of their heads, and fold their wings underneath their bodies, making them slender and harder to see while resting on plants.


Damage

Sod webworms were first recognized as a serious pest of lawns and golf courses during the drought of 1928–1934 that affected most of the United States. Unlike many of the other more destructive turfgrass pests, the sod webworm is native to the United States and was not introduced. Most damage occurs during the first instar, when the sod webworm only feeds on the foliage of the turfgrass. Damage is often seen as a small area of leaves that are yellow to brown. Sod webworms themselves will not be seen because of their nocturnal nature. During the day, the sod webworm can be found in its burrow in the center of the damaged area. Even though damage can be an eyesore, it does not hurt the turf because no damage is done to the crown of the plant. In closely mown turf and drought conditions, damage is more severe than in poorly maintained turf. In closely mown turf, symptoms will appear more quickly and prominently. During drought conditions, damage is more severe because the damage is often not seen until rainfall occurs.


Management

To be considered a serious
infestation Infestation is the state of being invaded or overrun by pests or parasites. It can also refer to the actual organisms living on or within a host. Terminology In general, the term "infestation" refers to parasitic diseases caused by animals s ...
of sod webworms, 12 larvae must be found in a area. To test this, hollow pans are placed with a
pyrethrum ''Pyrethrum'' was a genus of several Old World plants now classified as ''Chrysanthemum'' or ''Tanacetum'' which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum continues to be used as a common name for plants formerly inclu ...
or
detergent A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleansing properties when in dilute solutions. There are a large variety of detergents, a common family being the alkylbenzene sulfonates, which are soap-like compounds that are more ...
drench and allowed to sit for 10 minutes, then the
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...
e in the area are counted. During peak growing periods, the grass will often be able to recover by itself and not show serious damage. For high-end turf that cannot show any damage or serious infestations, predators of the sod webworms must be attracted, including
bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...
s and insect predators, such as
ground beetle Ground beetles are a large, cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan family (biology), family of beetles, the Carabidae, with more than 40,000 species worldwide, around 2,000 of which are found in North America and 2,700 in Europe. As of 2015, it i ...
s, robber flies, and predatory
wasp A wasp is any insect of the narrow-waisted suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera which is neither a bee nor an ant; this excludes the broad-waisted sawflies (Symphyta), which look somewhat like wasps, but are in a separate suborder. Th ...
s. The larva is also prone to infection from microorganisms such as ''
Beauveria bassiana ''Beauveria bassiana'' is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a parasite on various arthropod species, causing white muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the entomopathogenic fungi. It is used as a biological ...
'' and '' Nosema'' (
Microsporidia Microsporidia are a group of spore-forming unicellular parasites. These spores contain an extrusion apparatus that has a coiled polar tube ending in an anchoring disc at the apical part of the spore. They were once considered protozoans or prot ...
). Parasitic nematodes such as ''
Steinernema carpocapsae ''Steinernema carpocapsae'' is an entomopathogenic nematode and a member of the family Steinernematidae. It is a parasitic roundworm that has evolved an insect-killing symbiosis with bacteria, and kills its hosts within a few days of infection ...
'' and '' Heterorhabditis heliothidis'' can also infect sod webworms.


