The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the
largest Christian church, with more than 1.29 billion members
worldwide.[4] As one of the oldest religious institutions in the
world, it has played a prominent role in the history and development
of Western civilisation.[5] Headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the
Pope, the church's doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed. Its
central administration, the Holy See, is in the Vatican City, an
enclave within Rome, Italy.
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and
Apostolic church founded by
Jesus
Jesus Christ,[6][7][note 1] that its
bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles, and that the
Pope
Pope is
the successor to
Saint
Saint Peter to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus
Christ.[10] It maintains that it practises the original Christian
faith, reserving infallibility, passed down by sacred tradition.[11]
The
Latin
Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, and institutes such
as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders reflect a variety of
theological and spiritual emphases in the Church.[12][13]
Of its seven sacraments the
Eucharist
Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated
liturgically in the Mass.[14] The church teaches that through
consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the
body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic
Church as Mother of
God
God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and
devotions.[15] Its teaching includes sanctification through faith and
evangelisation of the
Gospel
Gospel and Catholic social teaching, which
emphasises support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through
the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is the
largest non-government provider of education and health care in the
world.[16]
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, culture,
science, and art. The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church shared communion with the
Eastern Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox Church until the
East–West Schism
East–West Schism in 1054,
disputing particularly the authority of the Pope, as well as with the
Oriental Orthodox churches
Oriental Orthodox churches prior to the Chalcedonian schism in 451
over differences in Christology. Catholics live all over the world
through missions, diaspora, and conversions. Since the 20th century
the majority reside in the southern hemisphere due to secularisation
in Europe, and increased persecution in the Middle East. From the late
20th century, the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church has been criticised for its
doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling
of sexual abuse cases.
Contents
1 Name
2 Organisation
2.1 Holy See, papacy, and the Roman Curia
2.2 Canon law
2.3
Latin
Latin and Eastern churches
2.4 Dioceses, parishes and religious institutes
2.5 Membership
3 Doctrine
3.1 Nature of God
3.2 Nature of the church
3.3 Final Judgment
3.4 Virgin Mary and devotions
4 Sacraments
4.1 Sacraments of Christian initiation
4.1.1 Baptism
4.1.2 Confirmation
4.1.3 Eucharist
4.2 Sacraments of healing
4.2.1 Penance
4.2.2 Anointing of the sick
4.3 Sacraments at the service of communion
4.3.1 Holy Orders
4.3.2 Matrimony
5 Liturgy
5.1 Western rites
5.2 Eastern rites
6 Social and cultural issues
6.1 Catholic social teaching
6.2 Social services
6.3 Sexual morality
6.3.1
Divorce
Divorce and declarations of nullity
6.3.2 Contraception
6.3.3 Homosexuality
6.4
Holy orders
Holy orders and women
6.5 Sexual abuse cases
7 History
7.1 Apostolic era and papacy
7.2 Antiquity and Roman Empire
7.3 Medieval and
Renaissance
Renaissance periods
7.4 Age of discovery
7.5
Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation
7.6 Enlightenment and modern period
7.7 20th century
7.7.1 Second Vatican Council
7.7.2 John Paul II
7.8 21st century
7.8.1
Pope
Pope Francis
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Name
The first use of the term "Catholic Church" (literally meaning
"universal church") was by the church father
Saint
Saint Ignatius of Antioch
in his
Letter to the Smyrnaeans
Letter to the Smyrnaeans (circa 100 AD).[17] He died in
Rome, with his relics located in the
Basilica
Basilica of San Clemente al
Laterano.
Further information:
Catholic (term)
Catholic (term) and Roman Catholic (term)
Catholic (from Greek: καθολικός, translit. katholikos,
lit. 'universal') was first used to describe the church in the
early 2nd century.[18] The first known use of the phrase "the catholic
church" (καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία he katholike ekklesia)
occurred in the letter written about 110 AD from
Saint
Saint Ignatius of
Antioch to the Smyrnaeans.[note 2] In the Catechetical Lectures
(c. 350) of
Saint
Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name "Catholic Church" was
used to distinguish it from other groups that also called themselves
"the church".[19][20] The "Catholic" notion was further stressed in
the edict
De fide Catolica issued 380 by Theodosius I, the last
emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the
Roman Empire, when establishing the state church of the Roman
Empire.[21]
Since the
East–West Schism
East–West Schism of 1054, the Eastern Church has taken the
adjective "Orthodox" as its distinctive epithet (however, its official
name continues to be the "Orthodox Catholic Church"[22]) and the
Western Church
Western Church in communion with the
Holy See
Holy See has similarly taken
"Catholic", keeping that description also after the Protestant
Reformation
Reformation of the 16th century, when those who ceased to be in
communion became known as "Protestants".[23][24]
While the "Roman Church" has been used to describe the pope's Diocese
of
Rome
Rome since the Fall of the Western
Roman Empire
Roman Empire and into the Early
Middle Ages (6th–10th century), the "Roman Catholic Church" has been
applied to the whole church in English language since the Protestant
Reformation
Reformation in the late 16th century.[25] "Roman Catholic" has
occasionally appeared also in documents produced both by the Holy
See,[note 3] notably applied to certain national episcopal
conferences, and local dioceses.[note 4]
The name "Catholic Church" for the whole church is used in the 1990
Catechism of the Catholic Church, the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the
documents of the 1962–65 Second Vatican Council, and numerous other
official documents.[26][27][28]
Organisation
"I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you
bind on Earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on
Earth shall be loosed in heaven."
Jesus
Jesus to Peter in the
Gospel
Gospel of
Matthew, 16:19
The crossed gold and silver keys of the
Holy See
Holy See symbolise the keys of
Simon Peter, representing the power of the papal office to loose and
bind. The triple crown papal tiara symbolises the triple power of the
Pope
Pope as "father of kings", "governor of the world" and "Vicar of
Christ". The gold cross on a monde (globe) surmounting the tiara
symbolises the sovereignty of Jesus.
Main articles:
Hierarchy of the Catholic Church
Hierarchy of the Catholic Church and
Catholic Church
Catholic Church by
country
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who
have received the sacrament of
Holy Orders
Holy Orders who are given formal
jurisdictions of governance within the church.[29][30] There are three
levels of clergy, the episcopate, composed of bishops who hold
jurisdiction over a geographic area called a diocese or eparchy; the
presbyterate, composed of priests ordained by bishops and who work in
local diocese or religious orders; and the diaconate, composed of
deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial
roles. Ultimately leading the entire
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is the Bishop of
Rome, commonly called the pope, whose jurisdiction is called the Holy
See. In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious
institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the
authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop.
Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some
have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions
during worship services.
Holy See, papacy, and the Roman Curia
Francis is the 266th and current
Pope
Pope of the Catholic Church, a title
he holds ex officio as Bishop of Rome, and sovereign of Vatican City.
He was elected in the papal conclave, 2013.
Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, the
Cathedral
Cathedral for the
Diocese
Diocese of
Rome
Main articles: Holy See, Pope, and Roman Curia
Further information: List of popes
The hierarchy of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is headed by the Bishop of Rome,
known as the pope (Latin: papa; "father"), who is the leader of the
worldwide Catholic Church.[31] The current pope, Francis, was elected
on 13 March 2013 by papal conclave.[32]
The office of the pope is known as the papacy. The Catholic Church
holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven
to
Saint
Saint Peter. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy
See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the "Apostolic See" (meaning the see
of the apostle Peter).[33][34] Directly serving the pope is the Roman
Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day
business of the Catholic Church.
The pope is also Sovereign of Vatican City,[35] a small city-state
entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct
from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of
Vatican City
Vatican City State, that the pope receives ambassadors of states and
sends them his own diplomatic representatives.[36] The
Holy See
Holy See also
confers orders, decorations and medals, such as the orders of chivalry
in the Middle Ages.
While the famous
Saint Peter's Basilica
Saint Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City,
above the traditional site of
Saint
Saint Peter's tomb, the papal cathedral
for the
Diocese of Rome
Diocese of Rome is
Saint
Saint John Lateran, located within the city
of Rome, though enjoying extraterritorial privileges accredited to the
Holy See.
The position of cardinal is a rank of honour bestowed by popes on
certain clergy, such as leaders within the Roman Curia, bishops
serving in major cities and distinguished theologians. For advice and
assistance in governing, the pope may turn to the College of
Cardinals.[37]
Following the death or resignation of a pope,[note 5] members of the
College of Cardinals
College of Cardinals who are under age 80 act as electoral college,
meeting in a papal conclave to elect a successor.[39] Although the
conclave may elect any male Catholic as pope, since 1389 only
cardinals have been elected.[40]
Canon law
Main article:
Canon law
Canon law of the Catholic Church
The canon law of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is the system of laws and legal
principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities to
regulate the church's external organisation and government and to
order and direct the activities of Catholics towards the church's
mission.[41] In the Catholic Church, universal positive ecclesiastical
laws, based upon either immutable divine and natural law, or
changeable circumstantial and merely positive law, derive formal
authority and promulgation from the office of pope who, as Supreme
Pontiff, possesses the totality of legislative, executive and judicial
power in his person.[42] It has all the ordinary elements of a mature
legal system:[43] laws, courts, lawyers, judges,[43] a fully
articulated legal code,[44] principles of legal interpretation[45] and
coercive penalties that are limited to moral coercion.[46][47]
Canon law
Canon law concerns the Catholic Church's life and organisation and is
distinct from civil law. In its own field it gives force to civil law
only by specific enactment in matters such as the guardianship of
minors.[48] Similarly, civil law may give force in its field to canon
law, but only by specific enactment, as with regard to canonical
marriages.[49] Currently, the 1983
Code of Canon Law
Code of Canon Law is in effect
primarily for the
Latin
Latin Church.[50] The distinct 1990 Code of Canons
of the Eastern Churches (CCEO, after the
Latin
Latin initials) applies to
the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches.[51]
Latin
Latin and Eastern churches
Part of a series on
Particular churches
Particular churches sui iuris
of the Catholic Church
Latin cross
.png/440px-Cross_(PSF).png)
Latin cross and Byzantine Patriarchal cross
Particular churches
Particular churches are grouped by rite.
Latin
Latin Rite
Latin
Alexandrian Rite
Coptic
Ethiopian
Eritrean
Armenian Rite
Armenian
Byzantine Rite
Albanian
Belarusian
Bulgarian
Croatian and Serbian
Greek
Hungarian
Italo-Albanian
Macedonian
Melkite
Romanian
Russian
Ruthenian
Slovak
Ukrainian
East Syriac Rite
Chaldean
Syro-Malabar
West Syriac Rite
Maronite
Syriac
Syro-Malankara
Catholicism
Catholicism portal
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity portal
v
t
e
Main articles: Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites,
Latin
Latin Church, and Eastern Catholic Churches
In the 2,000-year history of the church, several complementary
expressions of the Christian faith emerged throughout the world, most
prominently, the Western and
Eastern Christian
Eastern Christian traditions. The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church continues these traditions, through constituent
autonomous particular churches, also known as "churches sui iuris"
(Latin: "of one's own right"). The largest and most well known is the
Latin
Latin Church, with more than 1 billion members worldwide.
Relatively small in terms of adherents compared to the
Latin
Latin Church,
are the 23 self-governing
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches with a combined
membership of 17.3 million as of 2010[update].[52][53][54][55]
The
Latin Church
Latin Church is governed by the pope and diocesan bishops directly
appointed by him. The pope exercises a direct patriarchal role over
the
Latin
Latin Church, which is considered to form the original and still
major part of Western Christianity, a heritage of certain beliefs and
customs originating in
Europe
Europe and northwestern Africa, some of which
are inherited by many
Christian denominations
Christian denominations that trace their origins
to the Protestant Reformation.[56]
The
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions and spirituality
of
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity and are Churches that have always remained in
full communion with the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church or who have chosen to reenter
full communion in the centuries following the
East–West Schism
East–West Schism and
earlier divisions. These churches are communities of Catholic
Christians whose forms of worship reflect distinct historical and
cultural influences rather than differences in doctrine.
A church sui iuris is defined in the Code of Canons for the Eastern
Churches as a "group of Christian faithful united by a hierarchy" that
is recognized by the
Pope
Pope in his capacity as the supreme authority on
matters of doctrine within the church.[57] The term is an innovation
of the CCEO to denote the relative autonomy of the Eastern Catholic
Churches,[58] who remain in full communion with the Pope, but have
governance structures and liturgical traditions separate from that of
the
Latin
Latin Church.[53] While the
Latin
Latin Church's canons do not
explicitly use the term, it is tacitly recognized as equivalent.
Some
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches are governed by a patriarch who is
elected by the synod of the bishops of that church,[59] others are
headed by a major archbishop,[60] others are under a metropolitan,[61]
and others are organised as individual eparchies.[62] Each church has
authority over the particulars of its internal organisation,
liturgical rites, liturgical calendar and other aspects of its
spirituality, subject only to the authority of the Pope.[63] The Roman
Curia has a specific department, the Congregation for the Oriental
Churches, to maintain relations with them.[64] The pope does not
generally appoint bishops or clergy in the Eastern Catholic Churches,
deferring to their internal governance structures, but may intervene
if he feels it necessary.
See also:
Catholic Church
Catholic Church § Liturgy
Dioceses, parishes and religious institutes
See also: § Ordination, and § Women and ordination
A map of
Catholicism
Catholicism by population percentage (for absolute figures,
see below)
Countries by number of Catholics in 2010[65]
More than 100 million
More than 50 million
More than 20 million
More than 10 million
More than 5 million
More than 1 million
Individual countries, regions, or major cities are served by
particular churches known as dioceses in the
Latin
Latin Church, or
eparchies in the Eastern Catholic Churches, each overseen by a bishop.
As of 2008[update], the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church has 2,795 dioceses.[66] The
bishops in a particular country are members of a national or regional
episcopal conference.[67]
Dioceses are divided into parishes, each with one or more priests,
deacons or lay ecclesial ministers.[68] Parishes are responsible for
the day to day celebration of the sacraments and pastoral care of the
laity.[69] As of 2016[update], there are 221,700 parishes
worldwide.[70]
In the
Latin
Latin Church, Catholic men may serve as deacons or priests by
receiving sacramental ordination. Men and women may serve as
extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, as readers (lectors); or as
altar servers. Historically, boys and men have only been permitted to
serve as altar servers; however, since the 1990s, girls and women have
also been permitted.[71][note 6]
Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the laity, may enter into
consecrated life either on an individual basis, as a hermit or
consecrated virgin, or by joining an institute of consecrated life (a
religious institute or a secular institute) in which to take vows
confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of
chastity, poverty and obedience.[72] Examples of institutes of
consecrated life are the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Dominicans,
the Franciscans, the Missionaries of Charity, the Legionaries of
Christ and the Sisters of Mercy.[72]
"Religious institutes" is a modern term encompassing both "religious
orders" and "religious congregations" which were once distinguished in
canon law.[73] The terms "religious order" and "religious institute"
tend to be used as synonyms colloquially.[74]
Membership
Part of a series on the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church by country
Worldwide distribution of Catholics
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
DR of Congo
Republic of Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Burma
Cambodia
China
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Japan
Kazakhstan
Korea
Laos
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Nepal
North Korea
Pakistan
Philippines
Russia
Singapore
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
- including the Middle East
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Israel (Palestinian territories)
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Oman
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Syria
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Europe
Albania
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Denmark
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Greece
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Jersey
Kosovo
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Netherlands
Norway
Malta
Moldova
Montenegro
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Sweden
Ukraine
United Kingdom (England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland)
North America
Antigua and Barbuda
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Latin
Latin America
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Oceania
Australia
East Timor
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Catholicism
Catholicism portal
v
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Main article:
Catholic Church
Catholic Church by country
Further information: List of
Christian denominations
Christian denominations by number of
members
Church membership at the end of 2014 was 1.272 billion, which is 17.8%
of the world population.[75] Catholics represent about half of all
Christians.[76]
Geographic distribution of Catholics worldwide continues to shift,
with 17% in Africa, 48% in the Americas, 11% Asia, 23% in Europe, and
1% in Oceania.[75]
Catholic ministers include ordained clergy, lay ecclesial ministers,
missionaries, and catechists. Also as of the end of 2014, there were
465,595 ordained clergy, including 5,237 bishops, 415,792 presbyters
(diocesan and religious), and 44,566 deacons (permanent).[75]
Non-ordained ministers included 3,157,568 catechists, 367,679 lay
missionaries, and 39,951 lay ecclesial ministers.[77]
Catholics who have committed to religious or consecrated life instead
of marriage or single celibacy, as a state of life or relational
vocation, include 54,559 male religious, 705,529 women religious.
These are not ordained, nor generally considered ministers unless also
engaged in one of the lay minister categories above.[75]
Doctrine
Main articles:
Catholic theology
Catholic theology and Catholic Bible
Catholic doctrine has developed over the centuries, reflecting direct
teachings of early Christians, formal definitions of heretical and
orthodox beliefs by ecumenical councils and in papal bulls, and
theological debate by scholars. The Church believes that it is
continually guided by the Holy Spirit as it discerns new theological
issues and is protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal error
when a firm decision on an issue is reached.[78][79]
It teaches that revelation has one common source, God, and two
distinct modes of transmission: Sacred Scripture and Sacred
Tradition,[80][81] and that these are authentically interpreted by the
Magisterium.[82][83] Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 books of the
Catholic Bible, consisting of 46
Old Testament
Old Testament and 27 New Testament
writings.
Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the
Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.[84]
Sacred Scripture and
Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the
"deposit of faith" (depositum fidei). These are in turn interpreted by
the Magisterium (from magister,
Latin
Latin for "teacher"), the Church's
teaching authority, which is exercised by the pope and the College of
Bishops in union with the pope, the bishop of Rome.[85] Catholic
doctrine is authoritatively summarised in the Catechism of the
Catholic Church, published by the Holy See.[86][87]
Nature of God
C. 1210 manuscript version of the traditional Shield of the Trinity
theological diagram
Main article: Trinity
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church holds that there is one eternal God, who exists as
a perichoresis ("mutual indwelling") of three hypostases, or
"persons":
God
God the Father;
God
God the Son; and
God
God the Holy Spirit, which
together are called the "Holy Trinity".[88]
Catholics believe that
Jesus Christ
Jesus Christ is the "Second Person" of the
Trinity,
God
God the Son. In an event known as the Incarnation, through
the power of the Holy Spirit,
God
God became united with human nature
through the conception of Christ in the womb of the Blessed Virgin
Mary. Christ, therefore, is understood as being both fully divine and
fully human, including possessing a human soul. It is taught that
Christ's mission on earth included giving people his teachings and
providing his example for them to follow as recorded in the four
Gospels.[89]
Jesus
Jesus is believed to have remained sinless while on
earth, and to have allowed himself to be unjustly executed by
crucifixion, as sacrifice of himself to reconcile humanity to God;
this reconciliation is known as the Paschal Mystery.[90] The Greek
term "Christ" and the Hebrew "Messiah" both mean "anointed one",
referring to the Christian belief that Jesus' death and resurrection
are the fulfilment of the Old Testament's messianic prophecies.[91]
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches dogmatically that "the Holy Spirit
proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son, not as from two
principles but as from one single principle".[92] It holds that the
Father, as the "principle without principle", is the first origin of
the Spirit, but also that he, as Father of the only Son, is with the
Son the single principle from which the Spirit proceeds.[93] This
belief is expressed in the
Filioque
Filioque clause which was added to the
Latin
Latin version of the
Nicene Creed
Nicene Creed of 381 but not included in the Greek
versions of the creed used in Eastern Christianity.[94]
Nature of the church
The
Pentecost
Pentecost depicted in a 14th-century Missal
Main article: Catholic ecclesiology
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that it is the "one true church",[6][95]
"the universal sacrament of salvation for the human race",[96][97] and
"the one true religion".[98] According to the Catechism, the Catholic
Church is further described in the
Nicene Creed
Nicene Creed as the "one, holy,
catholic, and apostolic Church".[99] These are collectively known as
the Four Marks of the Church. The church teaches that its founder is
Jesus
Jesus Christ.[100][101] The
New Testament
New Testament records several events
considered integral to the establishment of the Catholic Church,
including Jesus' activities and teaching and his appointment of the
apostles as witnesses to his ministry, suffering, and resurrection.
The Great Commission, after his resurrection, instructed the apostles
to continue his work. The coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles,
in an event known as Pentecost, is seen as the beginning of the public
ministry of the Catholic Church.[102] The church teaches that all duly
consecrated bishops have a lineal succession from the apostles of
Christ, known as apostolic succession.[103] In particular, the Bishop
of
Rome
Rome (the pope) is considered the successor to the apostle Simon
Peter, a position from which he derives his supremacy over the
Church.[104]
Catholic belief holds that the Church "is the continuing presence of
Jesus
Jesus on earth"[105] and that it alone possesses the full means of
salvation.[106] Through the passion (suffering) of Christ leading to
his crucifixion as described in the Gospels, it is said Christ made
himself an oblation to
God
God the Father in order to reconcile humanity
to God;[107] the
Resurrection
Resurrection of
Jesus
Jesus makes him the firstborn from
the dead, the first among many brethren.[108] By reconciling with God
and following Christ's words and deeds, an individual can enter the
Kingdom of God.[109] The Church sees its liturgy and sacraments as
perpetuating the graces achieved through Christ's sacrifice to
strengthen a person's relationship with Christ and aid in overcoming
sin.[110]
Final Judgment
Before his resurrection from the dead,
Jesus Christ
Jesus Christ grants salvation
to souls by the Harrowing of Hell. Fresco, by Fra Angelico,
c. 1430s.
Main article:
Last Judgment
Last Judgment § Catholicism
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of
each person will receive a particular judgement from God, based on
their sins and their relationship to Christ.[111][112] This teaching
also attests to another day when Christ will sit in universal
judgement of all mankind. This final judgement, according to the
church's teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the
beginning of both a new and better heaven and earth ruled by
God
God in
righteousness.[113]
Depending on the judgement rendered following death, it is believed
that a soul may enter one of three states of afterlife:
Heaven is a state of unending union with the divine nature of God, not
ontologically, but by grace. It is an eternal life, in which the soul
contemplates
God
God in ceaseless beatitude.[114]
Purgatory
Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who,
although destined for Heaven, are not fully detached from sin and thus
cannot enter Heaven immediately.[115] In Purgatory, the soul suffers,
and is purged and perfected. Souls in purgatory may be aided in
reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful on earth and by the
intercession of saints.[116]
Final Damnation: Finally, those who persist in living in a state of
mortal sin and do not repent before death subject themselves to hell,
an everlasting separation from God.[117] The Church teaches that no
one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject
God.[118] No one is predestined to hell and no one can determine with
absolute certainty who has been condemned to hell.[119] Catholicism
teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point
before death, be illuminated with the truth of the Catholic faith, and
thus obtain salvation.[120] Some Catholic theologians have speculated
that the souls of unbaptised infants and non-Christians without mortal
sin but who die in original sin are assigned to limbo, although this
is not an official dogma of the Church.[121]
While the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that it alone possesses the full
means of salvation,[106] it also acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can
make use of Christian communities separated from itself to "impel
towards Catholic unity"[122] and "tend and lead toward the Catholic
Church",[122] and thus bring people to salvation, because these
separated communities contain some elements of proper doctrine, albeit
admixed with errors. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved
through the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church but that people can be saved outside of
the ordinary means known as baptism of desire, and by pre-baptismal
martyrdom, known as baptism of blood, as well as when conditions of
invincible ignorance are present, although invincible ignorance in
itself is not a means of salvation.[123]
Virgin Mary and devotions
Part of a series on the
Mariology
of the Catholic Church
The Immaculate Conception, by Murillo
Overview
Prayers
Antiphons
Hymns to Mary
Devotional practices
Prayers
Angelus
Fátima Prayers
Flos Carmeli
Hail Mary
Hail Mary
Hail Mary of Gold
Immaculata prayer
Magnificat
Mary, Mother of Grace
Mary Our Queen
Memorare
Sub tuum praesidium
Antiphons
Alma Redemptoris Mater
Ave Maris Stella
Ave Regina Caelorum
Salve Regina
Hymns to Mary
Hail Queen of Heaven, the Ocean Star
Immaculate Mary
Lo, How a Rose E'er Blooming
O Sanctissima
Regina Coeli
Stabat Mater
Devotional practices
Acts of Reparation
Consecration to Mary
First Saturdays
Rosary
Seven Joys of the Virgin
Seven Sorrows of Mary
Three Hail Marys
Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Catholicism
Catholicism portal
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The
Blessed Virgin Mary
Blessed Virgin Mary is highly regarded in the Catholic Church,
proclaiming her as Mother of God, free from original sin and an
intercessor.
Main articles: Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church, Mariology of
the Catholic Church, Mariology of the saints, Mariology of the popes,
and Catholic devotions
Further information: Mary, mother of Jesus
Catholic Mariology
Catholic Mariology deals with the doctrines and teachings concerning
the life of the Mary, mother of Jesus, as well as the veneration of
Mary by the faithful. Mary is held in special regard, declared the
Mother of
God
God (Greek: Θεοτόκος, translit. Theotokos,
lit. 'God-bearer'), and believed as dogma to have remained a
virgin throughout her life.[124] Further teachings include the
doctrines of the
Immaculate Conception
Immaculate Conception (her own conception without the
stain of original sin) and the
Assumption of Mary
Assumption of Mary (that her body was
assumed directly into heaven at the end of her life). Both of these
doctrines were defined as infallible dogma, by
Pope
Pope Pius IX in 1854
and
Pope
Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively,[125] but only after consulting
with the Catholic bishops throughout the world to ascertain that this
is a Catholic belief.[126]
Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but are distinct from the
worship of God.[127] Practices include prayers and Marian art, music,
and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated
throughout the Church Year and she is honoured with many titles such
as Queen of Heaven.
Pope
Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church
because, by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the
spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.[125] Because of
her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions such
as the Hail Mary, the Rosary, the
Salve Regina
Salve Regina and the
Memorare
Memorare are
common Catholic practices.[128]
Pilgrimages
Pilgrimages to the sites of several
Marian apparitions
Marian apparitions affirmed by the Church, such as Lourdes, Fátima,
and Guadalupe,[129] are also popular Catholic devotions.[130]
Devotions are "external practices of piety" which are not part of the
official liturgy of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church but are part of the popular
spiritual practices of Catholics.[131] Outside of Mariology, other
devotional practices include the Stations of the Cross, the Sacred
Heart of Jesus, the Holy Face of Jesus,[132] the various scapulars,
novenas to various saints,[133] pilgrimages[134] and devotions to the
Blessed Sacrament,[133] and the veneration of saintly images such as
the santos.[135] The bishops at the
Second Vatican Council
Second Vatican Council reminded
Catholics that "devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonize
with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in
some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in
fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them."[136]
Sacraments
Seven Sacraments Altarpiece
Seven Sacraments Altarpiece by Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1448
Mass at the Grotto at Lourdes, France. The chalice is displayed to the
people immediately after the consecration of the wine.
Main article: Sacraments of the Catholic Church
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that it was entrusted with seven
sacraments that were instituted by Christ. The number and nature of
the sacraments were defined by several ecumenical councils, most
recently the Council of Trent.[137][note 7] These are Baptism,
Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick (formerly
called Extreme Unction, one of the "Last Rites"),
Holy Orders
Holy Orders and Holy
Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals that Catholics see as signs
of God's presence and effective channels of God's grace to all those
who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).[138]
The
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church categorises the sacraments into
three groups, the "sacraments of Christian initiation", "sacraments of
healing" and "sacraments at the service of communion and the mission
of the faithful". These groups broadly reflect the stages of people's
natural and spiritual lives which each sacrament is intended to
serve.[139]
The liturgies of the sacraments are central to the church's mission.
According to the Catechism:
In the liturgy of the
New Covenant
New Covenant every liturgical action, especially
the celebration of the
Eucharist
Eucharist and the sacraments, is an encounter
between Christ and the Church. The liturgical assembly derives its
unity from the "communion of the Holy Spirit" who gathers the children
of
God
God into the one Body of Christ. This assembly transcends racial,
cultural, social – indeed, all human affinities.[140]
According to church doctrine, the sacraments of the church require the
proper form, matter, and intent to be validly celebrated.[141] In
addition, the Canon Laws for both the
Latin Church
Latin Church and the Eastern
Catholic Churches govern who may licitly celebrate certain sacraments,
as well as strict rules about who may receive the sacraments.[142]
Notably, because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the
Eucharist,[143] those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal
sin are forbidden to receive the sacrament until they have received
absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance).[144]
Catholics are normally obliged to abstain from eating for at least an
hour before receiving the sacrament.[144] Non-Catholics are ordinarily
prohibited from receiving the
Eucharist
Eucharist as well.[142][145]
Catholics, even if they were in danger of death and unable to approach
a Catholic minister, may not ask for the sacraments of the Eucharist,
penance or anointing of the sick from someone, such as a Protestant
minister, who is not known to be validly ordained in line with
Catholic teaching on ordination.[146][147] Likewise, even in grave and
pressing need, Catholic ministers may not administer these sacraments
to those who do not manifest Catholic faith in the sacrament. In
relation to the churches of
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity not in communion with
the Holy See, the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is less restrictive, declaring that
"a certain communion in sacris, and so in the Eucharist, given
suitable circumstances and the approval of Church authority, is not
merely possible but is encouraged."[148]
Sacraments of Christian initiation
Main article: Sacraments of initiation
Baptism
Baptism
Baptism of
Augustine of Hippo
_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church,_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354–430).jpg/440px-Gerard_Seghers_(attr)_-_The_Four_Doctors_of_the_Western_Church,_Saint_Augustine_of_Hippo_(354–430).jpg)
Augustine of Hippo as represented in a sculptural group in
Troyes
Cathedral
Cathedral (1549), France
As viewed by the Catholic Church,
Baptism
Baptism is the first of three
sacraments of initiation as a Christian.[149] It washes away all sins,
both original sin and personal actual sins.[150] It makes a person a
member of the Church.[151] As a gratuitous gift of
God
God that requires
no merit on the part of the person who is baptised, it is conferred
even on children,[152] who, though they have no personal sins, need it
on account of original sin.[153] If a new-born child is in a danger of
death, anyone—be it a doctor, a nurse, or a parent—may baptise the
child.[154]
Baptism
Baptism marks a person permanently and cannot be
repeated.[155] The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church recognises as valid baptisms
conferred even by people who are not Catholics or Christians, provided
that they intend to baptise ("to do what the Church does when she
baptises") and that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.[156]
Confirmation
Main article:
Confirmation
Confirmation in the Catholic Church
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church sees the sacrament of confirmation as required to
complete the grace given in baptism.[157] When adults are baptised,
confirmation is normally given immediately afterwards,[158] a practice
followed even with newly baptised infants in the Eastern Catholic
Churches.[159] In the West confirmation of children is delayed until
they are old enough to understand or at the bishop's discretion.[160]
In Western Christianity, particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is
called confirmation, because it confirms and strengthens the grace of
baptism; in the Eastern Churches, it is called chrismation, because
the essential rite is the anointing of the person with chrism,[161] a
mixture of olive oil and some perfumed substance, usually balsam,
blessed by a bishop.[161][162] Those who receive confirmation must be
in a state of grace, which for those who have reached the age of
reason means that they should first be cleansed spiritually by the
sacrament of Penance; they should also have the intention of receiving
the sacrament, and be prepared to show in their lives that they are
Christians.[163]
Eucharist
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI celebrates the
Eucharist
Eucharist at the canonisation of Frei
Galvão in São Paulo,
Brazil
Brazil on 11 May 2007
Main article:
Eucharist
Eucharist in the Catholic Church
For Catholics, the
Eucharist
Eucharist is the sacrament which completes
Christian initiation. It is described as "the source and summit of the
Christian life".[164] The ceremony in which a Catholic first receives
the
Eucharist
Eucharist is known as First Communion.[165]
The Eucharistic celebration, also called the Mass or Divine liturgy,
includes prayers and scriptural readings, as well as an offering of
bread and wine, which are brought to the altar and consecrated by the
priest to become the body and the blood of
Jesus
Jesus Christ, a change
called transubstantiation.[166][note 8] The words of consecration
reflect the words spoken by
Jesus
Jesus during the Last Supper, where Christ
offered his body and blood to his
Apostles
Apostles the night before his
crucifixion. The sacrament re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice
of
Jesus
Jesus on the cross,[167] and perpetuates it. Christ's death and
resurrection gives grace through the sacrament that unites the
faithful with Christ and one another, remits venial sin, and aids
against committing moral sin (though mortal sin itself is forgiven
through the sacrament of penance).[168]
A Catholic believer prays in a church in Mexico
Sacraments of healing
The two sacraments of healing are the
Sacrament of Penance
Sacrament of Penance and
Anointing of the Sick.
Penance
Main article: Sacrament of Penance
The
Sacrament of Penance
Sacrament of Penance (also called Reconciliation, Forgiveness,
Confession, and Conversion[169]) exists for the conversion of those
who, after baptism, separate themselves from Christ by sin.[170]
Essential to this sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination
of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again,
confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the
damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of
reparation to be performed and absolution).[171] Serious sins (mortal
sins) should be confessed at least once a year and always before
receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is
recommended.[172] The priest is bound under the severest penalties to
maintain the "seal of confession", absolute secrecy about any sins
revealed to him in confession.[173]
Anointing of the sick
The
Seven Sacraments Altarpiece
Seven Sacraments Altarpiece triptych painting of Extreme Unction
(Anointing of the Sick) with oil being administered by a priest during
last rites. Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1445.
Main article: Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church
While chrism is used only for the three sacraments that cannot be
repeated, a different oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a
Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has begun to be in danger
of death.[174] This sacrament, known as Anointing of the Sick, is
believed to give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is
unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins.[175]
The sacrament is also referred to as Unction, and in the past as
Extreme Unction, and it is one of the three sacraments that constitute
the last rites, together with Penance and
Viaticum
Viaticum (Eucharist).[176]
Sacraments at the service of communion
According to the Catechism, there are two sacraments of communion
directed towards the salvation of others: priesthood and
marriage.[177] Within the general vocation to be a Christian, these
two sacraments "consecrate to specific mission or vocation among the
people of God. Men receive the holy orders to feed the Church by the
word and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may be fortified to
fulfill duties of their state".[178]
Holy Orders
Priests lay their hands on the ordinands during the rite of
ordination.
Main article:
Holy orders
Holy orders in the Catholic Church
The sacrament of
Holy Orders
Holy Orders consecrates and deputes some Christians
to serve the whole body as members of three degrees or orders:
episcopate (bishops), presbyterate (priests) and diaconate
(deacons).[179][180] The Church has defined rules on who may be
ordained into the clergy. In the
Latin
Latin Church, the priesthood is
generally restricted to celibate men, and the episcopate is always
restricted to celibate men.[181] Men who are already married may be
ordained in certain
Eastern Catholic churches
Eastern Catholic churches in most countries,[182]
and the personal ordinariates and may become deacons even in the
Western Church[183][184] (see Clerical marriage). But after becoming a
Catholic priest, a man may not marry (see Clerical celibacy) unless he
is formally laicised.
All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops, may preach, teach,
baptise, witness marriages and conduct funeral liturgies.[185] Only
bishops and priests can administer the sacraments of the Eucharist,
Reconciliation (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick.[186][187] Only
bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which ordains
someone into the clergy.[188]
Matrimony
Wedding mass in the Philippines
Main article: Marriage in the Catholic Church
See also: Catholic teachings on sexual morality
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that marriage is a social and spiritual
bond between a man and a woman, ordered towards the good of the
spouses and procreation of children; according to Catholic teachings
on sexual morality, it is the only appropriate context for sexual
activity. A Catholic marriage, or any marriage between baptised
individuals of any Christian denomination, is viewed as a sacrament. A
sacramental marriage, once consummated, cannot be dissolved except by
death.[189][note 9] The Church recognises certain conditions, such as
freedom of consent, as required for any marriage to be valid; In
addition, the Church sets specific rules and norms, known as canonical
form, that Catholics must follow.[192]
The church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid marriage and
allows state-recognised divorce only as a means of protecting the
property and well being of the spouses and any children. However,
consideration of particular cases by the competent ecclesiastical
tribunal can lead to declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a
declaration usually referred to as an annulment.[193] Remarriage
following a divorce is not permitted unless the prior marriage was
declared invalid.[193]
Liturgy
Main article: Catholic liturgy
Catholic religious objects—Holy Bible, crucifix and rosary
Among the 24 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, numerous liturgical and
other traditions exist, called rites, which reflect historical and
cultural diversity rather than differences in belief.[194] In the
definition of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, "a rite is
the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary patrimony,
culture and circumstances of history of a distinct people, by which
its own manner of living the faith is manifested in each Church sui
iuris".[195]
The liturgy of the sacrament of the Eucharist, called the Mass in the
West and
Divine Liturgy
Divine Liturgy or other names in the East, is the principal
liturgy of the Catholic Church.[196] This is because it is considered
the propitiatory sacrifice of Christ himself.[197] The most widely
used is the Roman Rite, usually in its ordinary form promulgated by
Paul VI in 1969, but also in its authorised extraordinary form, the
Tridentine Mass
Tridentine Mass as in the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal. Eastern
Catholic Churches have their own rites. The liturgies of the Eucharist
and the other sacraments vary from rite to rite based on differing
theological emphasis.
Western rites
Main articles:
Roman Rite
Roman Rite and
Latin
Latin liturgical rites
Part of a series on
Roman Rite
Roman Rite mass
of the Catholic Church
Roman Missal:
Chalice
Chalice (with purificator, paten and pall), crucifix,
and lit candle
A. Introductory rites
Entrance
Greeting of the altar
Act of penitence
Kyrie
Kyrie Eleison
Gloria
Collect
B.
Liturgy
Liturgy of the Word
Lectionary
Lectionary readings
Responsorial psalm
Homily
Profession of faith
Prayer
Prayer of the Faithful
C.
Liturgy
Liturgy of the Eucharist
See also:
Eucharist
Eucharist (Catholic Church)
Preparation of the gifts
Prayer
Prayer over the offerings
Eucharistic Prayer
Communion rite:
The Lord’s Prayer
Rite of peace
Fraction
Reception of Communion
D. Concluding rites
"Ite, missa est!"
Catholicism
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The
Roman Rite
Roman Rite is the most common rite of worship used by the Catholic
Church. Its use is found worldwide, originating in
Rome
Rome and spreading
throughout Europe, influencing and eventually supplanting local
rites.[198] The present ordinary form of Mass in the Roman Rite, found
in the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal, is usually celebrated
in the local vernacular language, using an officially approved
translation from the original text in Latin. An outline of its major
liturgical elements can be found in the side bar.
Elevation of the chalice before an altar after the consecration during
a
Solemn Mass
Solemn Mass of Tridentine Mass
In 2007,
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI affirmed the continued use of the 1962
Roman
Missal
Missal as an extraordinary form of the
Roman Rite
Roman Rite ("a Forma
extraordinaria"), speaking of it also as an usus antiquior (older
use), and issued new permissive norms for its employment.[199] An
instruction issued four years later spoke of the two forms or usages
of the
Roman Rite
Roman Rite approved by the pope as the ordinary form and the
extraordinary form ("the forma ordinaria" and "the forma
extraordinaria").[200]
The 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, published a few months before
the
Second Vatican Council
Second Vatican Council opened, was the last that presented the
Mass as standardised in 1570 by
Pope
Pope Pius V at the request of the
Council of Trent
Council of Trent and that is therefore known as the Tridentine
Mass.[143]
Pope
Pope Pius V's Roman
Missal
Missal was subjected to minor revisions
by
Pope
Pope Clement VIII in 1604,
Pope
Pope Urban VIII in 1634,
Pope
Pope Pius X in
1911,
Pope
Pope Pius XII in 1955, and
Pope
Pope John XXIII in 1962. Each
successive edition was the ordinary form of the
Roman Rite
Roman Rite Mass until
superseded by a later edition. When the 1962 edition was superseded by
that of Paul VI, promulgated in 1969, its continued use at first
required permission from bishops;[201] but
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI's 2007
motu proprio
Summorum Pontificum
Summorum Pontificum allowed free use of it for Mass
celebrated without a congregation and authorised parish priests to
permit, under certain conditions, its use even at public Masses.
Except for the scriptural readings, which
Pope
Pope Benedict allowed to be
proclaimed in the vernacular language, it is celebrated exclusively in
liturgical Latin.[202]
Since 2014, clergy in the small personal ordinariates set up for
groups of former Anglicans under the terms of the 2009 document
Anglicanorum Coetibus[203] are permitted to use a variation of the
Roman Rite
Roman Rite called "Divine Worship" or, less formally, "Ordinariate
Use",[204] which incorporates elements of the
Anglican liturgy
Anglican liturgy and
traditions.[note 10]
In the Archdiocese of Milan, with around five million Catholics the
largest in Europe,[205] Mass is celebrated according to the Ambrosian
Rite. Other
Latin Church
Latin Church rites include the Mozarabic[206] and those of
some religious institutes.[207] These liturgical rites have an
antiquity of at least 200 years before 1570, the date of
Pope
Pope Pius V's
Quo primum, and were thus allowed to continue.[208]
Eastern rites
East Syrian Rite
East Syrian Rite wedding crowning celebrated by a bishop of the
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
Syro-Malabar Catholic Church in India, one of the 23 Eastern Catholic
Churches in full communion with the
Pope
Pope and the Catholic Church.
Main article: Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites
§ Eastern rites
The
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches share common patrimony and liturgical
rites as their counterparts, including
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox and other
Eastern Christian
Eastern Christian churches who are no longer in communion with the
Holy See. These include churches that historically developed in
Russia, Caucasus, the Balkans, North Eastern Africa,
India
India and the
Middle East. The
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches are groups of faithful who
have either never been out of communion with the
Holy See
Holy See or who have
restored communion with it at the cost of breaking communion with
their associates of the same tradition.[209]
The rites used by the
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine
Rite, in its Antiochian, Greek and Slavonic varieties; the Alexandrian
Rite; the Syriac Rite; the Armenian Rite; the
Maronite Rite
Maronite Rite and the
Chaldean Rite.
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches have the autonomy to set the
particulars of their liturgical forms and worship, within certain
limits to protect the "accurate observance" of their liturgical
tradition.[210] In the past some of the rites used by the Eastern
Catholic Churches were subject to a degree of liturgical Latinisation.
However, in recent years
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to
traditional Eastern practices in accord with the Vatican II decree
Orientalium Ecclesiarum.[211] Each church has its own liturgical
calendar.[212]
Social and cultural issues
See also: Criticism of the Catholic Church
Part of a series on the
Catholic social teaching
Emblem
.jpg/440px-The_Wilton_Diptych_(Right).jpg)
Emblem of the Holy See
Overview
Social teachings of the Popes
Distributism
Solidarity
Subsidiarity
Tranquillitas ordinis
Pope
Pope Leo XIII
Rerum novarum
Pope
Pope Pius XI
Divini redemptoris
Mit brennender Sorge
Non abbiamo bisogno
Quadragesimo anno
Pope
Pope Pius XII
Social teachings
Pope
Pope John XXIII
Mater et magistra
Pacem in terris
Vatican II
Dignitatis humanae
Gaudium et spes
Pope
Pope Paul VI
Octogesima adveniens
Populorum progressio
Pope
Pope John Paul II
Laborem exercens
Sollicitudo rei socialis
Centesimus annus
Evangelium vitae
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI
Caritas in veritate
Pope
Pope Francis
Evangelii Gaudium
Laudato si'
Other figures
Gaspard Mermillod
René de La Tour du Pin
Heinrich Pesch
Dorothy Day
Óscar Romero
Joseph Bernardin
Hilaire Belloc
G. K. Chesterton
Catholicism
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Catholic social teaching
Main article: Catholic social teaching
Catholic social teaching, reflecting the concern
Jesus
Jesus showed for the
impoverished, places a heavy emphasis on the corporal works of mercy
and the spiritual works of mercy, namely the support and concern for
the sick, the poor and the afflicted.[213][214] Church teaching calls
for a preferential option for the poor while canon law prescribes that
"The Christian faithful are also obliged to promote social justice
and, mindful of the precept of the Lord, to assist the poor."[215] Its
foundations are widely considered to have been laid by
Pope
Pope Leo XIII's
1891 encyclical letter
Rerum novarum
Rerum novarum which upholds the rights and
dignity of labor and the right of workers to form unions.
Catholic teaching regarding sexuality calls for a practice of
chastity, with a focus on maintaining the spiritual and bodily
integrity of the human person. Marriage is considered the only
appropriate context for sexual activity.[216] Church teachings about
sexuality have become an issue of increasing controversy, especially
after the close of the Second Vatican Council, due to changing
cultural attitudes in the Western world described as the sexual
revolution.
The Church has also addressed stewardship of the natural environment,
and its relationship to other social and theological teachings. In the
document Laudato si', dated 24 May 2015,
Pope
Pope Francis critiques
consumerism and irresponsible development, and laments environmental
degradation and global warming.[217] The pope expressed concern that
the warming of the planet is a symptom of a greater problem: the
developed world's indifference to the destruction of the planet as
humans pursue short-term economic gains.[218]
Social services
Main articles:
Catholic Church and health care
Catholic Church and health care and Catholic education
Saint
Saint Teresa of Calcutta advocated for the sick, the poor and the
needy by practising the acts of corporal works of mercy.
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of
education and medical services in the world.[16] In 2010, the Catholic
Church's
Pontifical Council
Pontifical Council for Pastoral Assistance to Health Care
Workers said that the Church manages 26% of health care facilities in
the world, including hospitals, clinics, orphanages, pharmacies and
centres for those with leprosy.[219]
Religious institutes for women have played a particularly prominent
role in the provision of health and education services,[220] as with
orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, the
Missionaries of Charity, the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred
Heart, the
Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament
Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament and the Daughters of
Charity of
Saint
Saint Vincent de Paul.[221] The Catholic nun Mother Teresa
of Calcutta, India, founder of the Missionaries of Charity, was
awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among
India's poor.[222] Bishop
Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo
Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same
award in 1996 for "work towards a just and peaceful solution to the
conflict in East Timor".[223]
The Church is also actively engaged in international aid and
development through organisations such as Catholic Relief Services,
Caritas International, Aid to the Church in Need, refugee advocacy
groups such as the
Jesuit Refugee Service and community aid groups
such as the
Saint
Saint Vincent de Paul Society.[224]
Sexual morality
Main articles:
Catholic theology
Catholic theology of sexuality,
Catholic theology
Catholic theology of
the body, and Marriage in the Catholic Church
Allegory
Allegory of chastity by Hans Memling
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church calls all members to practise chastity according
to their state in life.
Chastity
Chastity includes temperance, self-mastery,
personal and cultural growth, and divine grace. It requires refraining
from lust, masturbation, fornication, pornography, prostitution and,
especially, rape.
Chastity
Chastity for those who are not married requires
living in continence, abstaining from sexual activity; those who are
married are called to conjugal chastity.[225]
In the church's teaching, sexual activity is reserved to married
couples, whether in a sacramental marriage among Christians, or in a
natural marriage where one or both spouses are unbaptised. Even in
romantic relationships, particularly engagement to marriage, partners
are called to practise continence, in order to test mutual respect and
fidelity.[226]
Chastity
Chastity in marriage requires in particular conjugal
fidelity and protecting the fecundity of marriage. The couple must
foster trust and honesty as well as spiritual and physical intimacy.
Sexual activity must always be open to the possibility of life;[227]
the church calls this the procreative significance. It must likewise
always bring a couple together in love; the church calls this the
unitive significance.[228]
Contraception
Contraception and certain other sexual practices are not permitted,
although natural family planning methods are permitted to provide
healthy spacing between births, or to postpone children for a just
reason.[229]
Pope
Pope Francis said in 2015 that he is worried that the
church has grown "obsessed" with issues such as abortion, same-sex
marriage and contraception and has criticised the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church for
placing dogma before love, and for prioritising moral doctrines over
helping the poor and marginalised.[230][231]
Divorce
Divorce and declarations of nullity
Main article: Declaration of nullity
Further information:
Divorce
Divorce law by country
Canon law
Canon law makes no provision for divorce between baptised individuals,
as a valid, consummated sacramental marriage is considered to be a
lifelong bond.[232] However, a declaration of nullity may be granted
when proof is produced that essential conditions for contracting a
valid marriage were absent from the beginning—in other words, that
the marriage was not valid due to some impediment. A declaration of
nullity, commonly called an annulment, is a judgement on the part of
an ecclesiastical tribunal determining that a marriage was invalidly
attempted.[233] In addition, marriages among unbaptised individuals
may be dissolved with papal permission under certain situations, such
as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine
privilege.[190][191] An attempt at remarriage following divorce
without a declaration of nullity places "the remarried spouse […] in
a situation of public and permanent adultery". An innocent spouse who
lives in continence following divorce, or couples who live in
continence following a civil divorce for a grave cause, do not
sin.[234]
Worldwide, diocesan tribunals completed over 49000 cases for nullity
of marriage in 2006. Over the past 30 years about 55 to 70% of
annulments have occurred in the United States. The growth in
annulments has been substantial; in the United States, 27,000
marriages were annulled in 2006, compared to 338 in 1968. However,
approximately 200,000 married Catholics in the United States divorce
each year; 10 million total as of 2006[update].[235][note 11]
Divorce
Divorce is increasing in some predominantly Catholic countries in
Europe.[237] In some predominantly Catholic countries, it is only in
recent years that divorce was introduced (i.e.
Italy
Italy (1970), Portugal
(1975),
Brazil
Brazil (1977),
Spain
Spain (1981),
Ireland
Ireland (1996),
Chile
Chile (2004) and
Malta
Malta (2011), while the
Philippines
Philippines and the
Vatican City
Vatican City have no
procedure for divorce. (The
Philippines
Philippines does, however, allow divorce
for Muslims.)
Contraception
Main article: Christian views on contraception § Catholic Church
See also:
Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS
Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS and Religious response to
assisted reproductive technology § Catholicism
Pope
Pope Paul VI issued
Humanae vitae
Humanae vitae on 25 July 1968.
The church teaches that sexual intercourse should only take place
between a married man and woman, and should be without the use of
birth control or contraception. In his encyclical Humanae vitae[238]
(1968),
Pope
Pope Paul VI firmly rejected all contraception, thus
contradicting dissenters in the Church that saw the birth control pill
as an ethically justifiable method of contraception, though he
permitted the regulation of births by means of natural family
planning. This teaching was continued especially by
John Paul II
John Paul II in
his encyclical Evangelium Vitae, where he clarified the Church's
position on contraception, abortion and euthanasia by condemning them
as part of a "culture of death" and calling instead for a "culture of
life".[239]
Many Western Catholics have voiced significant disagreement with the
Church's teaching on contraception.[240] Catholics for Choice, a
political lobbyist group which is not associated with the Catholic
Church, stated in 1998 that 96% of U.S. Catholic women had used
contraceptives at some point in their lives and that 72% of Catholics
believed that one could be a good Catholic without obeying the
Church's teaching on birth control.[241] Use of natural family
planning methods among United States Catholics purportedly is low,
although the number cannot be known with certainty.[note 12] As
Catholic health providers are among the largest providers of services
to patients with
HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS worldwide, there is significant controversy
within and outside the church regarding the use of condoms as a means
of limiting new infections, as condom use ordinarily constitutes
prohibited contraceptive use.[244]
Similarly, the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church opposes in vitro fertilisation (IVF),
saying that the artificial process replaces the love between a husband
and wife.[245] In addition, it opposes IVF because it might cause
disposal of embryos; Catholics believe an embryo is an individual with
a soul who must be treated as such.[246] For this reason, the church
also opposes abortion.[247]
Homosexuality
Main article: Homosexuality and the Catholic Church
The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church also teaches that "homosexual acts" are "contrary
to the natural law", "acts of grave depravity" and "under no
circumstances can they be approved", but that persons experiencing
homosexual tendencies must be accorded respect and dignity.[248]
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church,
The number of men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies
is not negligible. This inclination, which is objectively disordered,
constitutes for most of them a trial. They must be accepted with
respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust
discrimination in their regard should be avoided….
Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of
self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times by the support of
disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can
and should gradually and resolutely approach Christian
perfection.[249]
This part of the Catechism was quoted by
Pope
Pope Francis in a 2013 press
interview in which he remarked, when asked about an individual:
I think that when you encounter a person like this [the individual he
was asked about], you must make a distinction between the fact of a
person being gay from the fact of being a lobby, because lobbies, all
are not good. That is bad. If a person is gay and seeks the Lord and
has good will, well who am I to judge them?[250]
This remark and others made in the same interview were seen as a
change in the tone, but not in the substance of the teaching of the
Church,[251] which includes opposition to same-sex marriage.[252]
Certain dissenting Catholic groups oppose the position of the Catholic
Church and seek to change it.[253]
Holy orders
Holy orders and women
Main articles:
Ordination
Ordination of women in the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church and Women in
the Catholic Church
Women and men religious engage in a variety of occupations, from
contemplative prayer, to teaching, to providing health care, to
working as missionaries.[220][254] While
Holy Orders
Holy Orders are reserved for
men, Catholic women have played diverse roles in the life of the
church, with religious institutes providing a formal space for their
participation and convents providing spaces for their self-government,
prayer and influence through many centuries. Religious sisters and
nuns have been extensively involved in developing and running the
Church's worldwide health and education service networks.[255]
Efforts in support of the ordination of women to the priesthood led to
several rulings by the
Roman Curia
Roman Curia or Popes against the proposal, as
in Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the
Ministerial Priesthood (1976),
Mulieris Dignitatem (1988) and
Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (1994). According to the latest ruling, found
in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis,
Pope
Pope
John Paul II
John Paul II affirmed that the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church "does not consider herself authorized to admit women
to priestly ordination."[256] In defiance of these rulings, opposition
groups such as
Roman Catholic Womenpriests have performed ceremonies
they affirm as sacramental ordinations (with, reputedly, an ordaining
male Catholic bishop in the first few instances) which, according to
canon law, are both illicit and invalid and considered mere
simulations[257] of the sacrament of ordination.[258][note 13] The
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith responded by issuing a
statement clarifying that any Catholic bishops involved in ordination
ceremonies for women, as well as the women themselves if they were
Catholic, would automatically receive the penalty of excommunication
(latae sententiae, literally "with the sentence already applied", i.e.
automatically), citing canon 1378 of canon law and other church
laws.[259]
Sexual abuse cases
Main article:
Catholic Church
Catholic Church sexual abuse cases
From the 1990s, the issue of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic clergy
and other church members has become the subject of civil litigation,
criminal prosecution, media coverage and public debate in countries
around the world. The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church has been criticised for its
handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops
had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral
assignments where some continued to commit sexual offences.
