Alcohol and cancer
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Alcohol causes cancers of the
oesophagus The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English; both ), non-technically known also as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the ...
,
liver The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...
,
breast The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of a primate's torso. Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. In females, it serves as the mammary gland, which produces and secret ...
, colon,
oral cavity In animal anatomy, the mouth, also known as the oral cavity, or in Latin cavum oris, is the opening through which many animals take in food and issue vocal sounds. It is also the cavity lying at the upper end of the alimentary canal, bounded on t ...
,
rectum The rectum is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the Gastrointestinal tract, gut in others. The adult human rectum is about long, and begins at the rectosigmoid junction (the end of the s ...
,
pharynx The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its st ...
and laryngeal cancers, and probably causes cancers of the pancreas. Consumption of alcohol in any quantity can cause cancer. The more alcohol is consumed, the higher the cancer risk. Alcoholic beverages were classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC; french: Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer, CIRC) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations. Its role is to conduct and ...
(IARC) in 1988. 3.6% of all cancer cases and 3.5% of cancer deaths worldwide are attributable to consumption of alcohol (more specifically, acetaldehyde, a derivative of
ethanol Ethanol (abbr. EtOH; also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound. It is an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol with the chemical formula . Its formula can be also written as or (an ethyl ...
). 740,000 cases of cancer in 2020 or 4.1% of new cancer cases were attributed to alcohol. Alcohol is thought to cause cancer through three main mechanisms: # DNA methylation # Oxidative stress # Hormonal alteration as well as secondary mechanisms of liver cirrhosis,
microbiome A microbiome () is the community of microorganisms that can usually be found living together in any given habitat. It was defined more precisely in 1988 by Whipps ''et al.'' as "a characteristic microbial community occupying a reasonably wel ...
dysbiosis, reduced immune system function, retinoid metabolism, increased levels of inflammation, 1-Carbon metabolism and disruption of
folate Folate, also known as vitamin B9 and folacin, is one of the B vitamins. Manufactured folic acid, which is converted into folate by the body, is used as a dietary supplement and in food fortification as it is more stable during processing and ...
absorption. Heavy drinking consisting of 15 or more drinks per week for men or 8 or more drinks per week for women beverages/week contributed the most to cancer incidence compared with moderate drinking. The rate of alcohol related cases is 3:1 male:female, especially in oesophageal and liver cancers. Some nations have introduced
alcohol packaging warning messages Alcohol packaging warning messages (AWLs) are warning messages that appear on the packaging of alcoholic drinks concerning their health effects. They have been implemented in an effort to enhance the public's awareness of the harmful effects ...
that inform consumers about alcohol and cancer. The alcohol industry has tried to actively mislead the public about the risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, in addition to campaigning to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels.


Epidemiology of alcohol-related cancers


Global Prevalence of Cancer Diagnoses Attributed to Alcohol Consumption

In 2020, approximately 740,000 cases of alcohol-related cancers were identified globally with * 58% of cases (430,000) residing in
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
* 25% of cases (180,000) residing in
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
* 8% of cases (60,000) residing in
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
* 5% of cases (39,000) residing in
Latin America and the Caribbean The term Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is an English-language acronym referring to the Latin American and the Caribbean region. The term LAC covers an extensive region, extending from The Bahamas and Mexico to Argentina and Chile. The ...
* 3% of cases (23,000) residing in
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
* 1% of cases (7,000) residing in regions termed "other." More than three-quarters of the 740,000 cases were in men.


United States

In the
United States of America The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territo ...
, alcohol-related cancer rates were highest in the following states:
Delaware Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Maryland to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state takes its name from the adjacent Del ...
,
Colorado Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of t ...
,
Washington, D.C. ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
,
New Hampshire New Hampshire is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
, and
Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...
. Conversely, alcohol-related cancer rates were lowest in the following states:
Kentucky Kentucky ( , ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States and one of the states of the Upper South. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north; West Virginia and Virginia to ...
,
Arizona Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
,
Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw language, Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the nor ...
,
West Virginia West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian, Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States.The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States while the Bur ...
, and
Utah Utah ( , ) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. Utah is a landlocked U.S. state bordered to its east by Colorado, to its northeast by Wyoming, to its north by Idaho, to its south by Arizona, and to it ...
. From 2013 to 2016, approximately 19,000 (4%) cancer-related deaths in the United States were attributed to alcohol consumption each year, with
breast cancer Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a re ...
and esophageal cancer deaths being the most common in women and men respectively. An estimated 3.2% of cancer deaths in United States were attributed to alcohol consumption. The distribution of mortality by state were consistent with the distribution of incident cases.


Europe

Approximately 10% and 3% of cancer diagnoses in European men and women respectively are attributed to alcohol consumption. Europe: A 2011 study found that one in 10 of all cancers in men and one in 33 in women were caused by past or current alcohol intake.


Australia

Australia: A 2009 study found that 2,100 Australians die from alcohol-related cancer each year.