Systematics and taxonomy

The genus ''Crambus'' was erected by
Johan Christian Fabricius Johan Christian Fabricius (7 January 1745 – 3 March 1808) was a Danish zoologist, specialising in "Insecta", which at that time included all arthropods: insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others. He was a student of Carl Linnaeus, and is cons ...
in 1798, and was originally used to cover species which are now considered to belong to the
Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the other f ...
. The
type species In zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the species that contains the biological type specimen ...
was designated by John Curtis in 1826 as ''Phalaena pascuella'' (now '' Crambus pascuella''). Fabricius originally included 62 species, a number which had increased by 1940 to 116, of which only 98 were thought to be valid. A 1986 estimate suggested there were "perhaps 400" species of ''Crambus''. Species in the genus ''Crambus'' now are: * '' Crambus achilles'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus acyperas'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus agitatellus'' Clemens, 1860 * '' Crambus ainslieellus'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus albellus'' Clemens, 1860 * '' Crambus albifrons'' Schaus, 1913 * '' Crambus alexandrus'' Kirpichnikova, 1979 * '' Crambus alienellus'' (Germar E. F. & Fr. Kaulfuss, 1817) * '' Crambus angulatus'' Barnes & McDunnough, 1918 * '' Crambus angustalatellus'' Maassen, 1890 * '' Crambus angustexon'' Błeszyński, 1962 * '' Crambus archimedes'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus argyrophorus'' Butler, 1878 * '' Crambus aristophanes'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus arnaudiae'' Rougeot, 1977 * '' Crambus athamas'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus attis'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus autotoxellus'' Dyar, 1914 * '' Crambus averroellus'' Bassi, 1990 * '' Crambus awemellus'' McDunnough, 1921 * '' Crambus bachi'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus bellinii'' Bassi in Bassi & Trematerra, 2014 * '' Crambus bellissimus'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus berliozi'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus bidens'' Zeller, 1872 * '' Crambus bidentellus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus bigelovi'' Klots, 1967 * '' Crambus bipartellus'' South in Leech & South, 1901 * '' Crambus boislamberti'' Rougeot, 1977 * '' Crambus brachiiferus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus braunellus'' Klots, 1940 * '' Crambus brunneisquamatus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus caligula'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus claviger'' Staudinger, 1899 * '' Crambus coccophthorus'' Błeszyński, 1962 * '' Crambus cockleellus'' Kearfott, 1908 * '' Crambus cormieri'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus coryolanus'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus cypridalis'' Hulst, 1886 * '' Crambus cyrilellus'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus cyrnellus'' Schawerda, 1926 * '' Crambus daeckellus'' Haimbach, 1907 * '' Crambus damotellus'' Schaus, 1922 * '' Crambus dedalus'' Bassi, 2000 * '' Crambus delineatellus'' Hampson, 1896 * '' Crambus descarpentriesi'' (Rougeot, 1977) * '' Crambus dianiphalis'' Hampson, 1908 * '' Crambus diarhabdellus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus dimidiatellus'' Grote, 1883 * '' Crambus ellipticellus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus elongatus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus erechtheus'' Bassi, 1992 * '' Crambus ericella'' (Hübner, 1813) * '' Crambus erostratus'' Bassi, 1992 * '' Crambus eurypides'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus falcarius'' Zeller, 1872 * '' Crambus frescobaldii'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus gausapalis'' Hulst, 1886 * '' Crambus geleches'' Błeszyński, 1967 * '' Crambus girardellus'' Clemens, 1860 * '' Crambus guerini'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus hamella'' (Thunberg, 1794) * '' Crambus hampsoni'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus harrisi'' Klots, 1967 * '' Crambus hastifer'' Staudinger, 1899 * '' Crambus hemileucalis'' Hampson, 1896 * '' Crambus heringiellus'' Herrich-Schäffer, 1848 * '' Crambus humidellus'' Zeller, 1877 * '' Crambus icarus'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus isshiki'' Matsumura, 1925 * '' Crambus johnsoni'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus jupiter'' Błeszyński, 1963 * '' Crambus kazitaellus'' Bassi, 1986 * '' Crambus kumatakellus'' Shibuya, 1928 * '' Crambus kuzakaiensis'' Okano, 1960 * '' Crambus lacteella'' Janse, 1922 * '' Crambus laqueatellus'' Clemens, 1860 * '' Crambus lascaellus'' Druce, 1896 * '' Crambus lathoniellus'' (Zincken, 1817) * '' Crambus leachellus'' (Zincken, 1818) * '' Crambus leuconotus'' Zeller, 1881 * '' Crambus leucoschalis'' Hampson, 1898 * '' Crambus lyonsellus'' Haimbach, 1915 * '' Crambus magnificus'' Błeszyński, 1956 * '' Crambus melanoneurus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus mesombrellus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus microstrigatus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus midas'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus moeschleralis'' Schaus, 1940 * '' Crambus monostictus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus mozarti'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus multilinellus'' Fernald, 1887 * '' Crambus multiradiellus'' Hampson, 1896 * '' Crambus narcissus'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus nephretete'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus netuncus'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus neurellus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus nigriscriptellus'' South in Leech & South, 1901 * '' Crambus nigrivarialis'' Gaede, 1916 * '' Crambus niitakaensis'' Marumo, 1936 * '' Crambus nivellus'' (Kollar in Kollar & Redtenbacher, 1844) * '' Crambus nolckeniellus'' Zeller, 1872 * '' Crambus occidentalis'' Grote, 1880 * '' Crambus okinawanus'' Inoue, 1982 * '' Crambus ovidius'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus palustrellus'' Ragonot, 1876 * '' Crambus paris'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus pascuella'' (Linnaeus, 1758) * '' Crambus patulellus'' Walker, 1863 * '' Crambus pavidellus'' Schaus, 1913 * ''
Crambus perlella ''Crambus perlella'' is a species of moth of the family Crambidae. It is found in Europe and east across the Palearctic. The wingspan is 19–28 mm. The face is rather prominent. Forewings very shining whitish, often ochreous -tinged ; veins ...
'' (Scopoli, 1763) * '' Crambus perspicuus'' Walker, 1870 * '' Crambus praefectellus'' (Zincken, 1821) * '' Crambus pratella'' (Linnaeus, 1758) * '' Crambus prometheus'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus proteus'' Bassi & Mey in Mey, 2011 * '' Crambus pseudargyrophorus'' Okano, 1960 * '' Crambus psychellus'' Maassen, 1890 * '' Crambus puccinii'' Bassi, 2000 * '' Crambus pythagoras'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus quinquareatus'' Zeller, 1877 * '' Crambus racabellus'' Druce, 1896 * '' Crambus reducta'' Janse, 1922 * '' Crambus richteri'' Błeszyński, 1963 * '' Crambus rickseckerellus'' Klots, 1940 * '' Crambus rossinii'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus sachaensis'' Ustjuzhanin, 1988 * '' Crambus saltuellus'' Zeller, 1863 * '' Crambus sanfordellus'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus sapidus'' Błeszyński, 1967 * '' Crambus sargentellus'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus satrapellus'' (Zincken, 1821) * '' Crambus sebrus'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus sectitermina'' Hampson, 1910 * '' Crambus sibirica'' Alphéraky, 1897 * '' Crambus silvella'' (Hübner, 1813) * '' Crambus sinicolellus'' Caradja, 1926 * '' Crambus sjoestedti'' Aurivillius, 1910 * '' Crambus sparselloides'' Bassi, 1986 * '' Crambus sparsellus'' Walker, 1866 * '' Crambus sperryellus'' Klots, 1940 * '' Crambus sudanicola'' Strand, 1915 * '' Crambus tenuis'' Bassi, 1992 * '' Crambus tenuistriga'' Hampson, 1898 * '' Crambus tessellatus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus themistocles'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus thersites'' Błeszyński, 1961 * '' Crambus theseus'' Bassi, 2000 * '' Crambus tomanaellus'' Marumo, 1936 * '' Crambus trichusalis'' Hulst, 1886 * '' Crambus tutillus'' McDunnough, 1921 * '' Crambus uliginosellus'' Zeller, 1850 * '' Crambus uniformella'' Janse, 1922 * '' Crambus unistriatellus'' Packard, 1867 * '' Crambus vagistrigellus'' de Joannis, 1913 * '' Crambus varii'' Bassi, 2012 * '' Crambus viettellus'' Błeszyński & Collins, 1962 * '' Crambus virgatellus'' Wileman, 1911 * '' Crambus vittiterminellus'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus vulcanus'' Bassi, 2000 * '' Crambus watsonellus'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus whalleyi'' Błeszyński, 1960 * '' Crambus whitmerellus'' Klots, 1942 * '' Crambus xonorus'' Błeszyński, 1963 * '' Crambus youngellus'' Kearfott, 1908 * '' Crambus zelator'' Bassi, 1992


Former species

* '' Crambus argyrostola'' Hampson, 1919 * '' Crambus xebus'' Błeszyński, 1962


References


External links

* * {{Taxonbar, from=Q1941887 Crambini Agricultural pest insects Crambidae genera Taxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius