Coordinates: 60°N 95°W / 60°N 95°W / 60; -95
Canada
Flag
Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare (Latin)
(English: "From Sea to Sea")
Anthem: "O Canada"
Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"[1]
Capital
Ottawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W / 45.400; -75.667
Largest city
Toronto
Official languages
English
French
Ethnic groups
List of ethnicities
74.3% European
14.5% Asian
5.1% Indigenous
3.4% Caribbean and Latin American
2.9% African
0.2% Oceanian[2]
Religion
List of religions
67.2% Christianity
23.9% Non-religious
3.2% Islam
1.5% Hinduism
1.4% Sikhism
1.1% Buddhism
1.0% Judaism
0.6% Other -[3]
Demonym
Canadian
Government
Federal parliamentary
constitutional monarchy[4]
• Monarch
Elizabeth II
• Governor General
Julie Payette
• Prime Minister
Justin Trudeau
• Chief Justice
Richard Wagner
Legislature
Parliament
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
House of Commons
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Confederation
July 1, 1867
• Statute of Westminster
December 11, 1931
• Patriation
April 17, 1982
Area
• Total area
9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)
8.92
• Total land area
9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• 2016 census
35,151,728[5] (38th)
• Density
3.92/km2 (10.2/sq mi) (228th)
GDP (PPP)
2018 estimate
• Total
$1.836 trillion[6] (15th)
• Per capita
$49,620[6] (20th)
GDP (nominal)
2018 estimate
• Total
$1.763 trillion[6] (10th)
• Per capita
$47,657[6] (15th)
Gini (2012)
31.6[7]
medium · 20th[8]
HDI (2015)
0.920[9]
very high · 10th
Currency
Canadian dollar

Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone
(UTC−3.5 to −8)
• Summer (DST)
(UTC−2.5 to −7)
Date format
yyyy-mm-dd (AD)[10]
Drives on the
right
Calling code
+1
ISO 3166 code
CA
Internet TLD
.ca
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada (/ˈkænədə/ ( listen) KAN-ə-də;
French: [kanadɑ]) is a country located in the northern part of
North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the
Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering
9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles),
making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Canada's
southern border with the
United States

United States is the world's longest
bi-national land border.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of
its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky
Mountains. It is highly urbanized, with 82 percent of the
35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized
cities, many near the southern border. Its capital is Ottawa, and its
three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Canada's climate varies widely across its vast area, ranging from
arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions,
with four distinct seasons.
Various indigenous peoples have inhabited what is now
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada for
thousands of years prior to European colonization. Beginning in the
16th century, the British and French established colonies, the first
being the colony of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada established by
France

France in 1535. As a
consequence of various armed conflicts, British
North America

North America gained
and lost territory until, by the late 18th century, it controlled most
of what comprises
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada today. On July 1, 1867, the colonies of
Canada, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia were federated to form the
semi-autonomous federal
Dominion

Dominion named Canada. This began an accretion
of provinces and territories to the
Dominion

Dominion to the present ten
provinces and three territories forming contemporary Canada. Canada
achieved independence gradually beginning with responsible government
in the 1830s and culminating with the patriation of the Constitution
in 1982. In 1931,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada achieved near-total independence from the
United Kingdom

United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster 1931, except for the
power to amend its constitution.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional
monarchy, with Queen
Elizabeth II

Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country
is officially bilingual at the federal level. It is one of the world's
most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of
large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced
economy is the tenth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its
abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade
networks. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United
States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is a developed country and has the fifteenth-highest nominal
per capita income globally as well as the tenth-highest ranking in the
Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international
measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of
life, economic freedom, and education.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is a realm within the
Commonwealth of Nations, a member of the Francophonie, and part of
several major international and intergovernmental institutions or
groupings including the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization, the G7 (formerly G8), the Group of Ten, the G20, the
North American Free Trade Agreement

North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation forum.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Indigenous peoples
2.2 European colonization
2.3 Confederation and expansion
2.4 Early 20th century
2.5 Contemporary era
3 Geography and climate
4 Government and politics
4.1 Law
4.2 Foreign relations and military
4.3 Provinces and territories
5 Economy
5.1 Science and technology
6 Demographics
6.1 Education
6.2 Ethnicity
6.3 Religion
6.4 Languages
7 Culture
7.1 Symbols
7.2 Literature
7.3 Visual arts
7.4 Music
7.5 Sport
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
Main article: Name of Canada
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological
origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St.
Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[11]
In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day
Quebec City

Quebec City region
used the word to direct French explorer
Jacques Cartier

Jacques Cartier to the village
of Stadacona.[12] Cartier later used the word
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada to refer not only
to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona
(the chief at Stadacona);[12] by 1545, European books and maps had
begun referring to this small region along the
Saint Lawrence River

Saint Lawrence River as
Canada.[12]
From the 16th to the early 18th century "Canada" referred to the part
of
New France

New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[13] In 1791,
the area became two British colonies called
Upper Canada

Upper Canada and Lower
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada collectively named the Canadas; until their union as the
British
Province of Canada

Province of Canada in 1841.[14] Upon Confederation in 1867,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London
Conference, and the word
Dominion

Dominion was conferred as the country's
title.[15] The transition away from the use of
Dominion

Dominion was formally
reflected in 1982 with the passage of the
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Act, which refers
only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was
changed from
Dominion

Dominion Day to
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Day.[16] The term
Dominion

Dominion is also
used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though
after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[17]
History
Main article: History of Canada
See also:
Timeline of Canadian history

Timeline of Canadian history and List of years in Canada
Further information: Historiography of Canada
Indigenous peoples
Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of
European contact
Indigenous peoples in present-day
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada include the First Nations,
Inuit, and Métis,[18] the latter being a mixed-blood people who
originated in the mid-17th century when
First Nations

First Nations and
Inuit

Inuit people
married European settlers.[18] The term "Aboriginal" as a collective
noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including
the Constitution Act 1982.[19]
The first inhabitants of
North America

North America are generally hypothesized to
have migrated from
Siberia

Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge[20] and
arrived at least 15,000 years ago, though increasing evidence suggests
an even earlier arrival.[21][22][23][24] The Paleo-Indian
archaeological sites at
Old Crow Flats and
Bluefish Caves

Bluefish Caves are two of
the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[25] The
characteristics of Canadian indigenous societies included permanent
settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading
networks.[26][27] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time
European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries
and have only been discovered through archeological
investigations.[28]
The indigenous population at the time of the first European
settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[29] and two
million,[30] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[31] As a consequence of European
colonization, the population of Canada's indigenous peoples declined
by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the
Beothuk, disappeared.[32] The decline is attributed to several causes,
including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza,
measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,[29][33]
conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities
and settlers, and the loss of indigenous lands to settlers and the
subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[34][35]
Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions
with
First Nations

First Nations and
Inuit

Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[36]
First Nations

First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the
development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their
role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the
exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.[37]
The Crown and indigenous peoples began interactions during the
European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more
limited interaction with European settlers.[38] However, from the late
18th century, European
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians encouraged indigenous peoples to
assimilate into their own culture.[39] These attempts reached a climax
in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and
relocations.[40] A period of redress is underway, which started with
the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
by the
Government of Canada

Government of Canada in 2008.[41]
European colonization
The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen
settled briefly at
L'Anse aux Meadows

L'Anse aux Meadows in
Newfoundland

Newfoundland around 1000
AD.[42] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when
Italian seafarer
John Cabot

John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic
coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[43][44] Then Basque
and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing
outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century.[45] In
1534, French explorer
Jacques Cartier

Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross
bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession
of the territory
New France

New France in the name of King Francis I.[46] In
general the settlements appear to have been short-lived, possibly due
to the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada and the problems of navigating trade routes at that time.[47]
In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen
Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North
American English colony.[48] French explorer Samuel de Champlain
arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European
settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and
Quebec City

Quebec City (in 1608).[49]
Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the
Saint Lawrence River

Saint Lawrence River valley and
Acadians

Acadians settled the present-day
Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the
Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the
Mississippi watershed

Mississippi watershed to
Louisiana.[50] The
Beaver Wars

Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over
control of the North American fur trade.[51]
Benjamin West's
The Death of General Wolfe

The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James
Wolfe's death during the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham

Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec.
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland,
beginning in 1610[52] and the
Thirteen Colonies
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_(1707–1800).svg.png)
Thirteen Colonies to the south were
founded soon after.[45] A series of four wars erupted in colonial
North America

North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period
constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[53]
Mainland
Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of
Utrecht, and
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada and most of
New France

New France came under British rule in
1763 after the Seven Years' War.[54]
The
Royal Proclamation of 1763

Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights,
created the Province of
Quebec

Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape
Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[16] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward
Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[55] To avert conflict in
Quebec, the British Parliament passed the
Quebec Act
.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Great_Britain_(1714-1801).svg.png)
Quebec Act of 1774,
expanding Quebec's territory to the
Great Lakes

Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More
importantly, the
Quebec Act
.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Great_Britain_(1714-1801).svg.png)
Quebec Act afforded
Quebec

Quebec special autonomy and
rights of self-administration at a time that the Thirteen Colonies
were increasingly agitating against British rule.[56] It
re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil
law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in
contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the
Quebec

Quebec Act
in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further
fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American
Revolution.[16]
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of
Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States
and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories
south of the
Great Lakes

Great Lakes to the new country.[57] The American war of
independence also caused a large out-migration of
Loyalists

Loyalists the
settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to
Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the
demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick
was in turn split from
Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of
Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes.[58] To accommodate the influx
of English-speaking
Loyalists

Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional
Act of 1791 divided the province of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada into French-speaking Lower
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking
Upper Canada

Upper Canada (later
Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[59]
The Canadas

The Canadas were the main front in the
War of 1812

War of 1812 between the United
States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were
changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000
arrivals from Britain between 1815–50.[60] New arrivals included
refugees escaping the
Great Irish Famine

Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking
Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[61] Infectious diseases
killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada
before 1891.[29]
The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive
Rebellions of 1837.[62] The Durham Report subsequently recommended
responsible government and the assimilation of French
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians into
English culture.[16] The Act of Union merged the Canadas into a united
Province of Canada

Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all
provinces of British
North America

North America by 1849.[63] The signing of the
Oregon Treaty

Oregon Treaty by Britain and the
United States

United States in 1846 ended the
Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th
parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on
Vancouver

Vancouver Island
(1849) and in
British Columbia

British Columbia (1858).[64] In 1867, the same year as
Canadian Confederation, Britain declined to purchase for
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada the
Alaska

Alaska territory that was to that point tenuously held by Russia. With
the
United States

United States purchasing
Alaska

Alaska instead, clearly demarcated
borders for Canada, although there would continue to be some disputes
about the exact demarcation of the Alaska-
Yukon

Yukon and Alaska-BC border
for years to come.[65]
Confederation and expansion
An animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces
and territories since Confederation in 1867
Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act
officially proclaimed
Canadian Confederation

Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867,
initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New
Brunswick.[66][67]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada assumed control of
Rupert's Land

Rupert's Land and the
North-Western Territory

North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the
Métis' grievances ignited the
Red River Rebellion

Red River Rebellion and the creation of
the province of
Manitoba

Manitoba in July 1870.[68]
British Columbia

British Columbia and
Vancouver

Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the
confederation in 1871, while
Prince Edward Island

Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[69]
To open the West to European immigration, parliament also approved
sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways
(including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to
settlement with the
Dominion

Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the
North-West Mounted Police

North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this
territory.[70][71] In 1898, during the
Klondike Gold Rush

Klondike Gold Rush in the
Northwest Territories, parliament created the
Yukon

Yukon Territory. Alberta
and
Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[69]
Early 20th century
Canadian soldiers and a Mark II tank at the
Battle of Vimy Ridge

Battle of Vimy Ridge in
1917
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs
under the Constitution Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914
automatically brought
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada into World War I.[72] Volunteers sent to
the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which
played a substantial role in the
Battle of Vimy Ridge

Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major
engagements of the war.[73] Out of approximately 625,000
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians who
served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000
were wounded.[74] The
Conscription Crisis of 1917

Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the
Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number
of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections
from French-speaking Quebecers.[75] The Military Service Act brought
in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over
French language

French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[75] In 1919, Canada
joined the
League of Nations

League of Nations independently of Britain,[73] and the
1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.[4]
Canadian crew of a Sherman tank, south of Vaucelles, France, during
the Battle of Normandy in June 1944
The
Great Depression in Canada

Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic
downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[76] In response to
the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth
Federation

Federation (CCF) in
Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered
by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[77] On the advice of Prime
Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared
effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the
United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[73]
The first
Canadian Army

Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In
all, over a million
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians served in the armed forces during World
War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were
wounded.[78] Canadian troops played important roles in many key
battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied
invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and
the
Battle of the Scheldt

Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[73]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada provided asylum for the
Dutch monarchy

Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the
Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi
Germany.[79] The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its
industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China,
and the Soviet Union.[73] Despite another
Conscription

Conscription Crisis in
Quebec

Quebec in 1944,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada finished the war with a large army and strong
economy.[80]
Contemporary era
At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis
(centre) receives the bill finalizing the union of
Newfoundland

Newfoundland and
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada on March 31, 1949
The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the
Dominion

Dominion of
Newfoundland

Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a
crown colony ruled by a British governor.[81] After two bitter
referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada in 1949 as a
province.[82]
Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of
successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian
identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[83]
the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in
1969,[84] and the institution of official multiculturalism in
1971.[85] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as
Medicare, the
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Pension Plan, and
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Student Loans, though
provincial governments, particularly
Quebec

Quebec and Alberta, opposed many
of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[86]
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Act, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United
Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms.[87][88][89]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada had established complete
sovereignty as an independent country, although the Queen retained her
role as monarch of Canada.[90][91] In 1999,
Nunavut

Nunavut became Canada's
third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal
government.[92]
At the same time,
Quebec

Quebec underwent profound social and economic
changes through the
Quiet Revolution

Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a
secular nationalist movement.[93] The radical Front de libération du
Québec (FLQ) ignited the
October Crisis

October Crisis with a series of bombings and
kidnappings in 1970[94] and the sovereignist
Parti Québécois

Parti Québécois was
elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on
sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec
nationalism constitutionally through the
Meech Lake Accord

Meech Lake Accord failed in
1990.[95] This led to the formation of the
Bloc Québécois

Bloc Québécois in Quebec
and the invigoration of the
Reform Party of Canada

Reform Party of Canada in the
West.[96][97] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which
sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4
percent.[98] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral
secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act
was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated
departure from Confederation.[95]
In addition to the issues of
Quebec

Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises
shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These
included the explosion of
Air India Flight 182

Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest
mass murder in Canadian history;[99] the École Polytechnique massacre
in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[100] and the
Oka Crisis

Oka Crisis of 1990,[101] the first of a number of violent
confrontations between the government and indigenous groups.[102]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada also joined the
Gulf War

Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition
force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s,
including the
UNPROFOR

UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[103]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada sent troops to
Afghanistan

Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to join the
U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[104] In 2011, Canadian forces
participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil
War,[105] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State
insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[106]
Geography and climate
Main articles:
Geography of Canada

Geography of Canada and Climate of Canada
Köppen climate types of Canada
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing land
borders with the contiguous
United States

United States to the south, and the US
state of
Alaska

Alaska to the northwest.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada stretches from the Atlantic
Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies
the Arctic Ocean.[107]
Greenland

Greenland is to the northeast and to the
southeast
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada shares a maritime boundary with the Republic of
France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the last
vestige of New France.[108] By total area (including its waters),
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By
land area alone, however,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada ranks fourth, the difference being
due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water
lakes.[109]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces
Station Alert, on the northern tip of
Ellesmere Island

Ellesmere Island – latitude
82.5°N – which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North
Pole.[110] Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and
permafrost.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a
total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi);[111]
additionally, its border with the
United States

United States is the world's longest
land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).[112]
Since the end of the last glacial period,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has consisted of
eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on
the Canadian Shield.[113]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes (563 greater
than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)), more than any other country,
containing much of the world's fresh water.[114][115] There are also
fresh-water glaciers in the
Canadian Rockies

Canadian Rockies and the Coast
Mountains.[116]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially
active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount
Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[117] The volcanic
eruption of the
Tseax Cone

Tseax Cone in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural
disasters, killing an estimated 2,000
Nisga'a people

Nisga'a people and destroying
their village in the
Nass River

Nass River valley of northern British
Columbia.[118] The eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi)
lava flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the
Nass River.[119]
Average winter and summer high temperatures across
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada vary from
region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country,
particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a
continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near
−15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C
(−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[120] In noncoastal regions,
snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in
parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British
Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the
east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the
low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer
high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F),
with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding
40 °C (104 °F).[121]
Government and politics
Main articles:
Government of Canada

Government of Canada and Politics of Canada
Elizabeth II
Monarch
Julie Payette
Governor General
Justin Trudeau
Prime Minister
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a
constitutional monarchy, the monarchy of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada being the foundation
of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[122][123][124]
The Canadian monarchy is a separate legal institution from the
monarchy of the United Kingdom, though the two offices are held by the
same individual.[125] The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who is also
monarch of 15 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's 10
provinces. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor General
of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada (at present Julie Payette), carries out most of the federal
royal duties in Canada.[126][127]
The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas
of governance is limited.[124][128][129] In practice, their use of the
executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers
of the Crown responsible to the elected
House of Commons of Canada
.svg/600px-Parliament_Of_Canada_Seating_Plan_2015_(With_Speaker_Included).svg.png)
House of Commons of Canada and
chosen and headed by the
Prime Minister of Canada

Prime Minister of Canada (at present Justin
Trudeau),[130] the head of government. The governor general or monarch
may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without
ministerial advice.[128] To ensure the stability of government, the
governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who
is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the
confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[131] The Prime
Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions
in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval
and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the
aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators,
federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government
agencies.[128] The leader of the party with the second-most seats
usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition and is
part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the
government in check.[132]
Parliament Hill

Parliament Hill in Canada's capital city, Ottawa
Each of the 338 members of parliament in the House of Commons is
elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding.
General elections must be called by the governor general, either on
the advice of the prime minister or if the government loses a
confidence vote in the House.[133][134] Constitutionally, an election
may be held no more than five years after the preceding election,
although the
Canada Elections Act

Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a
fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose
seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[135]
Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in
the 2015 election: the
Liberal Party of Canada

Liberal Party of Canada who currently form the
government, the
Conservative Party of Canada

Conservative Party of Canada who are the Official
Opposition, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the
Green Party of Canada.[136]
The Senate chamber within the
Centre Block

Centre Block on Parliament Hill
Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between
the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures
are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the
House of Commons.[129] Canada's three territories also have
legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer
constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[137] The
territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their
provincial counterparts.[138]
The
Bank of Canada

Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. In addition,
the Minister of Finance and Minister of Industry utilize the
Statistics Canada

Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy
development.[139] The
Bank of Canada

Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized
to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[140] The bank
does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian
Mint.[141]
Law
Main article: Law of Canada
The
Constitution of Canada

Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and
consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[142] The
Constitution Act, 1867
.svg/280px-Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(HM_Government).svg.png)
Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British
North America

North America Act prior
to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and
divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[143]
The
Statute of Westminster 1931
.svg/280px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1837-1952).svg.png)
Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the
Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, as well
as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter
of Rights and Freedoms.[144] The Charter guarantees basic rights and
freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though
a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial
legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period
of five years.[145]
The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate the Numbered
Treaties of 1871–1921
The Indian Act, various treaties and case laws were established to
mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples.[146] Most
notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties
were signed between the indigenous and the reigning Monarch of Canada
between 1871 and 1921.[147] These treaties are agreements with the
Canadian Crown-in-Council, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law,
and overseen by the Minister of Indigenous and Northern Development.
The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed
by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982.[146] These
rights may include provision of services, such as health care, and
exemption from taxation.[148] The legal and policy framework within
which
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada and
First Nations

First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005,
through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.[146]
The
Supreme Court of Canada

Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill
Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and
has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the
constitution. The
Supreme Court of Canada

Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and
final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017 by Chief
Justice Richard Wagner.[149] Its nine members are appointed by the
governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of
justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed
after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal
Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial
and territorial jurisdictions.[150]
Common law
.png/600px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_(en).png)
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law
predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is
uniform throughout Canada.[151] Law enforcement, including criminal
courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by
provincial and municipal police forces.[152] However, in most rural
areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted
to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[153]
Foreign relations and military
Main articles:
Foreign relations of Canada

Foreign relations of Canada and Military history of
Canada
The Canadian Delegation to the
United Nations

United Nations Conference on
International Organization, San Francisco, May 1945
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international
affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[154]
Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and
security is carried out through coalitions and international
organizations, and through the work of numerous federal
institutions.[155] Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century
has played a major role in its global image.[156] The strategy of the
Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet
the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in
response to foreign humanitarian crises.[157]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada was a founding member of the
United Nations

United Nations and has membership
in the World Trade Organization, the
G20

G20 and the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[154]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is also a
member of various other international and regional organizations and
forums for economic and cultural affairs.[158]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada acceded to the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[159]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada joined the
Organization of American States

Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and
hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the
Americas in 2001.[160]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim
economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
forum (APEC).[161]
Prime Minister Trudeau and U.S. President Trump meet in Washington,
February 2017
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada and the
United States

United States share the world's longest undefended
border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each
other's largest trading partner.[162][163]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada nevertheless has an
independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations
with Cuba, and declining to officially participate in the 2003
invasion of Iraq.[164]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada also maintains historic ties to the
United Kingdom

United Kingdom and
France

France and to other former British and French
colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations
and the Francophonie.[165]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is noted for having a positive
relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution
to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[79]
Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led
to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer
War, World War I and World War II.[166] Since then,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has been an
advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues
in collaboration with other nations.[167][168] During the Cold War,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the
Korean War

Korean War and
founded the
North American Aerospace Defense Command

North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in
co-operation with the
United States

United States to defend against potential aerial
attacks from the Soviet Union.[169]
During the
Suez Crisis

Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B.
Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United
Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel
Peace Prize.[170] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission,
Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[171] Canada
has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN
peacekeeping effort until 1989,[73] and has since maintained forces in
international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and
elsewhere;
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement
in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.[172]
Soldiers from the Canadian Grenadier Guards in Kandahar Province in
Afghanistan, pictured, fought with Dutch soldiers against Afghan
insurgents.
In 2001,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada deployed troops to
Afghanistan

Afghanistan as part of the US
stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International
Security Assistance Force.[173] In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the
United Kingdom, Norway, and
Russia

Russia announced their joint commitment to
a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing
nations, and called on other countries to join them.[174] In August
2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after
a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole;
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has
considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[175]
The nation employs a professional, volunteer military force of
approximately 79,000 active personnel and 32,250 reserve
personnel.[176] The unified
Canadian Forces

Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian
Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2013,
Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately
C$19 billion, or around 1% of the country's GDP.[177][178]
Following the 2016 Defence Policy Review, the Canadian government
announced a 70% increase to the country's defence budget over the next
decade. The
Canadian Forces

Canadian Forces will acquire 88 fighter planes and 15
naval surface combatants, the latter as part of the National
Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy. Canada's total military expenditure
is expected to reach C$32.7 billion by 2027.[179]
Provinces and territories
Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada
See also: Canadian federalism
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three
territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions:
Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada
(
Eastern Canada

Eastern Canada refers to
Central Canada

Central Canada and Atlantic Canada
together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having
responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and
welfare.[180] Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the
federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in
the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can
initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada
Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in
practice.
Equalization payments are made by the federal government to
ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are
kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[181]
Clickable map of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three
territories, and their capitals
Economy
Main articles:
Economy of Canada

Economy of Canada and Economic history of Canada
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is the world's tenth-largest economy as of 2016[update], with a
nominal GDP of approximately US$1.52 trillion.[182] It is a
member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) and the
Group of Eight

Group of Eight (G8), and is one of the world's top ten
trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[183][184]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is
a mixed economy, ranking above the US and most western European
nations on The Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom,[185]
and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity.[186] The
country's average household disposable income per capita is over
US$23,900, higher than the OECD average.[187] Furthermore, the Toronto
Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest stock exchange in the world by
market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined
market capitalization of over US$2 trillion as of
2015[update].[188]
Tree-map of Canada's goods exports in 2014[189]
In 2014, Canada's exports totalled over C$528 billion, while its
imported goods were worth over $524 billion, of which
approximately $351 billion originated from the United States,
$49 billion from the European Union, and $35 billion from
China.[190] The country's 2014 trade surplus totalled
C$5.1 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in
2008.[191][192]
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing,
mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely
rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[193] Like many other
developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service
industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's
workforce.[194] However,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is unusual among developed countries
in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and
petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[195]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of
energy.[196]
Atlantic Canada

Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of
natural gas, and
Alberta

Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The
vastness of the
Athabasca oil sands

Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada
having a 13% share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's
third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[197]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is
additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural
products; the
Canadian Prairies
.jpg/600px-Sifton_(Manitoba).jpg)
Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global
producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[198] Canada's Ministry
of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports;
the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel,
aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal and lead.[199] Many towns in
northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable
because of nearby mines or sources of timber.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada also has a
sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern
Ontario

Ontario and Quebec,
with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important
industries.[200]
Canada's economic integration with the
United States

United States has increased
significantly since World War II.[201] The Automotive Products Trade
Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile
manufacturing industry.[202] In the 1970s, concerns over energy
self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors
prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact
the
National Energy Program

National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review
Agency (FIRA).[203] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's
Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of
FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign investment.[204] The
Canada –
United States

United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988
eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include
Mexico

Mexico in 1994.[198]
Science and technology
Main articles:
Science and technology in Canada

Science and technology in Canada and Telecommunications
in Canada
The
Canadarm

Canadarm robotic manipulator in action on
Space Shuttle

Space Shuttle Discovery
during the
STS-116
_cropped.jpg/520px-STS-116_Launch_(KSC-06PD-2750)_cropped.jpg)
STS-116 mission in 2006
In 2015,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada spent approximately C$31.6 billion on domestic
research and development, of which around $7 billion was provided
by the federal and provincial governments.[205] As of 2015[update],
the country has produced thirteen Nobel laureates in physics,
chemistry, and medicine,[206][207] and was ranked fourth worldwide for
scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international
scientists.[208] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a
number of global technology firms.[209]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has one of the highest
levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million
users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014
population.[210]
The
Canadian Space Agency

Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program,
conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and
developing rockets and satellites.[211]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada was the third country
to design and construct a satellite after the
Soviet Union

Soviet Union and the
United States, with the 1962
Alouette 1

Alouette 1 launch.[212]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is a
participant in the
International Space Station

International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer
in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm,
Canadarm2

Canadarm2 and
Dextre

Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[213]
Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built
numerous marques of satellite, including
Radarsat-1

Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and
MOST.[214]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful
and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black
Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in
1961.[215] In 1984,
Marc Garneau

Marc Garneau became Canada's first male astronaut,
followed by Canada's second and first female astronaut Roberta Bondar
in 1992.[216]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Canada
The
Quebec

Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and
heavily industrialized region of Canada, spanning approximately 1,200
kilometres (750 miles)[217]
The 2016 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 35,151,728,
an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.[218][219]
Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by
1.7 million people with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of
the increase.[220] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by
5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.[221] The
main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser
extent, natural growth.[222]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the
world,[223] driven mainly by economic policy and, to a lesser extent,
family reunification.[224][225] The Canadian public as-well as the
major political parties support the current level of
immigration.[224][226] In 2014, a total of 260,400 immigrants were
admitted to Canada.[227] The Canadian government anticipated between
280,000 and 305,000 new permanent residents in the following
years.[228] a similar number of immigrants as in recent years.[229]
New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto,
Montreal

Montreal and Vancouver.[230]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada also accepts large numbers of
refugees,[231] accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee
resettlements.[232]
Canada's population density, at 3.7 inhabitants per square kilometre
(9.6/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[233]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada spans
latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north,
and approximately 95% of the population is found south of the 55th
parallel north.[234] About four-fifths of the population lives within
150 kilometres (93 mi) of the contiguous United States
border.[235] The most densely populated part of the country,
accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the
Quebec

Quebec City–Windsor
Corridor, situated in Southern
Quebec

Quebec and Southern
Ontario

Ontario along the
Great Lakes

Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[217][234] An additional 30
percent live along the
British Columbia

British Columbia Lower Mainland, and the
Calgary–
Edmonton

Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[236]
In common with many other developed countries,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is experiencing
a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees
and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5
years;[237] by 2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9 years.[238]
As of 2013[update], the average life expectancy for
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians is 81
years.[239] The majority of
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians (69.9%) live in family
households, 26.8% report living alone, and those living with unrelated
persons reported at 3.7%.[240] The average size of a household in 2006
was 2.5 people.[240]
Largest census metropolitan areas in
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada by population (2016
Census)
view
talk
edit
CMA
Province
Population
CMA
Province
Population
Toronto
Ontario
5,928,040
London
Ontario
494,069
Montreal
Quebec
4,098,927
St. Catharines–Niagara
Ontario
406,074
Vancouver
British Columbia
2,463,431
Halifax
Nova Scotia
403,390
Calgary
Alberta
1,392,609
Oshawa
Ontario
379,848
Ottawa–Gatineau
Ontario–Quebec
1,323,783
Victoria
British Columbia
367,770
Edmonton
Alberta
1,321,426
Windsor
Ontario
329,144
Quebec
Quebec
800,296
Saskatoon
Saskatchewan
295,095
Winnipeg
Manitoba
778,489
Regina
Saskatchewan
236,481
Hamilton
Ontario
747,545
Sherbrooke
Quebec
212,105
Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo
Ontario
523,894
St. John's
Newfoundland

Newfoundland and Labrador
205,955
Education
Main article: Education in Canada
According to a 2012 report by the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD),
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is one of the most
educated countries in the world;[241] the country ranks first
worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education, with 51
percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate
college or university degree.[241]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada spends about 5.3% of its GDP
on education.[242] The country invests heavily in tertiary education
(more than 20 000 USD per student).[243] As of 2014[update], 89
percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a
high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[187]
Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act, 1982,
education in both English and French has been available in most places
across Canada.[244] Canadian provinces and territories are responsible
for education provision.[245] The mandatory school age ranges between
5–7 to 16–18 years,[246] contributing to an adult literacy rate of
99 percent.[107] In 2002, 43 percent of
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians aged 25 to 64
possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the
rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[247] The
Programme for International Student Assessment

Programme for International Student Assessment indicates that Canadian
students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in
mathematics, science, and reading.[248][249]
Ethnicity
Main article: Canadians
Self-reported ethnic origins of
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians based on geographic region
(Census 2016)[2]
indigenous North American (5.06%)
Other North American [a] (27.61%)
Europe (46.74%)
Caribbean and Central and South America (3.38%)
Africa

Africa (2.54%)
Asia

Asia (14.47%)
Oceania
.svg/400px-Oceania_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Oceania (0.20%)
According to the 2016 census, the country's largest self-reported
ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32% of the population),[b]
followed by English (18.3%), Scottish (13.9%), French (13.6%), Irish
(13.4%), German (9.6%), Chinese (5.1%), Italian (4.6%), First Nations
(4.4%), Indian (4.0%), and Ukrainian (3.9%).[250] There are 600
recognized
First Nations

First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of
1,525,565 people.[251] Canada's indigenous population is growing at
almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's
population claimed an indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3
percent of the population belonged to a non-indigenous visible
minority.[252] In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were South
Asian (5.6%), Chinese (5.1%) and Black (3.5%).[252] Between 2011 and
2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[252] In
1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000
people) were members of visible minority groups.[253] Indigenous
peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment
Equity Act,[254] and this is the definition that Statistics Canada
also uses.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Canada
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs
and customs.
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has no official church, and the government is
officially committed to religious pluralism.[255] Freedom of religion
in
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals
to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[256] The
practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter
throughout society and the state.[257] With
Christianity

Christianity in decline
after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and
daily life,[258]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has become a post-Christian, secular
state.[259][260][261][262] The majority of
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians consider religion
to be unimportant in their daily lives,[263] but still believe in
God.[264] According to the 2011 census, 67.3% of
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians identify as
Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group,
accounting for 38.7% of the population. Much of the remainder is made
up of Protestants, who accounted for approximately 27% in a 2011
survey.[265][266] The largest Protestant denomination is the United
Church of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians), followed by
Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%).[3] Secularization has been
growing since the 1960s.[267][268] In 2011, 23.9% declared no
religious affiliation, compared to 16.5% in 2001.[269] The remaining
8.8% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which
are Islam (3.2%) and Hinduism (1.5%).[3]
Languages
Main article: Languages of Canada
Approximately 98% of
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians can speak either or both English and
French:[270]
English – 56.9%
English and French – 16.1%
French – 21.3%
Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and
French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of
approximately 56% and 21% of Canadians, respectively.[271] As of the
2016 Census, just over 7.3 million
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians listed a
non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common
non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language
speakers), Punjabi (501,680), Spanish (458,850), Tagalog (431,385),
Arabic (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645).[271]
Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism, which is
applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages in consonance with
Section 16 of the
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the
Federal Official Languages Act English and French have equal status in
federal courts, parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens
have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal
government services in either English or French and official-language
minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and
territories.[272]
The 1977
Charter of the French Language established French as the
official language of Quebec.[273] Although more than 85 percent of
French-speaking
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial
Francophone

Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba;
Ontario

Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside
Quebec.[274] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province,
has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the
population.[275] There are also clusters of
Acadians

