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The
Austronesian
 Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar  Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia.[2] Austronesian Austronesian languages are spoken by about 386 million people (4.9%), making it the fourth-largest language family by number of speakers, behind the Indo-European languages  Indo-European languages (46.3%), the Sino-Tibetan languages (20.4%), and the Niger-Congo languages  Niger-Congo languages (6.9%). Major Austronesian Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Javanese, and Filipino (Tagalog). The family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.[3] Similarities between the languages spoken in the Malay Archipelago  Malay Archipelago and the Pacific Ocean  Pacific Ocean were first observed in 1706 by the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland.[4] In the 19th century, researchers (e.g. Wilhelm von Humboldt, Herman van der Tuuk) started to apply the comparative method to the Austronesian Austronesian languages, but the first comprehensive and extensive study on the phonological history of the Austronesian language family including a reconstruction of Proto-Austronesian lexicon was made by the German linguist Otto Dempwolff.[5] The term Austronesian Austronesian itself was coined by Wilhelm Schmidt (German austronesisch, based on Latin  Latin auster "south wind" and Greek νῆσος "island").[6] The family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian Austronesian languages are spoken on islands: only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Many Austronesian Austronesian languages have very few speakers, but the major Austronesian Austronesian languages are spoken by tens of millions of people and one Austronesian Austronesian language, Malay (including both Indonesian and Malaysian variants), is spoken by 250 million people, making it the 8th most spoken language in the world. Approximately twenty Austronesian Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries (see the list of major and official Austronesian Austronesian languages). Different sources count languages differently, but Austronesian Austronesian and Niger–Congo are the two largest language families in the world by the number of languages they contain, each having roughly one-fifth of the total languages counted in the world. The geographical span of Austronesian Austronesian was the largest of any language family before the spread of Indo-European in the colonial period, ranging from Madagascar Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa to Easter Island  Easter Island in the eastern Pacific. Hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy (spoken on Madagascar) are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust  Robert Blust (1999), Austronesian Austronesian is divided in several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively on Taiwan. The Formosan languages  Formosan languages of Taiwan  Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan Taiwan (including its offshore Yami language) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian Austronesian languages lack a long history of written attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription, but with Indo-European languages Indo-European languages influences, dated to the mid-6th century at the latest, is also the first attestation of any Austronesian Austronesian language. Contents 1 Structure 2 Lexicon 3 Classification 3.1 Blust (1999)
3.2 Li (2008)
3.3
Austronesian
4 Major languages 5 Comparison chart 5.1 Comparison chart-numerals 5.2 Comparison chart-thirteen words 6 History 7 Hypothesized relations 7.1 Austric 7.2 Austro-Tai 7.3 Sino-Austronesian 7.4 Japanese 7.5 Ongan 8 Writing systems 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Structure[edit] Banknote for 5 dollars, Hawaii, circa 1839, using Hawaiian language It is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make
up a family as diverse as Austronesian. Very broadly, one can divide
the
Austronesian
The first group includes, besides the languages of the Philippines,
the
Austronesian
The
Austronesian
Families of
Formosan languages
Distribution of the
Austronesian
Austronesian (clockwise from the southwest) Tsouic (Formosan) Tsou language. Saaroa language. Kanakanabu language. Western Plains (Formosan) Thao language, AKA Sao. Brawbaw and Shtafari dialects. Central Western Plains Babuza language: Taokas, Poavosa dialects; old Favorlang language. Papora-Hoanya language: Papora, Hoanya dialects. Northwest Formosan Saisiyat language: Taai and Tungho dialects.
Pazeh language
Atayalic (Formosan) Atayal language. Seediq language: AKA Truku/Taroko. East Formosan Northern (Kavalanic languages). Basay language: Trobiawa and Linaw–Qauqaut dialects. Kavalan language. Ketagalan language, or Ketangalan. Central (Ami). Amis proper. Sakizaya. Siraya language.
Bunun language
Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects of Rukai are divergent.
Puyuma language
Families of
Formosan languages
This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. Li proposes a Proto-Formosan (F0) ancestor and equates it with Proto-Austronesian (PAN), following the model in Starosta (1995).[10][11] Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent,[10] although the position of Rukai is highly controversial.[12] F0: Formosan = Austronesian Rukai Mantauran Maga–Tona, Budai–Labuan–Taromak F1 Central (Tsouic) Tsou Southern Tsouic Saaroa Kanakanabu F2 Northern Formosan Northwestern (Plains) Saisiyat–Kulon–Pazeh Western Thao West Coast (Papora–Hoanya–Babuza–Taokas) Atayalic Squliq Atayal Ts'ole' Atayal (= C'uli') Seediq East Formosan Kavalan–Basay Siraya–Amis ? Southern [uncertain] Bunun Isbukun Northern and Central (Takitudu and Takbanuaz) Paiwan–Puyuma [uncertain]
Austronesian
Families of
Formosan languages
This investigation keeps Li's Northern Formosan, but breaks up Blust's East Formosan, and suggests Paiwan may be the closest to Malayo-Polynesian. It also unites Tsouic and Rukai, the two most divergent languages in Li. Austronesian Kavalanic This is an obvious, low-level grouping Basay (Trobiawan, Linaw–Qauqaut dialects) Kavalan Ketagalan Northern Formosan These groups are linked with an estimated 97% probability. Thao (a.k.a. Sao. Brawbaw, Shtafari dialects) Western Plains Babuza (a.k.a. Favorlang. Taokas, Poavosa dialects) Papora-Hoanya (Papora, Hoanya dialects) Saisiyat (Taai, Tungho dialects) Pazeh (a.k.a. Kulun) Atayalic Atayal (Squliq, C’uli’) Seediq (a.k.a. Truku, Taroko) Ami Another low-level grouping Sakizaya Amis Bunun Bunun Tsou–Rukai Tsou and Rukai are connected with moderate confidence, estimated at 85% probability. Tsouic Tsou Saaroa Kanakanabu Rukai (Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects are divergent) Siraya Siraya (Taivoan, Makatao dialects) Puyuma Puyuma Paiwanic Malayo-Polynesian and Paiwan are linked with a low level of confidence (74%). Paiwan (southern tip of Formosa) Malayo-Polynesian Ross (2009)[edit] Families of
Formosan languages
In 2009, Malcolm Ross proposed a new classification of the
Austronesian
Austronesian Rukai (Mantauran and Tona–Maga dialects are divergent) Puyuma Tsou Nuclear Austronesian Subdivisions not addressed, apart from Saaroa–Kanakanabu being separate from Tsou. Major languages[edit]
Main article: List of major and official
Austronesian
Austronesian
Proto-Austronesian *əsa *isa *duSa *təlu *Səpat *lima *ənəm *pitu *walu *Siwa *(sa-)puluq Formosan languages 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Amis cecay tosa tolo spat lima enem pito falo siwa mo^tep Atayal qutux sazing cyugal payat magal mtzyu mpitu mspat mqeru mopuw Paiwan ita drusa tjelu sepatj lima enem pitju alu siva tapuluq Bunun tasʔa dusa tau paat hima nuum pitu vau siva masʔan Puyuma isa zuwa telu pat lima unem pitu walu iwa pulu' Rukai itha drusa tulru supate lrima eneme pitu valru bangate pulruku Tsou coni yuso tuyu sʉptʉ eimo nomʉ pitu voyu sio maskʉ Saisiyat 'aeihae' roSa' to:lo' Sopat haseb SayboSi: SayboSi: 'aeihae' maykaSpat hae'hae' lampez Yami asa dora atlo apat lima anem pito wao siyam poo Thao taha tusha turu shpat tarima katuru pitu kashpat tanathu makthin Kavalan usiq uzusa utulu uspat ulima unem upitu uwalu usiwa rabtin Truku kingal dha tru spat rima mataru empitu maspat mngari maxal Sakizaya cacay tosa tolo sepat lima enem pito walo siwa cacay a bataan Seediq kingal daha teru sepac rima mmteru mpitu mmsepac mngari maxal Malayo-Polynesian languages 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *əsa *isa *duha *təlu *əpat *lima *ənəm *pitu *walu *siwa *puluq Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian (MP) languages 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Sunda–
Sulawesi
Acehnese sifar soh sa duwa lhee peuet limong nam tujoh lapan sikureueng siploh Balinesea nul besik siki dua telu papat lime nenem pitu kutus sia dasa Banjar asa dua talu ampat lima anam pitu walu sanga sapuluh Batak, Toba sada dua tolu opat lima onom pitu ualu sia sampulu Buginese ceddi dua tellu empa lima enneng pitu arua asera seppulo Cia-Cia 디세 dise ise 루아 rua ghua 똘루 tolu 빠아 pa'a 을리마 lima 노오 no'o 삐쭈 picu 활루 walu oalu 시우아 siua 옴뿔루 ompulu Cham sa dua klau pak lima nam tujuh dalapan salapan sapluh Javanese (Kawi)b[15] sunya eka dwi tri catur panca sad sapta asta nawa dasa Old Javanese[16] das sa (sa' / sak) rwa tĕlu pāt lima nĕm pitu walu sanga sapuluh Javanese (Krama) nol setunggal kalih tiga sekawan gangsal enem pitu wolu sanga sedasa Javanese (Ngoko)[17] nol siji loro telu papat lima enem pitu wolu sanga sepuluh Kelantan-Pattani kosong so duwo tigo pak limo ne tujoh lape smile spuloh Madurese nol settong dhuwa' tello' empa' lema' ennem petto' ballu' sanga' sapolo Makassarese ᨒᨚᨅ lobbang ᨊᨚᨒᨚ nolo' ᨙᨔᨙᨑ se're ᨑᨘᨕ rua ᨈᨒᨘ tallu ᨕᨄ appa' ᨒᨗᨆ lima ᨕᨊ annang ᨈᨘᨍ tuju ᨔᨂᨈᨘᨍ sangantuju ᨔᨒᨄ salapang ᨔᨄᨘᨒᨚ sampulo Standard Malay (both Indonesian and Malaysian) kosong sifar[18] nol[19] satu suatu[20] dua tiga[21][22] empat lima[23] enam tujuh delapan lapan[24] sembilan sepuluh Minangkabau[25] ciek duo tigo ampek limo anam tujuah salapan sambilan sapuluah Moken cha:? thuwa:? teloj (təlɔy) pa:t lema:? nam luɟuːk waloj (walɔy) chewaj (cʰɛwaːy / sɛwaːy) cepoh Sasak sekek due telo empat lime enam pituk baluk siwak sepulu Sundanese ᮔᮧᮜ᮪ nol ᮠᮤᮏᮤ hiji ᮓᮥᮃ dua ᮒᮤᮜᮥ tilu ᮇᮕᮒ᮪ opat ᮜᮤᮙ lima ᮌᮨᮔᮨᮕ᮪ genep ᮒᮥᮏᮥᮂ tujuh ᮓᮜᮕᮔ᮪ dalapan ᮞᮜᮕᮔ᮪ salapan ᮞᮕᮥᮜᮥᮂ sapuluh Terengganu Malay kosong se duwe tige pak lime nang tujoh lapang smilang spuloh Tetun nol ida rua tolu hat lima nen hitu ualu sia sanulu Tsat (HuiHui)c sa³³ *, ta¹¹ ** tʰua¹¹ kiə³³ pa²⁴ ma³³ naːn³² su⁵⁵ paːn³² tʰu¹ paːn³² piu⁵⁵ There are two forms for numbers 'one' in Tsat (Hui Hui; Hainan Cham) : ^* The word sa³³ is used for serial counting. ^** The word ta¹¹ is used with hundreds and thousands and before qualifiers. Borneo–Philippine languages 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ilocano ibbong awan maysa dua tallo uppat lima innem pito walo siam sangapulo Ibanag awan tadday duwa tallu appa' lima annam pitu walu siyam mafulu Pangasinan sakey duwa talo apat lima anem pito walo siyam samplo Kapampangan ala metung/ isa' adua atlu apat lima anam pitu walu siyam apulu Tagalog ᜏᜎ walâ ᜁᜐ isá ᜇᜎᜏ dalawá ᜆᜆ᜔ᜎᜓ tatló ᜀᜉᜆ᜔ apat ᜎᜒᜋ limá ᜀᜈᜒᜋ᜔ anim ᜉᜒᜆᜓ pitó ᜏᜎᜓ waló ᜐᜒᜌᜋ᜔ siyám ᜐᜋ᜔ᜉᜓ sampû Bikol wara sarô duwá tuló apat limá anom pitó waló siyám sampulû Aklanon uwa isaea sambilog daywa tatlo ap-at lima an-om pito waeo siyam napueo Karay-a wara (i)sara darwa tatlo apat lima anəm pito walo siyam napulo Onhan isya darwa tatlo upat lima an-om pito walo siyam sampulo Romblomanon isa duha tuyo upat lima onum pito wayo siyam napuyo Masbatenyo isad usad duwa duha tulo upat lima unom pito walo siyam napulo Hiligaynon wala isa duha tatlo apat lima anom pito walo siyam napulo Cebuano wala usa duha tulo upat lima unom pito walo siyam napulo pulo Waray waray usa duha tulo upat lima unom pito walo siyam napulò Tausug isa duwa tū upat lima unum pitu walu siyam hangpu' Maranao isa dua telu pat lima nem pitu ualu siau sapulu' Benuaq (Dayak Benuaq) eray duaq toluu opaat limaq jawatn turu walo sie sepuluh Lun Bawang/ Lundayeh na luk dih eceh dueh teluh epat limeh enem tudu' waluh liwa' pulu' Dusun aiso iso duo tolu apat limo onom turu walu siam hopod Malagasy aotra isa iray roa telo efatra dimy enina fito valo sivy folo Sangirese (Sangir-Minahasan) sembau darua tatelu epa lima eneng pitu walu sio mapulo Oceanic languagesd 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fijian saiva dua rua tolu vaa lima ono vitu walu ciwa tini Hawaiian 'ole 'e-kahi 'e-lua 'e-kolu 'e-hā 'e-lima 'e-ono 'e-hiku 'e-walu 'e-iwa 'umi Kiribati akea teuana uoua tenua aua nimaua onoua itua wanua ruaiwa tebwina Māori kore tahi rua toru whā rima ono whitu waru iwa tekau ngahuru Marshallese[26] o̧o juon ruo jilu emān ļalem jiljino jimjuon ralitōk ratimjuon jon̄oul Motue[27] ta rua toi hani ima tauratoi hitu taurahani taurahani-ta gwauta Niuean nakai taha ua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu hiva hogofulu Rapanui tahi rua toru hā rima ono hitu va'u iva angahuru Rarotongan Māori kare ta'i rua toru 'ā rima ono 'itu varu iva nga'uru Rotuman ta rua folu hake lima ono hifu vạlu siva saghulu Sāmoan o tasi lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva sefulu Sāmoan (K-type) o kasi lua kolu fa lima ogo fiku valu iva sefulu Tahitian hō'ē tahi piti toru maha pae ōno hitu va'u iva hō'ē 'ahuru Tongan noa taha ua tolu fa nima ono fitu valu hiva hongofulu taha noa Trukese eet érúúw één fáán niim woon fúús waan ttiw engoon Tuvaluan tahi tasi lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva sefulu Comparison chart-thirteen words[edit] English one two three four person house dog road day new we what fire Proto-Austronesian *əsa, *isa *duSa *təlu *əpat *Cau *balay, *Rumaq *asu *zalan *qaləjaw, *waRi *baqəRu *kita, *kami *anu, *apa *Sapuy Tetum ida rua tolu haat ema uma asu dalan loron foun ita saida ahi Amis cecay tosa tolo sepat tamdaw luma wacu lalan cidal faroh kita uman namal Puyuma sa dua telu pat taw rumah soan dalan wari vekar mi amanai apue, asi Tagalog isa dalawa tatlo apat tao bahay aso daan araw bago tayo / kami ano apoy Bikol sarô duwá tuló apat táwo harong áyam dálan aldaw bâgo kitá anó kalayó Rinconada Bikol əsad darwā tolō əpat tawō baləy ayam raran aldəw bāgo kitā onō kalayō Waray usa duha tulo upat tawo balay ayam, ido dalan adlaw bag-o kita anu kalayo Cebuano usa, isa duha tulo upat tawo balay iro dalan adlaw bag-o kita unsa kalayo Hiligaynon isa duha tatlo apat tawo balay ido dalan adlaw bag-o kita ano kalayo Aklanon isaea, sambilog daywa tatlo ap-at tawo baeay ayam daean adlaw bag-o kita ano kaeayo Kinaray-a (i)sara darwa tatlo apat tawo balay ayam dalan adlaw bag-o kita ano kalayo Tausug hambuuk duwa tu upat tau bay iru' dan adlaw ba-gu kitaniyu unu kayu Maranao isa dowa t'lo phat taw walay aso lalan gawi'e bago tano tonaa apoy Kapampangan metung adwa atlu apat tau bale asu dalan aldo bayu ikatamu nanu api Pangasinan sakey dua, duara talo, talora apat, apatira too abong aso dalan ageo balo sikatayo anto pool Ilokano maysa dua tallo uppat tao balay aso dalan aldaw baro datayo ania apoy Ivatan asa dadowa tatdo apat tao vahay chito rarahan araw va-yo yaten ango apoy Ibanag tadday dua tallu appa' tolay balay kitu dalan aggaw bagu sittam anni afi Yogad tata addu tallu appat tolay binalay atu daddaman agaw bagu sikitam gani afuy Gaddang antet addwa tallo appat tolay balay atu dallan aw bawu ikkanetam sanenay afuy Tboli sotu lewu tlu fat tau gunu ohu lan kdaw lomi tekuy tedu ofih Lun Bawang/ Lundayeh eceh dueh teluh epat lemulun/lun ruma' uko' dalan eco beruh teu enun apui Malay (Malaysian/Indonesian) satu, suatu dua tiga[28] empat orang rumah, balai anjing jalan hari baru kita apa, anu api Old Javanese esa, eka rwa, dwi tĕlu, tri pat, catur[29] wwang umah asu dalan dina hañar, añar[30] kami[31] apa, aparan apuy, agni Javanese siji, setunggal loro, kalih tĕlu, tiga[32] papat, sekawan uwong, tiyang, priyantun[32] omah, griya, dalem[32] asu, sĕgawon dalan, gili[32] dina, dinten[32] anyar, énggal[32] awaké dhéwé, kula panjenengan[32] apa, punapa[32] gĕni, latu, brama[32] Sundanese hiji dua tilu opat urang imah anjing jalan poe anyar, enggal arurang naon seuneu Acehnese sa duwa lhèë peuët ureuëng rumoh, balè, seuëng asèë röt uroë barô (geu)tanyoë peuë apui Minangkabau ciek duo tigo ampek urang rumah anjiang labuah, jalan hari baru awak apo api Lampungese sai khua telu pak jelema lamban kaci ranlaya khani baru kham api apui Buginese se'di dua tellu eppa' tau bola asu laleng esso baru idi' aga api Temuan satuk duak tigak empat uwang, eang gumah, umah anying, koyok jalan aik, haik bahauk kitak apak apik Toba Batak sada dua tolu opat halak jabu biang dalan ari baru hita aha api Kelantan-Pattani so duwo tigo pak oghe ghumoh, dumoh anjing jale aghi baghu kito gapo api Chamorro håcha, maisa hugua tulu fatfat taotao/tautau guma' ga'lågu[33] chålan ha'åni nuebu[34] hita håfa guåfi Motu ta, tamona rua toi hani tau ruma sisia dala dina matamata ita, ai dahaka lahi Māori tahi rua toru whā tangata whare kurī ara rā hou tāua, tātou/tātau māua, mātou/mātau aha ahi Tuvaluan tasi lua tolu fá toko fale kuli ala, tuu aso fou tāua a afi Hawaiian kahi lua kolu hā kanaka hale 'īlio ala ao hou kākou aha ahi Banjarese asa duwa talu ampat urang rūmah hadupan heko hǎri hanyar kami apa api Malagasy isa roa telo efatra olona trano alika lalana andro vaovao isika inona afo Dusun iso duo tolu apat tulun walai, lamin tasu ralan tadau wagu tokou onu/nu tapui Kadazan iso duvo tohu apat tuhun hamin tasu lahan tadau vagu tokou onu, nunu tapui Rungus iso duvo tolu, tolzu apat tulun, tulzun valai, valzai tasu dalan tadau vagu tokou nunu tapui, apui Sungai/Tambanuo ido duo tolu opat lobuw waloi asu ralan runat wagu toko onu apui Iban satu, sa, siti, sigi dua tiga empat orang, urang rumah ukui, uduk jalai hari baru kitai nama api Sarawak Malay satu, sigek dua tiga empat orang rumah asuk jalan ari baru kita apa api Terengganuan se duwe tige pak oghang ghumoh, dumoh anjing jalang aghi baghu kite mende, ape, gape, nape api Kanayatn sa dua talu ampat urakng rumah asu' jalatn ari baru kami', diri' ahe api History[edit]
Further information:
Austronesian peoples
... the internal diversity among the... Formosan languages... is
greater than that in all the rest of
Austronesian
Austronesian
At least since Sapir (1968), linguists have generally accepted that
the chronology of the dispersal of languages within a given language
family can be traced from the area of greatest linguistic variety to
that of the least. For example, English in North America has large
numbers of speakers, but relatively low dialectal diversity, while
English in Great Britain has much higher diversity; such low
linguistic variety by Sapir's thesis suggests a more recent origin of
English in North America. While some scholars suspect that the number
of principal branches among the
Formosan languages
Implied in... discussions of subgrouping [of
Austronesian
Linguistic analysis of the
Proto-Austronesian language stops at the
western shores of Taiwan; any related mainland language(s) have not
survived. The only exceptions, the Chamic languages, derive from more
recent migration to the mainland (Thurgood 1999:225).
Hypothesized relations[edit]
Genealogical links have been proposed between
Austronesian
Sign in Balinese and
Latin
Manuscript from early 1800s using
Batak
Most
Austronesian
Brahmi script Kawi script
Balinese alphabet
Cham alphabet
Arabic
Pegon alphabet
Hangul
See also[edit] Ainu languages
Austric
Notes[edit] ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds.
(2017). "Austronesian".
Glottolog
References[edit] Bellwood, Peter (July 1991). "The
Austronesian
Further reading[edit] Bengtson, John D., The "Greater Austric" Hypothesis, Association for
the Study of Language in Prehistory.
Blust, R. A. (1983). Lexical reconstruction and semantic
reconstruction: the case of the
Austronesian
External links[edit] Blust's
Austronesian
v t e
Austronesian
Malayo-Polynesian Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian Sunda-Sulawesi Malayo-Sumbawan Sundanese Baduy Sundanese Madurese Kangean Madurese Malayo-Chamic Aceh–Chamic Acehnese Cham dialects Chru Haroi Jarai Rade Roglai Tsat (Utsat) Malayic Bamayo Banjar Brunei/Kedayan Malay Berau Malay Bangka Malay Balau Bengkulu Col Duano' Haji Iban Jambi Malay Jakun Kedah Malay Kutai Malay Kaur Kerinci Kelantan-Pattani Malay (Yawi) Kendayan Keninjal Kubu Orang Laut Lubu Johore-Riau Malay (Malaysian & Indonesian) Minangkabau Musi Mualang Orang Kanaq Orang Seletar Pahang Malay Pekal Perak Malay Remun Sarawak Malay Seberuang Sebuyau Temuan Terengganu Malay Urak Lawoi' Bali–Sasak Balinese Sasak Sumbawa Northwest Sumatran Enggano Gayo Mentawai Nias Sikule Simeulue Batak Alas
Batak
Lampungic Lampung Nyo Lampung Api Komering Celebic ? Andio Badaic Bahonsuai Balaesang Balantak Banggai Batui Boano Bobongko Bonerate Bungku Busoa Cia-Cia Dampelas Dondo Kalao Kaili Kaimbulawa Kamaru Kodeoha Kulisusu Kumbewaha Lasalimu Laiyolo Lauje Liabuku Mbelala Moronene Mori Bawah Mori Atas Moma Muna Padoe Pancana Pendau Rahambuu Rampi Saluan Sarudu Sedoa Pamona Taje Tajio Tukang Besi Tolaki Tomadino Topoiyo Tomini Totoli Uma Waru Wawonii Wolio Wotu South Sulawesi Aralle-Tabulahan Bambam Bentong Budong-Budong Buginese Campalagian Dakka Duri Embaloh Enrekang Kalumpang Konjo Lawa Lemolang Maiwa (Sulawesi) Makassarese Malimpung Mamasa Mamuju Mandar Panasuan Pannei Selayar Seko Tae' Talondo' Taman Toraja-Sa'dan Ulumanda' Moken Moken dialects Javanese Arekan Banyumasan Mataraman Kawi (Old Javanese) Kedu Osing Tenggerese Unclassified Chamorro Hukumina † Palauan Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian Central Malayo-Polynesian Sumba–Flores Bima Sumba-Manggarai Sumba Hawu ? Dhao ? Kambera Mamboru Anakalangu Wanukaka Pondok Baliledo Wejewa Lamboya Kodi Gaura Ende-Manggarai Komodo Manggarai Riung Rembong Rajong Kepo' Wae Rana Palu'e Ende-Li'o Nage Ke'o Ngad'a Rongga So'a Flores-Lembata Kedang Sika-Lamaholot Sika Lamaholotic Lamatuka Lewo Eleng Levuka South Lembata Lamaholot Alorese Lamalera Lewotobi Adonara Ile Ape Mingar Selaru Selaru Seluwasan Kei-Tanimbar Kei Fordata Yamdena Onin Sekar Uruangnirin Aru Barakai Batuley Dobel Karey Koba Kola Lola Lorang Manombai Mariri Tarangan Ujir Timor-Babar Timoric ? Kemak Tukudede Mambai Idalaka Dawan Amarasi Helong Bilba Dengka Lole Ringgou Dela-Oenale Termanu Tii Tetum Bekais Wetar Galoli Luang Makuva Babar West Damar ? Dawera-Daweloor North Babar Dai Masela Serili Southeast Babar Emplawas Imroing Tela'a Unclassified Naueti Kairui Waimoa Midiki Kowiai Kowiai Central Maluku ? Teor-Kur West Central Maluku Ambelau Buru Lisela Moksela † Sula Mangole Taliabo East Central Maluku Navbox Banda Bati Geser Watubela Bobot Masiwang Hoti † Benggoi Salas Liana Nunusaku Kayeli † Nuaulu Huaulu Manusela Wemale Yalahatan Piru Bay ? Asilulu Luhu Manipa Wakasihu Boano (Moluccas) Sepa-Teluti Paulohi Kaibobo Hitu Tulehu Laha Seit-Kaitetu Kamarian † Haruku Amahai Nusa Laut Saparua Latu Eastern Malayo-Polynesian linkages Halmahera–Cenderawasih Oceanic languages Borneo-Philippine Philippine Northern Philippine Batanic (Bashiic) ? Itbayat Ivatan Yami Northern Luzon Ilokano Pangasinan Ibanag Arta Isnag Atta Itawis Yogad Cagayan Aeta Gaddang Ga'dang Northern Alta Southern Alta Isinai Itneg Kalinga Ifugao Tuwali ? Balangao Bontok-Finallig Kankanaey Ilongot