In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to
help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs
and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing
victims have disputed their effectiveness.[260] In 2014,
Pope
Pope Francis
instituted the
Pontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors for
the safeguarding of minors.[261]
History
Main article: History of the Catholic Church
Further information:
History of early Christianity
History of early Christianity and Historiography
of early Christianity
This fresco (1481–82) by
Pietro Perugino
Pietro Perugino in the
Sistine Chapel
Sistine Chapel shows
Jesus
Jesus giving the keys of heaven to
Saint
Saint Peter.
The Last Supper, a late 1490s mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci,
depicting the last supper of
Jesus
Jesus and his twelve apostles on the eve
of his crucifixion. Most apostles are buried in Rome, including Saint
Peter.
The Christian religion is based on the teachings of
Jesus
Jesus Christ, who
lived and preached in the 1st century AD in the province of Judea of
the Roman Empire. Catholic doctrine teaches that the contemporary
Catholic Church
Catholic Church is the continuation of this early Christian community
established by Jesus.[6]
Christianity
Christianity spread throughout the early
Roman Empire, despite persecutions due to conflicts with the pagan
state religion.
Emperor Constantine
Emperor Constantine legalised the practice of
Christianity
Christianity in 313, and it became the state religion in 380. Germanic
invaders of Roman territory in the 5th and 6th centuries, many of whom
had previously adopted Arian Christianity, eventually adopted
Catholicism
Catholicism to ally themselves with the papacy and the monasteries.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, expanding
Muslim conquests
Muslim conquests following the
advent of
Islam
Islam led to an Arab domination of the Mediterranean that
severed political connections between that area and northern Europe,
and weakened cultural connections between
Rome
Rome and the Byzantine
Empire. Conflicts involving authority in the church, particularly the
authority of the Bishop of
Rome
Rome finally culminated in the East–West
Schism
Schism in the 11th century, splitting the Church into the Catholic and
Orthodox Churches. Earlier splits within the Church occurred after the
Council of Ephesus
Council of Ephesus (431) and the
Council of Chalcedon
Council of Chalcedon (451). However,
a few Eastern Churches remained in communion with Rome, and portions
of some others established communion in the 15th century and later,
forming what are called the Eastern Catholic Churches.
Early monasteries throughout
Europe
Europe helped preserve Greek and Roman
classical civilisation. The Church eventually became the dominant
influence in
Western civilisation
Western civilisation into the modern age. Many
Renaissance
Renaissance figures were sponsored by the church. The 16th century,
however, began to see challenges to the Church, in particular to its
religious authority, by figures in the Protestant Reformation, as well
as in the 17th century by secular intellectuals in the Enlightenment.
Concurrently, Spanish and Portuguese explorers and missionaries spread
the Church's influence through Africa, Asia, and the New World.
In 1870, the
First Vatican Council
First Vatican Council declared the dogma of papal
infallibility and the Kingdom of
Italy
Italy annexed the city of Rome, the
last portion of the
Papal States
.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Papal_States_(1825-1870).svg.png)
Papal States to be incorporated into the new
nation. In the 20th century, anti-clerical governments around the
world, including
Mexico
Mexico and Spain, persecuted or executed thousands of
clerics and laypersons. In the Second World War, the Church condemned
Nazism, and protected hundreds of thousands of Jews from the
Holocaust; its efforts, however, have been criticised as inadequate.
After the war, freedom of religion was severely restricted in the
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist countries newly aligned with the Soviet Union, several of
which had large Catholic populations.
In the 1960s, the
Second Vatican Council
Second Vatican Council led to reforms of the
Church's liturgy and practices, described as "opening the windows" by
defenders, but criticised by traditionalist Catholics. In the face of
increased criticism from both within and without, the Church has
upheld or reaffirmed at various times controversial doctrinal
positions regarding sexuality and gender, including limiting clergy to
males, and moral exhortations against abortion, contraception, sexual
activity outside of marriage, remarriage following divorce without
annulment, and against same-sex marriage.
Apostolic era and papacy
Main article: Apostolic Age
Jesus' commission to
Saint
Saint Peter
The New Testament, in particular the Gospels, records Jesus'
activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve
Apostles
Apostles and
his
Great Commission
Great Commission of the Apostles, instructing them to continue his
work.[101][262] The book Acts of Apostles, tells of the founding of
the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman
empire.[263] The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry
began on Pentecost, occurring fifty days following the date Christ is
believed to have resurrected.[102] At Pentecost, the
Apostles
Apostles are
believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their
mission in leading the church.[264][265] The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church teaches
that the college of bishops, led by the Bishop of
Rome
Rome are the
successors to the Apostles.[266]
In the account of the
Confession of Peter
Confession of Peter found in the
Gospel
Gospel of
Matthew, Christ designates Peter as the "rock" upon which Christ's
church will be built.[267][268] The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church considers the
Bishop of Rome, the pope, to be the successor to
Saint
Saint Peter.[269]
Some scholars state Peter was the first Bishop of Rome.[270][note 14]
Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the
idea that Peter was Bishop of
Rome
Rome or even on his ever having been in
Rome.[271] Many scholars hold that a church structure of plural
presbyters/bishops persisted in
Rome
Rome until the mid-2nd century, when
the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was
adopted,[272] and that later writers retrospectively applied the term
"bishop of Rome" to the most prominent members of the clergy in the
earlier period and also to Peter himself.[272] On this basis, Oscar
Cullmann,[273] Henry Chadwick,[274] and Bart D. Ehrman[275] question
whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy.
Raymond E. Brown also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter
in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period
would have looked on Peter as having "roles that would contribute in
an essential way to the development of the role of the papacy in the
subsequent church". These roles, Brown says, "contributed enormously
to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died,
and where Paul witnessed to the truth of Christ, as the successor of
Peter in care for the church universal".[272]
Antiquity and Roman Empire
Main articles: Early centers of Christianity, Pentarchy, and List of
Christian heresies
Part of a series on
Ecumenical councils
of the Catholic Church
Renaissance
Renaissance depiction of the Council of Trent
Antiquity (c. 50 – 451)
Jerusalem
Nicaea I
Constantinople
Constantinople I
Ephesus
Chalcedon
Early Middle Ages
Early Middle Ages (553–870)
Constantinople
Constantinople II
Constantinople
Constantinople III
Nicaea II
Constantinople
Constantinople IV
High and
Late Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages (1122–1517)
Lateran I
Lateran II
Lateran III
Lateran IV
Lyon I
Lyon II
Vienne
Constance
Florence
Lateran V
Modernity (1545–1965)
Trent
Vatican I
Vatican II
Catholicism
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Conditions in the
Roman Empire
Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas.
The empire's network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and
the
Pax Romana
Pax Romana made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread
of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more
easily expressed and understood.[276]
Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity
required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted
from
Judaism
Judaism (see Idolatry). The Christians' refusal to join pagan
celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public
life, which caused non-Christians—including government
authorities—to fear that the Christians were angering the gods and
thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The
resulting persecutions were a defining feature of Christian
self-understanding until
Christianity
Christianity was legalised in the 4th
century.[277]
19th century drawing of Old
Saint
Saint Peter's Basilica, originally built
in 318 by Emperor Constantine
In 313,
Emperor Constantine
Emperor Constantine I's
Edict of Milan
Edict of Milan legalised Christianity,
and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople,
modern Istanbul, Turkey. In 380 the
Edict of Thessalonica made Nicene
Christianity
Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire, a position that
within the diminishing territory of the
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire would persist
until the empire itself ended in the fall of
Constantinople
Constantinople in 1453,
while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became
particularly clear with the East–West Schism. During the period of
the Seven Ecumenical Councils, five primary sees emerged, an
arrangement formalised in the mid-6th century by Emperor
Justinian
.jpg/440px-Mosaic_of_Justinianus_I_-_Basilica_San_Vitale_(Ravenna).jpg)
Justinian I
as the pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch,
Jerusalem
Jerusalem and
Alexandria.[278][279] In 451 the Council of Chalcedon, in a canon of
disputed validity,[280] elevated the see of
Constantinople
Constantinople to a
position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".[281]
From c. 350 to c. 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily
increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support
of orthodox leaders in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals
to them.[282] Emperor Justinian, who in the areas under his control
definitively established a form of caesaropapism,[283] in which "he
had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details
of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological
opinions to be held in the Church",[284] reestablished imperial power
over
Rome
Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed
the
Byzantine Papacy
Byzantine Papacy (537–752), during which the bishops of Rome, or
popes, required approval from the emperor in
Constantinople
Constantinople or from
his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected
by the emperor from his Greek-speaking subjects,[285] resulting in a
"melting pot" of Western and
Eastern Christian
Eastern Christian traditions in art as
well as liturgy.[286]
Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the
Roman Empire
Roman Empire had adopted
Christianity
Christianity in its Arian form, which the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church declared heretical.[287] The resulting religious
discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects[288] was avoided
when, in 497, Clovis I, the Frankish ruler, converted to orthodox
Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries.[289]
The Visigoths in
Spain
Spain followed his lead in 589,[290] and the Lombards
in
Italy
Italy in the course of the 7th century.[291]
Western Christianity, particularly through its monasteries, was a
major factor in preserving classical civilisation, with its art (see
Illuminated manuscript) and literacy.[292][293] Through his Rule,
Benedict of Nursia
Benedict of Nursia (c.480–543), one of the founders of Western
monasticism, exerted an enormous influence on European culture through
the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early
Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through the
preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period,
monastic
Ireland
Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish
missionaries such as St
Columbanus
Columbanus and
St Columba
St Columba spread Christianity
and established monasteries across continental Europe.[1]
The massive Islamic invasions of the mid-7th century began a long
struggle between
Christianity
Christianity and
Islam
Islam throughout the Mediterranean
Basin. The
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire soon lost the lands of the eastern
patriarchates of Jerusalem, Alexandria and Antioch and was reduced to
that of Constantinople, the empire's capital. As a result of Islamic
domination of the Mediterranean, the Frankish state, centred away from
that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the
Western
Europe
Europe of the Middle Ages.[294] The battles of Toulouse and
Poitiers halted the Islamic advance in the West and the failed Siege
of
Constantinople
Constantinople halted it in the East. Two or three decades later,
in 751, the
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna
from which it governed the small fragments of Italy, including Rome,
that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that
confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during
the election in 752 of
Pope
Pope Stephen II and that the papacy was forced
to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it.[295] In 754, at the
urgent request of
Pope
Pope Stephen, the Frankish king Pepin the Short
conquered the Lombards. He then gifted the lands of the former
exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the Papal States.
Rome
Rome and the
Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the Photian
schism of the 860s, when Photius criticised the
Latin
Latin west of adding
of the filioque clause after being excommunicated by Nicholas I.
Though the schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to
further division.[296]
Medieval and
Renaissance
Renaissance periods
Further information:
Christianity
Christianity in the 16th century
§
Renaissance
Renaissance Church
Chartres Cathedral, 1220
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Schools
Augustinianism
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Salamanca
Scholasticism
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Thomism
Ethics
Natural law
Personalism
Social teaching
Virtue ethics
Ancient philosophers
Ambrose
Augustine of Hippo
Jerome
Paul the Apostle
Medieval philosophers
Peter Abelard
Alexander of Hales
Thomas Aquinas
Benedict of Nursia
Francis of Mayrone
Giles of Rome
Pope
Pope Gregory I
Henry of Ghent
Peter Lombard
Albertus Magnus
Duns Scotus
William of Ockham
Renaissance
Renaissance philosophers
Erasmus
Luis de Molina
Thomas More
Francisco de Vitoria
Modern philosophers
G. E. M. Anscombe
Pope
Pope John Paul II
Bernard Lonergan
Alasdair MacIntyre
Jacques Maritain
Blaise Pascal
Edith Stein
Charles Taylor
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The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilisation
from
Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity to the dawn of the modern age.[5] It was the
primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and
Baroque
Baroque styles in art, architecture and music.[297] Renaissance
figures such as Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli,
Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Titian,
Bernini
Bernini and
Caravaggio
Caravaggio are examples
of the numerous visual artists sponsored by the Church.[298]
In the 11th century, the efforts of
Hildebrand of Sovana
Hildebrand of Sovana led to the
creation of the
College of Cardinals
College of Cardinals to elect new popes, starting with
Pope
Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061. When Alexander II
died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as
Pope
Pope Gregory VII. The
basic election system of the
College of Cardinals
College of Cardinals which Gregory VII
helped establish has continued to function into the 21st century. Pope
Gregory VII further initiated the
Gregorian Reforms regarding the
independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the
Investiture Controversy
Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman
Emperors, over which had the authority to appoint bishops and
popes.[299][300]
In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to
Pope
Pope Urban II for
help against renewed Muslim invasions in the Byzantine–Seljuk
Wars,[301] which caused Urban to launch the
First Crusade
First Crusade aimed at
aiding the
Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire and returning the
Holy Land
.jpg/440px-The_map_of_the_Holy_Land_by_Marino_Sanudo_(drawn_in_1320).jpg)
Holy Land to Christian
control.[302] In the 11th century, strained relations between the
primarily Greek church and the
Latin Church
Latin Church separated them in the
East–West Schism, partially due to conflicts over papal authority.
The
Fourth Crusade
Fourth Crusade and the sacking of
Constantinople
Constantinople by renegade
crusaders proved the final breach.[303] In this age great gothic
cathedrals in
France
France were an expression of popular pride in the
Christian faith.
In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of
Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán. The studia conventualia and studia
generalia of the mendicant orders played a large role in the
transformation of Church sponsored cathedral schools and palace
schools, such as that of
Charlemagne
Charlemagne at Aachen, into the prominent
universities of Europe.[304] Scholastic theologians and philosophers
such as the Dominican priest
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at
these studia. Aquinas' Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone
in its synthesis of the legacy of Ancient Greek philosophers such as
Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation.[305]
A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To
escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of
seven popes to reside in the fortified city of
Avignon
Avignon in southern
France[306] during a period known as the
Avignon
Avignon Papacy. The Avignon
Papacy ended in 1376 when the pope returned to Rome,[307] but was
followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism with claimants to
the papacy in Rome,
Avignon
Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.[307] The matter was
finally resolved in 1417 at the
Council of Constance
Council of Constance where the
cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to
resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.[308]
The
Renaissance
Renaissance period was a golden age for Catholic art. Pictured:
the
Sistine Chapel
Sistine Chapel ceiling painted by Michelangelo.