Acadians in southwestern
Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western
Prince Edward Island.[276]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used
as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government
services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and
Quebec

Quebec allow
for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial
legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario,
French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[277] There
are 11 indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct
languages and dialects.[278] Of these, only the Cree, Inuktitut and
Ojibway languages have a large enough population of fluent speakers to
be considered viable to survive in the long term.[279] Several
indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest
Territories.[280] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and
is one of three official languages in the territory.[281]
Additionally,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are
Indigenous.[282]
American Sign Language

American Sign Language (ASL) is spoken across the
country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary
schools.[283] Due to its historical relation to the francophone
culture,
Quebec

Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec,
although there are sizeable
Francophone

Francophone communities in New Brunswick,
Ontario

Ontario and Manitoba.[284]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Canada
Bill Reid's 1980 sculpture Raven and The First Men; the raven is a
figure common to many of Canada's indigenous mythologies
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent
nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are
constitutionally protected.[285][286]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has placed emphasis on
equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[287] Multiculturalism
is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,[288]
and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[289][290] In
Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of a
culture of
Quebec

Quebec that is distinct from
English Canadian

English Canadian culture.[291]
However, as a whole,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada is, in theory, a cultural mosaic—a
collection of regional ethnic subcultures.[292]
Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is
based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of
far-right politics, has wide public support.[293] Government policies
such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute
wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to
eliminate poverty, strict gun control, and the legalization of
same-sex marriage are further social indicators of Canada's political
and cultural values.[294][295]
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians also identify with the
country's health care institutions, peacekeeping, the National park
system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[289][296]
Historically,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has been influenced by British, French, and
indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and
music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian
identity.[297] During the 20th century,
Canadians
.svg/600px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canadians with African,
Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity
and its culture.[298]
Canadian humour

Canadian humour is an integral part of the
Canadian identity

Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music,
art, and media. The primary characteristics of
Canadian humour

Canadian humour are
irony, parody, and satire.[299] Many Canadian comedians have achieved
international success in the American TV and film industries and are
amongst the most recognized in the world.[300]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output;
particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines, is
often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[301] As a
result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported
by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications
Commission (CRTC).[302]
Symbols
Main article: National symbols of Canada
The mother beaver on the Canadian parliament's Peace Tower[303] The
five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity: Tudor rose:
English; Fleur de lis: French; thistle: Scottish; shamrock: Irish; and
leek: Welsh.
Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and
indigenous sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol
dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on
Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[304]
The
Arms of Canada

Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms
of the
United Kingdom

United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements
replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[305] The
Great Seal of Canada

Great Seal of Canada is a governmental seal used for purposes of
state, being set on letters patent, proclamations and commissions, for
representatives of the Queen and for the appointment of cabinet
ministers, lieutenant governors, senators, and judges.[306][307] Other
prominent symbols include the beaver,
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada goose, and common loon,
the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,[304] and more recently
the totem pole and Inuksuk.[308] Canadian coins feature many of these
symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the
Arms of Canada

Arms of Canada on the 50¢
piece, the beaver on the nickel.[309] The penny, removed from
circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.[310] The Queen' s image
appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian
coins.[309]
Literature
Main article: Canadian literature
Canadian literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language
literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of
France

France and
Britain, respectively.[311] There are four major themes that can be
found within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life,
Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the
garrison mentality.[312] By the 1990s,
Canadian literature

Canadian literature was viewed
as some of the world's best.[313] Canada's ethnic and cultural
diversity are reflected in its literature, with many of its most
prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life.[314] Arguably, the
best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since
the deaths of
Robertson Davies

Robertson Davies and Mordecai Richler) is Margaret
Atwood, a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic.[315] Numerous
other Canadian authors have accumulated international literary
awards;[316] including Nobel Laureate Alice Munro, who has been called
the best living writer of short stories in English;[317] and Booker
Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who is perhaps best known for the
novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same
name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.[318]
Visual arts
Main article: Canadian art
The Jack Pine

The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection
of the National Gallery of Canada
Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson
– the country's most famous painter – and by the Group of
Seven.[319] Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a
decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.[320] The Group were painters
with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their
distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven
members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer,
J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for
articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank
Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson
became part of the Group in 1926.[321] Associated with the Group was
another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her
landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific
Northwest Coast.[322] Since the 1950s, works of
Inuit

Inuit art have been
given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[323]
Music
Main article: Music of Canada
The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world
producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and
ensembles.[324] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the
CRTC.[325] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences
presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were
first awarded in 1970.[326] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame
established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime
achievements.[327] Patriotic music in
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada dates back over 200 years
as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first
legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest, The Bold
Canadian, was written in 1812.[328] The national anthem of Canada, "O
Canada", was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of
Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St.
Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.[329]
Calixa Lavallée

Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic
poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The
text was originally only in French before it was translated into
English in 1906.[330]
Sport
Main articles:
Sports in Canada

Sports in Canada and History of Canadian sports
Canada's ice hockey victory at the
2010 Winter Olympics

2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver
The roots of organized sports in
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada date back to the 1770s.[331]
Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[332]
Golf, tennis, skiing, badminton, volleyball, cycling, swimming,
bowling, rugby union, canoeing, equestrian, squash and the study of
martial arts are widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[333]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the
United States.[334] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven
franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major
League Soccer teams and one team in each of
Major League Baseball

Major League Baseball and
the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional sports
in
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada include Canadian football, which is played in the Canadian
Football League, National
Lacrosse

Lacrosse League lacrosse, and curling.[335]
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since its
Olympic debut in 1900,[336] and has hosted several high-profile
international sporting events, including the
1976 Summer Olympics