Ibaloi Iwaak Kallahan Karao Dicamay Agta † Central Luzon Kapampangan Abellen Ambala Bolinao Botolan Mag-antsi Mag-indi Mariveleño Sambali Remontado Agta (Sinauna) Northern Mindoro Alangan Iraya Tadyawan Greater Central Philippine ? Southern Mindoro Buhid Hanuno'o Tawbuid Central Philippine Tagalog Visayan Cebuano Hiligaynon Waray Tausug Kinaray-a Aklanon Capiznon Asi Ati Bantayanon Baybayanon Boholano Butuanon Caluyanon Cuyunon Kinabalian Onhan Porohanon Ratagnon Romblomanon Surigaonon Bikol Central Bikol Albay Bikol Isarog Agta Mount Iraya Agta Mount Iriga Agta Pandan Bikol Rinconada Bisakol Masbatenyo South Sorsogon (Gubat) Central Sorsogon (Masbate) Unclassified Sulod Mansakan Davawenyo Kalagan Kamayo Mamanwa Mandaya Mansaka Palawan Aborlan Tagbanwa Palawan Batak Palawano Mindanao Maguindanao Maranao Agusan Ata Manobo Binukid Cotabato Manobo Higaonon Ilianen Iranun Kagayanen Kinamigin Matigsalug Obo Sarangani Subanen Tagabawa Western Bukidnon Gorontalo- Mongondow Bolango Buol Bintauna Gorontalo Kaidipang Lolak Suwawa Mongondow Ponosakan Kalamian Agutaynen Calamian Tagbanwa Bilic Bagobo B'laan T'boli Tiruray Sangiric Sangirese Talaud Bantik Ratahan Minahasan Tonsawang Tontemboan Tombulu Tondano Tonsea Unclassified Umiray Dumaget Manide-Inagta Inagta Alabat Manide Bornean North Bornean Sabahan Ida'an Bonggi Brunei Bisaya Tatana (Sabah Bisaya) Lotud Dusun Kuijau Eastern Kadazan Gana' Kota Marudu Talantang Kinamaragang (Momogun) Klias River Kadazan Coastal Kadazan Yakan Tombonuwo Kinabatangan Sungai Keningau Murut Okolod Tagol Paluan Selungai Murut Timugon Bookan Abai Papar Kalabakan Sembakung Serudung Nonukan Tidong Unclassified Dumpas Molbog North Sarawakan Kenyah (Bakung) Sebob Tutoh Uma' Lasan Wahau Kenyah Penan ? Kelabit Lengilu Lundayeh Sa'ban Tring Berawan Belait Kiput Narom Tutong Unclassified Bintulu Melanau-Kajang Kajaman Lahanan Sekapan Daro-Matu Kanowit-Tanjong Melanau Bukitan Punan Batu Sian Ukit Basap Burusu Bah-Biau Punan Sajau Punan Merap Bukat Seru † Lelak † Kayan-Murik Kayan Bahau Modang Segai Hovongan Aoheng Aput Punan Krio Dayak Murik Land Dayak Bekati' Sara Lara' Bukar Sadong Rejang Biatah Tringgus Jagoi Jangkang Kembayan Semandang Ribun Benyadu' Sanggau Barito Malagasy Bushi Deyah Malang Witu Ma'anyan Paku Lawangan Kohin Dihoi Siang Bakumpai Ngaju Ampanang Tunjung Sama-Bajaw ? Abaknon Bajaw Sama Pangutaran Sama Formosan Rukaic Rukai Tsouic Tsou Kanakanabu Saaroa Northern Formosan Atayalic Atayal Seediq Northwest Formosan Saisiyat Pazeh † Kulon † Thao Babuza Favorlang † East Formosan Ketagalan † Basay † Kavalan Amis Siraya † Southern Puyuma Paiwan Bunun Bold indicates languages with more than 1 million speakers ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Formosan languages Rukaic Rukai Tsouic Tsou Kanakanabu Saaroa Northern Formosan Atayalic Atayal Seediq Northwest Formosan Saisiyat Pazeh † Kulon † Thao Babuza † Favorlang † East Formosan Ketagalan † Basay † Kavalan Amis Sakizaya Siraya † Taivoan † Nataoran Southern Puyuma Paiwan Bunun Bold indicates languages with more than 1 million speakers ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Borneo–Philippine languages Philippine Northern Philippine Batanic (Bashiic) ? Itbayat Ivatan Yami Northern Luzon Ilocano Pangasinan Ibanag Arta Isnag Atta Itawis Yogad Cagayan Aeta Gaddang Ga'dang Northern Alta Southern Alta Isinai Itneg Kalinga Ifugao Tuwali ? Balangao Bontok-Finallig Kankanaey Ilongot Ibaloi Iwaak Kallahan Karao Dicamay Agta † Central Luzon Kapampangan Abellen Ambala Bolinao Botolan Mag-antsi Mag-indi Mariveleño Sambal Remontado Agta (Sinauna) Northern Mindoro Alangan Iraya Tadyawan Greater Central Philippine ? Southern Mindoro Buhid Hanuno'o Tawbuid Central Philippine Tagalog Cebuano Hiligaynon Waray Central Bikol Tausug Kinaray-a Sulodnon Aklanon Capiznon Masbatenyo Albay Bikol Asi Bantayanon Baybayanon Boholano Butuanon Caluyanon Cuyunon South Sorsogon (Gubat) Central Sorsogon (Masbate) Isarog Agta Kabalian Mount Iraya Agta Mount Iriga Agta Onhan Pandan Bikol Porohanon Ratagnon Rinconada Romblomanon Surigaonon Unclassified Sulod Mansakan Davawenyo Kalagan Kamayo Mamanwa Mandaya Mansaka Palawan