In 1438, the
Council of Florence
Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong
dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between
the East and West, with the hope of reuniting the Catholic and
Orthodox churches.[309] Several eastern churches reunited, forming the
Eastern Catholic Churches.[310]
Age of discovery
Main article:
Catholic Church
Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
The
Age of Discovery
.jpg/600px-Cantino_planisphere_(1502).jpg)
Age of Discovery beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion
of Western Europe's political and cultural influence worldwide.
Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain
and
Portugal
Portugal played in Western Colonialism,
Catholicism
Catholicism was spread to
the Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and
missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through
the socio-political mechanisms of colonial rule.
Pope
Pope Alexander VI had
awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to
Spain
Spain and Portugal[311] and the ensuing patronato system allowed state
authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in
the new colonies.[312] In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines.[313]
Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis
Xavier evangelised in India, China, and Japan.[314]
Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Main articles:
Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Martin Luther, originally an Augustinian friar, initiated the
Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation against the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church in 1517.
In 1517, Martin Luther, an Augustinian friar in Germany, sent his
Ninety-Five Theses
Ninety-Five Theses to several bishops.[315] His theses protested key
points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of
indulgences.[315][316] In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin
and other
Protestant Reformers
Protestant Reformers further criticised Catholic teachings.
These challenges developed into the European movement called the
Protestant Reformation, which gave birth to a variety of Christian
denominations known today collectively as Protestantism.[317] The
English Reformation
English Reformation during the reign of Henry VIII began as a
political dispute. When the pope denied Henry's petition for a
declaration of nullity of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, he had
the
Acts of Supremacy passed, making him head of the Church of
England, which would in time lead to the development of
Anglicanism.[318]
The
Reformation
Reformation led to clashes between the Protestant Schmalkaldic
League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V and his allies. The first
nine-year war ended in 1555 with the
Peace of Augsburg
Peace of Augsburg but continued
tensions produced a far graver conflict—the Thirty Years'
War—which broke out in 1618.[319] In France, a series of conflicts
termed the
French Wars of Religion
French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598
between the Huguenots (French Calvinists) and the forces of the French
Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial
supporters of the Catholic League.[320] This ended under
Pope
Pope Clement
VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes,
which granted civil and religious toleration to French
Protestants.[319][320]
The
Council of Trent
Council of Trent (1545–1563) became the driving force behind the
Counter-Reformation
Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant movement.
Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as
transubstantiation and the requirement for love and hope as well as
faith to attain salvation.[321] In subsequent centuries, Catholicism
spread widely across the world, in part through missionaries and
imperialism, although its hold on European populations declined due to
the growth of religious scepticism during and after the
Enlightenment.[322]
Enlightenment and modern period
Part of a series on
Persecutions
of the Catholic Church
Overview
Historical persecution of Christians
Vatican and Eastern
Europe
Europe 1846-1958
Catholic Church
Catholic Church persecutions 1939-1958
Eradication of Church under Stalinism
Eastern Catholic persecutions
Anti-Christian sentiment
Roman Empire
Anti-Christian policies in the Roman Empire
Diocletianic Persecution
Neo-Persian Empire
Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem
Byzantine Empire
East–West Schism
Islamic world
Islamic conquests
Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques
Armenian Genocide
Assyrian genocide
Christianity
Christianity in Saudi Arabia
Christianity
Christianity in Sudan
Maspero demonstrations
Genocide of Christians by ISIL
Assyrian exodus from Iraq
Japan
Martyrs of Japan
European wars of religion
Thirty Years' War
France
Dechristianization of
France
France during the French Revolution
War in the Vendée
Mexico
Cristero War
Iniquis afflictisque
Acerba animi
Saints
José Sánchez del Río
Persecution in Mexico
Miguel Pro
Spain
Umayyad conquest of Hispania
Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War
Red Terror (Spain) · Dilectissima Nobis
Martyrs of Turon
Martyrs of Daimiel
Bartolome Blanco Marquez
Innocencio of Mary Immaculate
Eugenio Sanz-Orozco Mortera
233 Spanish Martyrs
498 Spanish Martyrs
522 Spanish Martyrs
Netherlands
Titus Brandsma
Germany
Nazi persecution of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church in Germany
Mit brennender Sorge
Alfred Delp
Alois Grimm
Rupert Mayer
Bernhard Lichtenberg
Max Josef Metzger
Karl Leisner
Maximilian Kolbe
Erich Klausener
China
Persecution in China
Ad Sinarum gentem
Cupimus Imprimis
Ad Apostolorum principis
Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei
Beda Chang
Dominic Tang
Vietnam
François-Xavier Nguyễn Văn Thuận
Poland
Polish anti-religious campaign (1945–1990)
Stefan Wyszyński
108 Blessed Polish Martyrs
Policies
Poloniae Annalibus
Gloriosam Reginam
Invicti athletae
Jerzy Popiełuszko
Eastern Europe
József Mindszenty
Eugene Bossilkov
Severian Baranyk
Josef Beran
Zynoviy Kovalyk
Aloysius Stepinac
Meminisse iuvat
Anni sacri
Sára Salkaházi
Walter Ciszek
Pietro Leoni
Theodore Romzha
India
Anti-Christian violence in India
Anti-Christian violence in Karnataka
Nicaragua
Miguel Obando y Bravo
El Salvador
Four U.S. missionaries
Ignacio Ellacuría
Rutilio Grande
Ignacio Martín-Baró
Segundo Montes
Óscar Romero
1989 murders of Jesuits
Nigeria
Religious violence
Religious violence in Nigeria
Guatemala
Stanley Rother
Catholicism
Catholicism portal
v
t
e
Ruins of the
Jesuit Reduction
Jesuit Reduction at
São Miguel das Missões
São Miguel das Missões in Brazil
Main article: Age of Enlightenment
From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power
and influence of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church over Western society.[323] In the
18th century, writers such as
Voltaire
_-001.jpg/440px-Nicolas_de_Largillière,_François-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_(vers_1724-1725)_-001.jpg)
Voltaire and the
Encyclopédistes wrote
biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target
of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of the
Edict of Nantes
Edict of Nantes by
King Louis XIV of France, which ended a century-long policy of
religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. The
French Revolution
French Revolution of
1789 brought about a shifting of powers from the Church to the State,
destruction of churches, and the establishment of a Cult of
Reason.[324] In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte's General Louis-Alexandre
Berthier invaded the Italian Peninsula, imprisoning
Pope
Pope Pius VI, who
died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church
in
France
France through the
Concordat
Concordat of 1801.[325] The end of the
Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal
States.[326]
In 1854,
Pope
Pope Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority
of Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853,
proclaimed the
Immaculate Conception
Immaculate Conception as a Dogma in the Catholic
Church.[327] In 1870, the
First Vatican Council
First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine
of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined
pronouncements.[328][329] Controversy over this and other issues
resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.[330]
The
Italian unification
.jpg/480px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_(Baldassare_Verazzi).jpg)
Italian unification of the 1860s incorporated the Papal States,
including
Rome
Rome itself from 1870, into the Kingdom of Italy, thus
ending the papacy's millennial temporal power.
Pope
Pope Pius IX rejected
the Italian Law of Guarantees, which granted him special privileges,
and to avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian
authorities remained a "prisoner in the Vatican".[331] This stand-off,
which was spoken of as the Roman Question, was resolved by the 1929
Lateran Treaties, whereby the
Holy See
Holy See acknowledged Italian
sovereignty over the former
Papal States
Papal States and
Italy
Italy recognised papal
sovereignty over
Vatican City
Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent
state.[332]
20th century
Members of the Canadian
Royal 22e Regiment
Royal 22e Regiment in audience with
Pope
Pope Pius
XII, following the Liberation of
Rome
Rome in 1944 during World War II
Main article:
Catholic Church
Catholic Church in the 20th century
A number of anti-clerical governments emerged in the 20th century.
The 1926
Calles Law separating church and state in
Mexico
Mexico led to the
Cristero War[333] in which more than 3,000 priests were exiled or
assassinated,[334] churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped,
and captured priests shot.[333] Following the 1917 October Revolution,
persecution of the Church and Catholics in the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union continued
into the 1930s, with the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and
laymen, the confiscation of religious implements, and closure of
churches.[335][336] In the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic
hierarchy allied with Franco's Nationalists against the Popular Front
government,[337] citing as justification Republican violence against
the Church.[338][339]
Pope
Pope Pius XI referred to these three countries
as a "terrible triangle".[340][341]
After violations of the 1933
Reichskonkordat
Reichskonkordat between the Church and
Nazi Germany,
Pope
Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender
Sorge, which publicly condemned the Nazis' persecution of the Church
and their ideology of neo-paganism and racial
superiority.[342][343][344] The Church condemned the 1939 Invasion of
Poland
Poland that started
World War II
World War II and other subsequent wartime Nazi
invasions.[345] Thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and brothers were
imprisoned and murdered throughout the countries occupied by the
Nazis, including Saints
Maximilian Kolbe
Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein.[346] While
Pope
Pope Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of
thousands of Jews during the Holocaust,[347][348] the Church has also
been accused of having encouraged centuries of antisemitism by its
teachings[349] and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[350]
During the post-war period,
Communist
Communist governments in Eastern Europe
severely restricted religious freedoms.[351] Although some priests and
religious people collaborated with
Communist
Communist regimes,[352] many others
were imprisoned, deported, or executed. The Church was an important
player in the fall of Communism in Europe, particularly in the Polish
People's Republic.[353]
In 1949, the
Communist
Communist victory in the
Chinese Civil War
Chinese Civil War led to the
expulsion of all foreign missionaries.[354] The new government also
created the
Patriotic Church and appointed its bishops. These
appointments were initially rejected by Rome, before many of them were
accepted.[355] In the 1960s during the Cultural Revolution, the
Chinese Communists closed all religious establishments. When Chinese
churches eventually reopened, they remained under the control of the
Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be
sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.[356]
Second Vatican Council
Bishops listen during the Second Vatican Council
Main articles: Second Vatican Council, History of the Catholic Church
since 1962, and Spirit of Vatican II
See also: Christian views on contraception § Catholic Church
The
Second Vatican Council
Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) introduced the most
significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent,
four centuries before.[357] Initiated by
Pope
Pope John XXIII, this
ecumenical council modernised the practices of the Catholic Church,
allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and
encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical
celebrations".[358] It intended to engage the Church more closely with
the present world (aggiornamento), which was described by its
advocates as an "opening of the windows".[359] In addition to changes
in the liturgy, it led to changes to the Church's approach to
ecumenism,[360] and a call to improved relations with non-Christian
religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra aetate.[361]
The council, however, generated significant controversy in
implementing its reforms: proponents of the "Spirit of Vatican II"
such as Swiss theologian
Hans Küng
Hans Küng said that Vatican II had "not gone
far enough" to change church policies.[362] Traditionalist Catholics,
such as
Archbishop
Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, however, strongly criticised the
council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction
of the Holy
Sacrifice
Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments", among other
issues.[363]
Several teachings of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church came under increased scrutiny
both concurrent with and following the council; among those teachings
was the church's teaching regarding the immorality of contraception.
The recent introduction of hormonal contraception (including "the
pill"), which were believed by some to be morally different than
previous methods, prompted John XXIII to form a committee to advise
him of the moral and theological issues with the new method.[364][365]
Pope
Pope Paul VI later expanded the committee's scope to freely examine
all methods, and the committee's unreleased final report was rumoured
to suggest permitting at least some methods of contraception. Paul did
not agree with the arguments presented, and eventually issued Humanae
vitae, saying that it upheld the constant teaching of the church
against contraception. It expressly included hormonal methods as
prohibited.[note 15] This document generated a largely negative
response from many Catholics.[from whom?][366]
John Paul II
Pope
Pope
John Paul II
John Paul II was credited as a major influence to the end of the
Cold War
Cold War and the fall of communism. Here with U.S. President Ronald
Reagan and his wife, Nancy, in 1982.
Main article:
Pope
Pope John Paul II
In 1978,
Pope
Pope John Paul II, formerly
Archbishop
Archbishop of Kraków in the
Polish People's Republic, became the first non-Italian pope in 455
years. His 27-year pontificate was one of the longest in history.[367]
Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, credited the
Polish pope with hastening the fall of Communism in Europe.[368]
John Paul sought to evangelise an increasingly secular world. He
instituted
World Youth Day
World Youth Day as a "worldwide encounter with the pope"
for young people; it is now held every two to three years.[369] He
travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries,[370] and
used television and radio as means of spreading the Church's
teachings. He also emphasised the dignity of work and natural rights
of labourers to have fair wages and safe conditions in Laborem
exercens.[371] He emphasised several church teachings, including moral
exhortations against abortion, euthanasia, and against widespread use
of the death penalty, in Evangelium Vitae.[372]
From the late 20th century, the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church has been criticised
for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women, and its
handling of sexual abuse cases.
21st century
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI, who strengthened the relationship between the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church and art, has been called "the pope of aesthetics".