1976 Summer Olympics in
Montreal,[337] the
1988 Winter Olympics

1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary,[338] the 1994
Basketball World Championship,[339] the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup,[340]
the
2010 Winter Olympics

2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver,[341] and Whistler, British
Columbia,[342] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.[343]
See also
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada portal
New France

New France portal
North America

North America portal
Index of Canada-related articles
Outline of Canada
Topics by provinces and territories
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada – book
Notes
^ Includes general responses indicating North American origins (e.g.,
'North American') as well as more specific responses indicating North
American origins that have not been included elsewhere (e.g.,
'Maritimer' or 'Quebecois').
^ All citizens of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by
Canada's nationality laws. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has
since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestry.
"Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and
"Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of
respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country
that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European
(Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self-identify with
their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a
multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.
Source 1: Jack Jedwab (April 2008). "Our 'Cense' of Self: the 2006
Census saw 1.6 million 'Canadian'" (PDF). Association for Canadian
Studies. Retrieved March 7, 2011.
Source 2: Don Kerr (2007). The Changing Face of Canada: Essential
Readings in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 313–317.
ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2.
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^ a b "2016 Census of Population,
Statistics Canada

Statistics Canada Catalogue no.
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the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and
Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016
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Archived from the original on October 26, 2017. Data is an aggregate
of single and multiple responses. Total ethnic origin responses are
the sum of single and multiple responses for each ethnic origin. Total
response counts indicate the number of persons who reported a
specified ethnic origin, either as their only origin or in addition to
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^ a b c "Religions in Canada—Census 2011". Statistics
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^ a b Hail, M; Lange, S (February 25, 2010). "
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Federalism and
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^
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Dominion

Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity
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University of
Toronto

Toronto Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8020-0761-2.
Archived from the original on April 12, 2016.
^ Broadview Anthology of British Literature, The. Concise Edition,
Volume B. Broadview Press. 2006. p. 1459. GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT.
Archived from the original on April 12, 2016.
^ Robert Giddings; Erica Sheen (2000). From Page To Screen:
Adaptations of the Classic Novel. Manchester University Press.
p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7190-5231-6. Archived from the original
on April 13, 2016.
^ Marylin J. McKay (2011). Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories
in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP.
p. 229. ISBN 978-0-7735-3817-7. Archived from the original
on April 12, 2016.
^ Brock, Richard (2008). "Envoicing Silent Objects: Art and Literature
at the Site of the Canadian Landscape". Canadian Journal of
Environmental Education. 13 (2): 50–61. Archived from the original
on September 13, 2017.
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Nation. National Gallery of Canada. pp. 15–21, 195.
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ISBN 978-1-55209-046-6.
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p. 151. ISBN 978-0-313-36311-5. Archived from the original
on April 12, 2016.
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The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the
21st Century. Taylor & Francis. p. 304.
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2016.
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nationhood. University of
Toronto

Toronto Press. p. 127.
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2016.
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on April 12, 2016.
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Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford
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from the original on April 12, 2016.
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2008.
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Canada
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Canada 2015
Remission Order.
Canada
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Canada Border Services Agency. 2015.
Further reading
Main articles:
Bibliography of Canada

Bibliography of Canada and Bibliography of Canadian
history
Overview
Marsh, James H. (2000).
The Canadian Encyclopedia

The Canadian Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). The
Canadian Encyclopedia. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.
History
Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (revised ed.).
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A
History of Canada. Nelson Education.
ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History. 1 & 2.
University of
Toronto

Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8,
ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3
Geography and climate
Rumney, Thomas A. (2009). Canadian Geography: A Scholarly
Bibliography. Plattsburgh State University.
ISBN 978-0-8108-6718-5.
Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th
ed.).
Oxford University Press

Oxford University Press (Canada).
ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.
Government and law
Jacob, Joseph W. (2007). Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms:
Democracy for the People and for Each Person. Trafford Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-4269-8016-9.
Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An
Introduction to Parliamentary Government in
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada (4th ed.).
University of
Toronto

Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process
in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
Social welfare
Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History.
Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.
Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in
Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.
Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition:
Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto
Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.
Foreign relations and military
James, Patrick; Michaud, Nelson; O'Reilly, Marc J. (2006). Handbook of
Canadian Foreign Policy. Lexington Books.
ISBN 978-0-7391-1493-3.
Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at
Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.
Granatstein, J. L. (2011). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the
Peace (2nd ed.). University of
Toronto

Toronto Press.
ISBN 978-1-4426-1178-8.
Economy
Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic
History. University of
Toronto

Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division.
ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.
Economic Survey of
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada 2016. OECD Economic Surveys. 2016. –
(Previous surveys)
Council of Canadian Academies (2012). The State of Science and
Technology in Canada, 2012. Council of Canadian Academies.
ISBN 978-1-926558-47-9.
Demography and statistics
Statistics Canada

Statistics Canada (2008).
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Year
Book

Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967.
Federal Publications (Queen of Canada).
Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora,
Demography, and Domestic Politics. MQUP.
ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.
Statistics Canada

Statistics Canada (December 2012).
Canada
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg.png)
Canada Year Book. Federal
Publications (Queen of Canada). ISSN 0068-8142. Catalogue no
11-402-XWE.
Culture
Cohen, Andrew (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are.
McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.
Magocsi, Paul R (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples. Society of
Ontario, University of
Toronto

Toronto Press.
ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.
Indigenous peoples
Dickason, Olive Patricia; McNab, David T. (2009). Canada's First
Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times (4th ed.).
Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-542892-6.
Ladner, Kiera L.; Tait, Myra, eds. (2017). Surviving Canada:
Indigenous peoples celebrate 150 years of betrayal. Winnipeg,
Manitoba: Arp Books. ISBN 978-1-894037-89-1.
External links
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ISNI: 0000 0004 0377 1994
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