Aborlan Tagbanwa Central Tagbanwa Palawan Batak Palawano Mindanao Maguindanao Maranao Agusan Ata Manobo Binukid Cotabato Manobo Higaonon Ilianen Iranun Kagayanen Kamigin Matigsalug Obo Sarangani Subanen Tagabawa Western Bukidnon Gorontalo-Mongondow Bolango Buol Bintauna Gorontalo Kaidipang Lolak Suwawa Mongondow Ponosakan Kalamian Agutaynen Calamian Tagbanwa Bilic Bagobo B'laan T'boli Tiruray Sangiric Sangirese Talaud Bantik Ratahan Minahasan Tonsawang Tontemboan Tombulu Tondano Tonsea Unclassified Umiray Dumaget Ati Manide-Inagta Inagta Alabat Manide Bornean North Bornean Sabahan Ida'an Bonggi Molbog Brunei Bisaya Tatana (Sabah Bisaya) Lotud Dusun Kuijau Eastern Kadazan Gana' Kota Marudu Talantang Kamaragang (Momogun) Klias River Kadazan Coastal Kadazan Yakan Tombonuwo Kinabatangan Sungai Keningau Murut Okolod Tagol Paluan Selungai Murut Timugon Bookan Abai Papar Kalabakan Sembakung Serudung Nonukan Tidong Unclassified Dumpas North Sarawakan Kenyah (Bakung) Sebob Tutoh Uma' Lasan Wahau Kenyah Penan ? Kelabit Lengilu Lundayeh Sa'ban Tring Berawan Belait Kiput Narom Tutong Unclassified Bintulu Melanau-Kajang Kajaman Lahanan Sekapan Daro-Matu Kanowit-Tanjong Melanau Bukitan Punan Batu Sian Ukit Basap Burusu Bah-Biau Punan Sajau Punan Merap Bukat Seru † Lelak † Kayan-Murik Kayan Bahau Modang Segai Hovongan Aoheng Aput Punan Krio Dayak Murik Land Dayak Bekati' Sara Lara' Bukar Sadong Rejang Biatah Tringgus Jagoi Jangkang Kembayan Semandang Ribun Benyadu' Sanggau Barito Malagasy Deyah Malang Witu Ma'anyan Paku Lawangan Kohin Dihoi Siang Bakumpai Ngaju Ampanang Tunjung Sama-Bajaw ? Abaknon Bajaw Sinama Pangutaran Sama Bold indicates languages with more than 1 million speakers ? indicates classification dispute † indicates extinct status v t e Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages Malayo-Sumbawan Sundanese Sundanese (Bantenese, Baduy) Madurese Kangean Madurese Malayo-Chamic Chamic Acehnese Cham dialects Chru Haroi Jarai Rade Roglai Tsat (Utsat) Malayic Bamayo Banjar Brunei/Kedayan Malay Berau Malay Bangka Malay Balau Bengkulu Col Duano' Haji Iban Jambi Malay Jakun Kedah Malay Kutai Malay Kaur Kerinci Kelantan-Pattani Malay (Yawi) Kendayan Keninjal Kubu Orang Laut Lubu Malay (Malaysian & Indonesian) Minangkabau Musi Mualang Orang Kanaq Orang Seletar Pahang Malay Pekal Perak Malay Remun Sarawak Malay Seberuang Sebuyau Temuan Terengganu Malay Urak Lawoi' Bali–Sasak Balinese Sasak Sumbawa Northwest Sumatran Enggano Gayo Mentawai Nias Sikule Simeulue Batak Alas
Batak
Lampungic Lampung Api Lampung Nyo Komering Celebic (Disputed) Andio Badaic Bahonsuai Balaesang Balantak Banggai Batui Boano Bobongko Bonerate Bungku Busoa Cia-Cia Dampelas Dondo Kalao Kaili Kaimbulawa Kamaru Kodeoha Kulisusu Kumbewaha Lasalimu Laiyolo Lauje Liabuku Mbelala Moronene Mori Bawah Mori Atas Moma Muna Padoe Pancana Pendau Rahambuu Rampi Saluan Sarudu Sedoa Pamona Taje Tajio Tukang Besi Tolaki Tomadino Topoiyo Tomini Totoli Uma Waru Wawonii Wolio Wotu South Sulawesi Aralle-Tabulahan Bambam Bentong Budong-Budong Buginese Campalagian Dakka Duri Embaloh Enrekang Kalumpang Konjo Lemolang Maiwa (Sulawesi) Makassarese Malimpung Mamasa Mamuju Mandar Panasuan Pannei Selayar Seko Tae’ Talondo’ Taman Toraja-Sa’dan Ulumanda’ Moken Moken dialects Javanese Arekan Banyumasan Mataraman Kawi (Old Javanese) Kedu Osing Tenggerese Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (over 700 languages) Eastern Malayo-Polynesian groups Halmahera–Cenderawasih Oceanic languages Central Malayo-Polynesian linkages Aru Central Maluku Kei-Tanimbar Kowiai Selaru Sumba–Flores Teor–Kur Timoric West Damar Unclassified Chamorro Hukumina † Palauan v t e Micronesian languages Nuclear Micronesian Chuukic-Pohnpeic Pohnpeic Mokilese Ngatikese Pingelapese Pohnpeian Chuukic Carolinian Chuukese Mapia Mortlockese Namonuito Pááfang Puluwatese Satawalese Sonsorolese Tanapag Tobian Ulithian Woleaian Others Kiribati Kosraean Marshallese Non-Nuclear Nauruan v t e Fijian–Polynesian languages Polynesian East Marquesic Hawaiian Mangerevan Marquesan Tahitic Austral Māori Moriori Penrhyn Rakahanga-Manihiki Rarotongan Tahitian Tuamotuan Other Rapa Rapa Nui West