In 2005, following the death of John Paul II,
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI, head
of the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under John Paul, was
elected. He was known for upholding traditional Christian values
against secularisation,[373] and for liberalising use of the
Tridentine Mass
Tridentine Mass as found in the Roman
Missal
Missal of 1962.[374] In 2012,
the 50th anniversary of Vatican II, an assembly of the
Synod
Synod of
Bishops discussed re-evangelising lapsed Catholics in the developed
world.[375] Benedict resigned in 2013 due to the frailties of advanced
age, the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years.[376]
Pope
Pope Francis
Pope
Pope Francis, noted for his ecumencial efforts, meeting Patriarch
Bartholomew I of the
Eastern Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox Church at the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, Jerusalem, during pilgrimage to the
Holy Land
Holy Land in 2014
Main article:
Pope
Pope Francis
Pope
Pope Francis, the current pope of the Catholic Church, succeeded Pope
Benedict XVI in 2013 as the first pope from the Americas, the first
from the Southern Hemisphere, and the first
Pope
Pope from outside Europe
since the Syrian Gregory III, who reigned in the 8th century. Pope
Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on God's mercy,
concern for the poor and the environment, as well as his commitment to
interfaith dialogue. He is credited with having a less formal approach
to the papacy than his predecessors.
Pope
Pope Francis is recognised for his efforts "to further close the
nearly 1,000-year estrangement with the Orthodox Churches".[377] Pope
Francis' installation was attended by
Patriarch
.svg/400px-Roman_province_of_Dacia_(106_-_271_AD).svg.png)
Patriarch Bartholomew I of
Constantinople
Constantinople of the
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church,[378] the first time
since the Great
Schism
Schism of 1054 that the
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical
Patriarch
Patriarch of
Constantinople
Constantinople has attended a papal installation.[379] On
12 February 2016,
Pope
Pope Francis and
Patriarch
Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, head of
the largest
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox church, met in Havana, Cuba, issuing the
a joint declaration calling for restored Christian unity between the
two churches. This was reported as the first such high-level meeting
between the two churches since the Great
Schism
Schism of 1054.[380]
In 2014, the Third Extraordinary General Assembly of the
Synod
Synod of
Bishops addressed the church's ministry towards families and marriages
and to Catholics in "irregular" relationships, such as those who
divorced and remarried outside of the church without a declaration of
nullity.[381][382] While welcomed by some, it was criticised by some
for perceived ambiguity, provoking controversies among individual
representatives of differing perspectives.[383]
In 2017 during a visit in Egypt,
Pope
Pope Francis reestablished mutual
recognition of baptism with the Coptic Orthodox Church.[384]
See also
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Christianity in civilisation
Notes
^ While the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church considers itself to be the authentic
continuation of the Christian community founded by
Jesus
Jesus Christ, it
teaches that other Christian churches and communities can be in an
imperfect communion with the Catholic Church.[8][9]
^ Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans (c. 110 AD): "Wheresoever
the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus
may be, there is the universal [katholike] Church."[19]
^ Examples uses of "Roman Catholic" by the Holy See: the encyclicals
Divini Illius Magistri Archived 23 September 2010 at the Wayback
Machine. of
Pope
Pope Pius XI and Humani generis Archived 19 April 2012 at
the Wayback Machine. of
Pope
Pope Pius XII; joint declarations signed by
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI with
Archbishop
Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams on 23
November 2006 Archived 2 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine. and
Patriarch
Patriarch Bartholomew I of
Constantinople
Constantinople on 30 November 2006.
^ Example use of "Roman" Catholic by a bishop's conference: The
Baltimore Catechism, an official catechism authorised by the Catholic
bishops of the United States, states: "That is why we are called Roman
Catholics; to show that we are united to the real successor of St
Peter" (Question 118) and refers to the Church as the "Roman Catholic
Church" under Questions 114 and 131 (Baltimore Catechism).
^ The last resignation occurred on 28 February 2013, when Pope
Benedict XVI retired, citing ill health in his advanced age. The next
most recent resignation occurred in 1415, as part of the Council of
Constance's resolution of the
Avignon
Avignon Papacy.[38]
^ In 1992, the Vatican clarified the 1983
Code of Canon Law
Code of Canon Law removed
the requirement that altar servers be male; permission to use female
altar servers within a diocese is at the discretion of the bishop.[71]
^ Other councils that addressed the sacraments include the Second
Council of Lyon (1274);
Council of Florence
Council of Florence (1439); as well as the
Council of Trent
Council of Trent (1547)[137]
^ For an outline of the Eucharistic liturgy in the Roman Rite, see the
side bar in the "
Worship
Worship and liturgy".
^ Marriages involving unbaptised individuals are considered valid, but
not sacramental. While sacramental marriages are insoluble,
non-sacramental marriages may be dissolved under certain situations,
such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine
privilege.[190][191]
^ The Divine
Worship
Worship variant of the
Roman Rite
Roman Rite differs from the
"Anglican Use" variant, which was introduced in 1980 for the few
United States parishes established in accordance with a pastoral
provision for former members of the Episcopal Church (the American
branch of the Anglican Communion). Both uses adapted Anglican
liturgical traditions for use within the Catholic Church.
^ With regard to divorce in the United States, according to the Barna
Group, among all who have been married, 33% have been divorced at
least once; among American Catholics, 28% (the study did not track
religious annulments).[236]
^ Regarding use of Natural Family Planning, in 2002, 24% of the U.S.
population identified as Catholic,[242] but according to a 2002 study
by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of sexually active
Americans avoiding pregnancy, only 1.5% were using NFP.[243]
^ According to Roman Catholic Womanpriests: "The principal
consecrating Roman Catholic male bishop who ordained our first women
bishops is a bishop with apostolic succession within the Roman
Catholic Church
Catholic Church in full communion with the pope."[258]
^ Joyce, George (1913). "The Pope". In Herbermann, Charles.
Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Regarding Peter as the first Bishop of Rome, "It is not, however,
difficult to show that the fact of his [Peter's] bishopric is so well
attested as to be historically certain. In considering this point, it
will be well to begin with the third century, when references to it
become frequent, and work backwards from this point. In the middle of
the third century St. Cyprian expressly terms the Roman See the Chair
of St. Peter, saying that Cornelius has succeeded to "the place of
Fabian which is the place of Peter" (Ep 55:8; cf. 59:14). Firmilian of
Caesarea notices that Stephen claimed to decide the controversy
regarding rebaptism on the ground that he held the succession from
Peter (Cyprian, Ep. 75:17). He does not deny the claim: yet certainly,
had he been able, he would have done so. Thus in 250 the Roman
episcopate of Peter was admitted by those best able to know the truth,
not merely at
Rome
Rome but in the churches of Africa and of Asia Minor. In
the first quarter of the century (about 220)
Tertullian
Tertullian (De Pud. 21)
mentions Callistus's claim that Peter's power to forgive sins had
descended in a special manner to him. Had the Roman Church been merely
founded by Peter and not reckoned him as its first bishop, there could
have been no ground for such a contention. Tertullian, like Firmilian,
had every motive to deny the claim. Moreover, he had himself resided
at Rome, and would have been well aware if the idea of a Roman
episcopate of Peter had been, as is contended by its opponents, a
novelty dating from the first years of the third century, supplanting
the older tradition according to which Peter and Paul were
co-founders, and Linus first bishop. About the same period, Hippolytus
(for Lightfoot is surely right in holding him to be the author of the
first part of the "Liberian Catalogue" — "Clement of Rome", 1:259)
reckons Peter in the list of Roman bishops...."[270]
^ While ruling contraception to be prohibited,
Pope
Pope Paul VI did,
however, consider
Natural Family Planning methods to be morally
permissible if used with just cause.
References
NOTE: CCC stands for Catechism of the Catholic Church. The number
following CCC is the paragraph number, of which there are 2865. The
numbers cited in the Compendium of the CCC are question numbers, of
which there are 598.
Canon law
Canon law citations from the 1990 Code of Canons
of the Eastern Churches are labelled "CCEO, Canon xxx", to distinguish
from canons of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which are labelled "Canon
xxx".
^ Marshall, Thomas William (1844). "Notes of the Episcopal Polity of
the Holy Catholic Church". London: Levey, Rossen and Franklin.
Missing or empty url= (help)
^ Stanford, Peter. "Roman Catholic Church". BBC Religions. BBC.
Retrieved 1 February 2017.
^ Bokenkotter, 2004, pg. 18
^ a b "L'
Annuario Pontificio
.jpg/440px-Annuario_Pontificio_2008_(MK).jpg)
Annuario Pontificio 2017 e l' 'Annuarium Statisticum
Ecclesiae' 2015".
^ a b O'Collins, p. v (preface).
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^ "CCC, 1631". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011.
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^ a b "CCC, 1629". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on 28 June
2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
^ "CCC, 1200–09". Vatican.va. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
^ "CCEO, Canon 28 § 1". Vatican
.va
.va (official text Archived 4
June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.). Intratext.com (English
translation). 1990. Excerpt: "Ritus est patrimonium liturgicum,
theologicum, spirituale et disciplinare cultura ac rerum adiunctis
historiae populorum distinctum, quod modo fidei vivendae uniuscuiusque
Ecclesiae sui iuris proprio exprimitur." (A rite is the liturgical,
theological, spiritual and disciplinary heritage, differentiated by
peoples' culture and historical circumstances, that finds expression
in each sui iuris Church's own way of living the faith).
^ "
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Catechism of the Catholic Church – IntraText – 1362–1364".
vatican.va. Archived from the original on 1 January 2015.
^ "CCC, 1367". scborromeo.org.
^ Dobszay, Laszlo (2010). "3". The Restoration and Organic Development
of the Roman Rite. New York: T&T Clark International.
pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-567-03385-7.
^ Letter of
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI to bishops on 7 July 2007 Archived 29
September 2010 at the Wayback Machine. "The last version of the
Missale Romanum prior to the Council, which was published with the
authority of
Pope
Pope John XXIII in 1962 and used during the Council, will
now be able to be used as a Forma extraordinaria of the liturgical
celebration. … As for the use of the 1962
Missal
Missal as a Forma
extraordinaria of the liturgy of the Mass, I would like to draw
attention to the fact that this
Missal
Missal was never juridically abrogated
and, consequently, in principle, was always permitted." — Pope
Benedict XVI
^ "Instruction on the application of the Apostolic Letter Summorum
Pontificum of His Holiness
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI given Motu Proprio".
vatican.va. Archived from the original on 23 February 2016. Retrieved
12 February 2016.
^ "BBC Religions: What is the Tridentine Mass?". 23 June 2009.
Retrieved 27 March 2015.
^
Summorum Pontificum
Summorum Pontificum (English translation Archived 1 January 2015 at
the Wayback Machine.). 7 July 2007. Accessed=27 March 2015
^ Apostolic Constitution of
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI: "Anglicanorum Coetibus:
Providing for Personal Ordinariates for Anglicans Entering into Full
Communion with the Catholic Church" Archived 27 October 2014 at the
Wayback Machine.. 4 November 2009. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ "Latest News – Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham".
ordinariate.org.uk. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ "Cardinal Scola to become
Archbishop
Archbishop of Milan, top papabile" in
Catholic Culture, 28 June 2011
^ "Mozarabic Rite". New Advent. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
^ "Western Catholic Liturgics/Early Western Liturgics". Liturgica.com.
Archived from the original on 21 May 2015. Retrieved 29 March
2015.
^ "Quo primum". New Advent. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
^ Fortescue, Adrian (1913). "Eastern Churches". In Herbermann,
Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton
Company. access-date= requires url= (help) See "Eastern
Catholic Churches"; In part: "The definition of an Eastern-Rite
Catholic is: A Christian of any
Eastern Catholic churches
Eastern Catholic churches in union
with the pope: i.e. a Catholic who belongs not to the Roman, but to an
Eastern rite. They differ from other Eastern Christians in that they
are in communion with Rome, and from Latins in that they have other
rites."
^ "CCEO, Canon 40". Intratext.com (English translation). 1990.
Missing or empty url= (help)
^ Parry, Ken; David Melling; et al., eds. (1999). The Blackwell
Dictionary of Eastern Christianity. Malden, MA.: Blackwell Publishing.
pp. 357–85. ISBN 0-631-23203-6.
^ "Eastern Rite Catholicism" (PDF). Catholic Conference of Kentucky.
Retrieved 4 April 2015.
^ Delany, Joseph (1913). "Corporal and Spiritual Works of
Mercy". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York:
Robert Appleton Company. access-date= requires url= (help)
^ "Compendium of the CCC, 388". Vatican.va. Retrieved 30 June
2011.
^ "Canon 222 § 2". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican.va. Archived
from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ "CCC, 2337,2349". Vatican.va. Retrieved 17 November 2014. "People
should cultivate [chastity] in the way that is suited to their state
of life. Some profess virginity or consecrated celibacy which enables
them to give themselves to
God
God alone with an undivided heart in a
remarkable manner. Others live in the way prescribed for all by the
moral law, whether they are married or single." (CDF, Persona humana
11.) Married people are called to live conjugal chastity; others
practise chastity in continence: "There are three forms of the virtue
of chastity: the first is that of spouses, the second that of widows,
and the third that of virgins. We do not praise any one of them to the
exclusion of the others. . . . This is what makes for the richness of
the discipline of the Church." (St. Ambrose, De viduis 4,23:PL
16,255A.)
^ Yardley, Jim; Goodstein, Laurie (18 June 2015). "
Pope
Pope Francis, in
Sweeping Encyclical, Calls for Swift Action on Climate Change". The
New York Times.
^ Vallely, Paul (28 June 2015). "The Pope's Ecological Vow". Retrieved
29 June 2015.
^ "Catholic hospitals comprise one quarter of world's healthcare,
council reports". Catholic News Agency. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 17
August 2012.
^ a b Zieglera, J. J. (12 May 2012). "Nuns Worldwide". Catholic World
Report.
^ "Vocations Online Internet Directory of Women's Religious
Communities". Joliet
Diocese
Diocese
Vocation Office. 2010. Missing or
empty url= (help)
^ "Press Release – The
Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize 1979". Nobelprize.org. 27
October 1979. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
^ "Press Release –
Nobel Peace Prize
Nobel Peace Prize 1996". Nobelprize.org. 11
October 1996. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
^ "International Catholic Peacebuilding Organizations (directory)".
Notre Dame, IN: Catholic Peacebuilding Network. 2015. Archived from
the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
^ "CCC, Part 3, Section 2, Chapter 2, Article: THE SIXTH COMMANDMENT".