Samoic Niuatoputapu Pukapuka Samoan Tokelauan Ellicean Kapingamarangi Nukumanu Nukuoro Nukuria Ontong Java Sikaiana Takuu Tuvaluan Vaeakau-Taumako Futunic Anuta Emae Futunan Futuna-Aniwan Mele-Fila Pukapukan Rennellese Tikopia Wallisian West Uvean Tongic Niuafoʻou Niuean Tongan Fijian East Fijian Gone Dau Lauan Lomaiviti West Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua Western Fijian Other Rotuman v t e List of primary language families Africa Afro-Asiatic Austronesian Khoe Kx'a Niger–Congo Nilo-Saharan? Tuu Mande? Songhay? Ijaw? Ubangian? Kadu? Isolates Bangime Hadza Jalaa Sandawe Kwadi? Laal? Shabo? Sign languages Arab BANZSL French Lasima Tanzanian Others Europe and Asia Afro-Asiatic Ainu Austroasiatic Austronesian Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskimo–Aleut Great Andamanese Hmong–Mien Hurro-Urartian Indo-European Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Mongolic Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Sino-Tibetan Tai–Kadai Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Yeniseian Yukaghir Dené–Yeniseian? Altaic? Austronesian–Ongan? Austro-Tai? Sino-Austronesian? Digaro? Kho-Bwa? Siangic? Miji? Vasconic? Isolates Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Nivkh Sumerian Hruso? Miju? Puroik? Sign languages BANZSL French German Japanese Swedish Chinese Indo-Pakistani Arab Chiangmai–Bangkok Others New Guinea and the Pacific Arai–Samaia Arafundi Austronesian Baining Binanderean–Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu–Wahgi Doso–Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Kaure–Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Kwomtari Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi North Bougainville Pauwasi Piawi Ramu Senagi Sentani Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran Torricelli Trans-Fly Trans–New Guinea Turama–Kikorian West Papuan Yam Yawa Yuat North Papuan? Northeast New Guinea? Papuan Gulf? Isolates Abinomn Anêm? Ata? Kol Kuot Porome Taiap? Pawaia Porome Sulka? Tambora Wiru Sign languages Hawai'i Sign Language Others Australia Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan Bunuban Darwin River Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Mirndi Northern Tasmanian Northeastern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Yangmanic (Wardaman) Isolates Giimbiyu Malak-Malak Marrgu Tiwi Wagiman North America Algic Alsea Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskimo–Aleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Keresan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yokutsan Yukian Yuman–Cochimí Dené–Yeniseian? Hokan? Penutian? Isolates Chimariko Haida Karuk Kutenai Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Sign languages Inuit (Inuiuuk) Plains Sign Talk Others Mesoamerica Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan Totozoquean? Isolates Cuitlatec Huave Tarascan/Purépecha Sign languages Plains Sign Talk Mayan Others South America Arawakan Arauan Araucanian Arutani–Sape Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Borôroan Cahuapanan Cariban Catacaoan Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Jê/Gê Harákmbut–Katukinan Jirajaran Jivaroan Kariri Katembri–Taruma Mascoian Matacoan Maxakalian Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano-Tacanan Peba–Yaguan Purian Quechuan Piaroa–Saliban Ticuna–Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru–Chipaya Witotoan Yabutian Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Chimuan? Esmeralda–Yaruro? Hibito–Cholón? Lule–Vilela? Macro-Jê? Tequiraca–Canichana? Isolates (extant in 2000) Aikanã? Alacalufan Andoque? Camsá Candoshi Chimane Chiquitano Cofán? Fulniô Guató Hodï/Joti Irantxe? Itonama Karajá Krenak Kunza Leco Maku-Auari of Roraima Movima Mura-Pirahã Nukak? Ofayé Puinave Huaorani/Waorani Trumai Urarina Warao Yamana Yuracaré See also Language isolates Unclassified languages Creoles Pidgins Mixed languages Artificial languages List of sign languages Families with more than 30 languages are in bold. Families in italics have no living members. Authority control GND: 4120145-0 SUDO |
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