Vatican.va. Retrieved 17 November 2014. 2332: Sexuality affects all
aspects of the human person in the unity of his body and soul. It
especially concerns affectivity, the capacity to love and to
procreate, and in a more general way the aptitude for forming bonds of
communion with others.
^ "CCC, 2348–50". Vatican.va. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
^ "Church teaching about contraception". Roman Catholic
Diocese
Diocese of
Helena. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
^ "Humanae Vitae (July 25, 1968)". vatican.va. Archived from the
original on 19 March 2011.
^ "CCC, "Conjugal fidelity": 2364–65; "The fecundity of marriage":
2366–72". Vatican.va. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
^ New York Times,
Pope
Pope Says Church Is 'Obsessed' With Gays, Abortion
and Birth Control
^ CNN,
Pope
Pope hands GOP climate change dilemma
^ "CCC, 1640". Vatican.va. Retrieved 15 November 2014. Thus the
marriage bond has been established by
God
God himself in such a way that a
marriage concluded and consummated between baptized persons can never
be dissolved. This bond, which results from the free human act of the
spouses and their consummation of the marriage, is a reality,
henceforth irrevocable, and gives rise to a covenant guaranteed by
God's fidelity. The Church does not have the power to contravene this
disposition of divine wisdom. (Cf.
Code of Canon Law
Code of Canon Law 1983, can.
1141)
^ "CCC, 1625–32". Vatican.va. Retrieved 15 November 2014. For this
reason (or for other reasons that render the marriage null and void)
the Church, after an examination of the situation by the competent
ecclesiastical tribunal, can declare the nullity of a marriage, i.e.,
that the marriage never existed. (Cf.
Code of Canon Law
Code of Canon Law 1983, cann.
1095–1107)
^ "CCC, 2384–86". Vatican.va. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
^ Soule, W. Becket. "Preserving the Sanctity of Marriage" (PDF). 2009.
Knights of Columbus. Retrieved 6 January 2014.
^ "New Marriage and
Divorce
Divorce Statistics Released". Barna Group. 2008.
Archived from the original on 19 December 2014.
^ "Divorces rising in Catholic Europe". Los Angeles Times. 24 May
2006.
^ Paul VI,
Pope
Pope (1968). "Humanae vitae". Vatican. Archived from the
original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
^ Bokenkotter, p. 27, p. 154, pp. 493–494
^ A summary and restatement of the debate is available in Roderick
Hindery. "The Evolution of Freedom as Catholicity in Catholic Ethics."
Anxiety, Guilt, and Freedom. Eds. Benjamin Hubbard and Brad Starr,
UPA, 1990.
^ Catholics for a Choice (1998). "A Matter of Conscience: Catholics on
Contraception" (PDF). Catholics for a Choice. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 11 October 2006. Retrieved 1 October 2006.
^ Largest Religious Groups in the USA. Accessed 13 November 2005.
^ Chandra, A; Martinez GM; Mosher WD; Abma JC; Jones J. (2005).
"Fertility, Family Planning, and Reproductive Health of U.S. Women:
Data From the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth" (PDF). Vital and
Health Statistics. National Center for Health Statistics. 23 (25).
Retrieved 20 May 2007. See Table 56.
^ "
Pope
Pope speaks out on condoms". The Catholic Leader. CNS. 29 March
2009. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI's declaration that
distribution of condoms only increases the problem of AIDS is the
latest and one of the strongest statements in a simmering debate
inside the church... he was asked whether the church's approach to
AIDS prevention – which focuses primarily on sexual responsibility
and rejects condom campaigns – was unrealistic and ineffective. ...
The pope did not get into the specific question of whether in certain
circumstances condom use was morally licit or illicit in AIDS
prevention, an issue that is still under study by Vatican
theologians.
^ "
Pope
Pope Benedict XVI Declares Embryos Developed For In Vitro
Fertilization Have Right To Life", Medical news today, archived from
the original on 29 December 2008
^ Allen, John L., The Future Church: How Ten Trends are
Revolutionizing the Catholic Church, p. 223.
^ Ertelt, Steven (6 June 2006). "
Catholic Church
Catholic Church Issues Condemnation
of Abortion, In-Vitro Fertilization". Life News Site. Archived from
the original on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
^ "CCC, 2357–2359". Vatican.va. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 August 2013.
Retrieved 2 August 2013.
^ "CCC, 2358–59". Vatican.va. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 August 2013.
Retrieved 2 August 2013.
^ "Full transcript of Pope's in-flight press remarks released".
Catholic News Agency. 5 August 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
^ "
Pope
Pope on gays: A shift in tone, not substance". CNN. 29 July
2013.
^ "CCC, 1601–05". Vatican.va. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
^ Sources regarding opposition to the church's position on
homosexuality:
Kuruvilla, Carol (22 December 2012). "
Pope
Pope Benedict denounces gay
marriage during his annual Christmas message". NY Daily News. New
York.
"AROUND THE NATION; Catholic Group Provokes Debate on Homosexuals".
The New York Times. 26 September 1982. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
"Boulder DailyCamera.com: Colorado, News, Business, Sports, Homes,
Jobs, Cars & Information". Boulder Daily Camera. Archived from the
original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
"WYD site limits gay debate". Star Observer. Retrieved 5 December
2011.
^ "
Europe
Europe Catholic nuns and monks decline". BBC News. 5 February
2008. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
^ Sack, Kevin (20 August 2011). "Nuns, a 'Dying Breed,' Fade From
Leadership Roles at Catholic Hospitals". The New York Times.
^ Apostolic Letter
Ordinatio Sacerdotalis of
John Paul II
John Paul II to the
Bishops of the
Catholic Church
Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly
Ordination
Ordination to Men
Alone Archived 25 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Copyright 1994
Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 25 March 2015
^ "Canon 1379". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican.va. Archived from the
original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
^ a b "Ordinations: Response Regarding
Excommunication
Excommunication Decree". 2011
Roman Catholic Womenpriests-USA, Inc. Retrieved 5 June 2011
^ "Vatican decrees excommunication for participation in 'ordination'
of women", Catholic News Agency. 29 May 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
^ David Willey (15 July 2010). "Vatican 'speeds up' abuse cases". BBC
News. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
^ "Comunicato della Sala Stampa: Istituzione della Pontificia
Commissione per la Tutela dei Minori".
Holy See
Holy See Press Office. 22 March
2014. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
^ Kreeft, p. 980.
^ Burkett, p. 263
^ "CCC, 1076". Vatican.va. Retrieved 8 November 2014. § 1076:
The Church was made manifest to the world on the day of
Pentecost
Pentecost by
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit....
^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Holy Ghost". Catholic
Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
"He [the Holy Spirit] is essentially the Spirit of truth (John
14:16–17; 15:26), Whose office it is to ...to teach the
Apostles
Apostles the
full meaning of it [of the truth] (John 14:26; 16:13). With these
Apostles
Apostles He will abide for ever (John 14:16). Having descended on them
at Pentecost, He will guide them in their work (Acts 8:29)...
^ "CCC, 880, 883". Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
^ Christian Bible, Matthew 16:13–20
^ "
Saint
Saint Peter the Apostle: Incidents important in interpretations of
Peter". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
^ "CCC, 880–881". Vatican.va. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
^ a b Joyce, George (1913). "The Pope". In Herbermann, Charles.
Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ "Was Peter in Rome?". Catholic Answers. 10 August 2004. Archived
from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2014. if
Peter never made it to the capital, he still could have been the first
pope, since one of his successors could have been the first holder of
that office to settle in Rome. After all, if the papacy exists, it was
established by Christ during his lifetime, long before Peter is said
to have reached Rome. There must have been a period of some years in
which the papacy did not yet have its connection to Rome.
^ a b c Raymond E. Brown, 101 Questions and Answers on the Bible
(Paulist Press 2003 ISBN 978-0-8091-4251-4), pp. 132–134
^
Oscar Cullmann (1962), Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (2 ed.),
Westminster Press p. 234
^ Henry Chadwick (1993), The Early Church, Penguin Books p. 18
^ Ehrman, Bart D (2006). "Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The
Followers of
Jesus
Jesus in History and Legend". USA: Oxford University
Press. p. 84. ISBN 0-19-530013-0. Peter, in short, could not
have been the first bishop of Rome, because the Roman church did not
have anyone as its bishop until about a hundred years after Peter's
death. Missing or empty url= (help)
^ Bokenkotter, p. 24.
^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp. 155–159, 164.
^ Paul Valliere, Conciliarism (Cambridge University Press 2012
ISBN 978-1-107-01574-6), p. 92
^
Patriarch
Patriarch Bartholomew, Encountering the Mystery (Random House 2008
ISBN 978-0-385-52561-9), p. 3
^ George C. Michalopulos,"Canon 28 and Eastern Papalism: Cause or
Effect?" Archived 10 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Noble, p. 214.
^ "
Rome
Rome (early Christian)." Cross, F. L., ed., The Oxford Dictionary
of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
^ Ayer, Joseph Cullen, Jr. (1913). A Source
Book
Book for Ancient Church
History: From the
Apostolic Age
Apostolic Age to the Close of the Conciliar Period.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 538.
^ Ayer, p. 553
^ Baumgartner, Frederic J. (2003). Behind Locked Doors: A History of
the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 10–12.
ISBN 0-312-29463-8.
^ Duffy, Eamon. 1997. Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes.
Yale University Press. pp. 66–67
^ Le Goff, p. 14: "The face of the barbarian invaders had been
transformed by another crucial fact. Although some of them had
remained pagan, another part of them, not the least, had become
Christian. But, by a curious chance, which was to leave serious
consequences, these converted barbarians – the Ostrogoths,
Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals, and later the Lombards – had been
converted to Arianism, which had become a heresy after the council of
Nicaea. They had in fact been converted by followers of the 'apostle
of the Goths', Wulfilas."
^ Le Goff, p. 14: "Thus what should have been a religious bond was, on
the contrary, a subject of discord and sparked off bitter conflicts
between Arian barbarians and Catholic Romans."
^ Le Goff, p. 21: "Clovis' master-stroke was to convert himself and
his people not to Arianism, like the other barbarian kings, but to
Catholicism."
^ Le Goff, p. 21
^ Drew, Katherine Fischer (2014). The Lombard Laws. University of
Pennsylvania Press. p. xviii. ISBN 978-0-8122-1055-2.
^ How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland's
Heroic Role from the Fall of
Rome
Rome to the Rise of Medieval
Europe
Europe by
Thomas Cahill, 1995.
^ Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. Hodder and
Stoughton, 1995.
^ Pirenne, Henri (1980) [1925]. "Medieval Cities: Their Origins and
the Revival of Trade". Frank D. Halsey (trans.). Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. pp. 27–32.
^ Richards, Jeffrey (2014). The Popes and the Papacy in the Early
Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 230.
ISBN 978-1-317-67817-5.
^ Walker, Willston (1985). History of the Christian Church. Simon and
Schuster. pp. 250–1. ISBN 978-0-684-18417-3.
^ Woods, pp. 115–27
^ Duffy, p. 133.
^ Vidmar, The
Catholic Church
Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast,
Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial
influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the
Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a
constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision
of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all
citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he
could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed
that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate,
and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a
revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
^ Riley-Smith, p. 8
^ Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141
^ Phillips, Jonathan (2005). The
Fourth Crusade
Fourth Crusade and the Sack of
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^ Woods, pp. 44–48
^ Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122
^ a b Morris, p. 232
^ Collinson, p. 240
^ Geanakoplos, Deno John.
Constantinople
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^ Collinge, William J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Catholicism.
Scarecrow Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8108-5755-1.
^ Koschorke, p. 13, p. 283
^ Hastings (1994), p. 72
^ Koschorke, p. 21
^ Koschorke, p. 3, p. 17
^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 215
^ Vidmar, p. 184.
^ Bokenkotter, pp. 223–224
^ Bokenkotter, pp. 235–237
^ a b Vidmar, The
Catholic Church
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^ a b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–8
^ Bokenkotter, pp. 242–244
^ Maxwell, Melvin.
Bible
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^ Pollard, pp. 7–8
^ Bokenkotter, pp. 283–285
^ Collins, p. 176
^ Duffy, pp. 214–216
^ "John Paul II, General Audience, March 24, 1993". Vatican.va. 24
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^ Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232
^ Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of
Christianity
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^ D'Agostino, Peter R. (2010). "'Utterly Faithless Specimens':
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^ a b Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265
^ Scheina, p. 33.
^ Riasanovsky 617
^ Riasanovsky 634
^ Payne, p. 13
^ Alonso, pp. 395–396
^ Blood of Spain, Ronald Fraser p. 415, collective letter of bishops
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^ Fontenelle, Mrg R (1939), Seine Heiligkeit Pius XI, p. 164.
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^ Rhodes, p. 197
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^ Cook, p. 983
^ "Non-Jewish Victims of Persecution in Germany". Yad Vashem.
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^ Bokenkotter p. 192
^ Deák, p. 182
^ Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). "New Accusations Of a Vatican Role
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^ Phayer, pp. 50–57
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^ Bokenkotter, pp. 356–358
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^ Chadwick, p.259
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^ Duffy, pp. 270–276
^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 272, p. 274
^
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Church to Non-Christian Religions Archived 20 December 2008 at the
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to Section 4: "True, the Jewish authorities and those who followed
their lead pressed for the death of Christ; still, what happened in
His passion cannot be charged against all the Jews, without
distinction, then alive, nor against the Jews of today. Although the
Church is the new people of God, the Jews should not be presented as
rejected or accursed by God, as if this followed from the Holy
Scriptures."
^ Bauckham, p. 373
^ O'Neel, Brian. "Holier Than Thou: How Rejection of Vatican II Led
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^ Echeverria, Eduardo (17 October 2014). "The Synod's Interim Report:
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^ Miille, Andrew (3 May 2017). "Catholics and Copts Recognize Shared
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 130782063
LCCN: n79041716
GND: 2009545-4
SUDOC: 026445158
NDL: 0056
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