Alcohol as a carcinogen and cocarcinogen

The
International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC; french: Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer, CIRC) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations. Its role is to conduct and ...
(Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the
World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of h ...
has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, similar to
arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, but ...
,
benzene Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, ...
, and
asbestos Asbestos () is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere b ...
. Its evaluation states, "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans. …Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)." After more epidemiological evidence connecting alcohol and cancers became available the IARC reconvened in 2007. Based on epidemiological studies which revealed cancer risk was independent of the type of alcohol and animal studies which showed increased cancer risk with exposure to ethanol alone, the group determined that the ethanol in alcoholic beverages was carcinogenic to humans. Alcohol was determined to increase the risk of developing breast cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, esophageal cancers, pharyngeal cancer, laryngeal cancer, and oral cancer. In 2009, the group determined that acetaldehyde which is a metabolite of ethanol is also carcinogenic to humans. As of 2021, the 15th report of the US National Toxicology Program (NTP) classifies the consumption of alcoholic beverages as "known to be a human carcinogen" while acetaldehyde is classified as "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen".


Mechanisms


Acetaldehyde

Acetaldehyde is a byproduct of ethanol breakdown in the liver, metabolized by Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), Cytochrome P-450 2E1 and bacterial catalases. The liver then normally eliminates 99% of the acetaldehyde.
ALDH2 Aldehyde dehydrogenase, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''ALDH2'' gene located on chromosome 12. This protein belongs to the aldehyde dehydrogenase family of enzymes. Aldehyde dehydrogenase is the second enzyme of the ...
converts Acetaldehyde into acetate which is a byproduct that can be excreted through the liver. Those with ADH1B*1 have higher rates of conversion of ethanol into Acetaldehyde while, people with ALDH2*2 have a slower conversion rate of acetaldehyde to acetate causing faster build up of acetaldehyde concentrations. 28-45% of east asian populations carry the ALDH2*2 allele. An average liver can process 7 grams of ethanol per hour. For example, it takes 12 hours to eliminate the ethanol in a bottle of wine, giving 12 hours or more of acetaldehyde exposure. The Acetaldehyde motif can bind DNA to alter its physical shape or block repair and synthesis mechanisms to induce mutations, breaks and exchanges . Acetaldehyde and Ethanol both inhibit S-adenosyl-L-methiodine (SAMe) synthesis which is a methyl group transferase.


DNA Methylation DNA methylation is a biological process by which methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule. Methylation can change the activity of a DNA segment without changing the sequence. When located in a gene promoter, DNA methylation typically acts t ...

DNA Methylation is the addition of a methyl group to the carbon-5 of nucleotides. the most common methylation site is onto a cystine preceding guanine nucleotides. This methylation is catalyzed by
DNA methyltransferase In biochemistry, the DNA methyltransferase (DNA MTase, DNMT) family of enzymes catalyze the transfer of a methyl group to DNA. DNA methylation serves a wide variety of biological functions. All the known DNA methyltransferases use S-adenosyl m ...
enzymes taking a methyl group from SAMe. Heavy alcohol consumption is thought to cause epigenetic changes by decreasing the availability of SAMe thereby changing the methylation pattern of DNA causing hypo or hypermethylation resulting in alteration of DNA transcription.


Oxidative Stress Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the systemic manifestation of reactive oxygen species and a biological system's ability to readily Detoxification, detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage. Disturbances ...

Oxidative stress and ROS accumulation is a major player in cancer growth. the metabolism of ethanol by CYP450 2E1 into acetaldehyde has a byproduct of ROS. The presence of ROS in the cellular environment causes lipid peroxidation which can lead to exocyclic adducts. ROS in a tumor microenvironment can also act as an intercellular signal leading to up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factors and monocyte chemotactic protein-1. The accumulation of iron is also found to correlate to alcohol consumption which leads to higher levels of peroxidation and resulting oxidative damage.


Hormonal regulation

High levels of hormones in serum have been associated with heavy alcohol use. Especially Oesterogen and
estradiol Estradiol (E2), also spelled oestradiol, is an estrogen steroid hormone and the major female sex hormone. It is involved in the regulation of the estrous and menstrual female reproductive cycles. Estradiol is responsible for the development of f ...
which can increase transcriptional activity in ER+ cells which promote cell proliferation. Those in pre-menopause using progestin contraceptives have some compensation for the high levels of estradiol, though after menopause those with heavy alcohol consumption have higher risk for breast cancer and estrogen dependent cancers.


Other mechanisms

Additional mechanisms contribute to cancer risk with alcohol consumption. It is thought that heavy alcohol consumption can cause a decrease in
folic acid Folate, also known as vitamin B9 and folacin, is one of the B vitamins. Manufactured folic acid, which is converted into folate by the body, is used as a dietary supplement and in food fortification as it is more stable during processing and ...
availability which can decrease the availability of nucleotides for DNA repair. Additionally ethanol can decrease the conversion of homocysteine to methionine which is an essential amino acid that is part of the formation of SAMe. Increased inflammation due to alcohol consumption can increase various cytokine formations especially
NF-κB Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) is a protein complex that controls transcription of DNA, cytokine production and cell survival. NF-κB is found in almost all animal cell types and is involved in cellular ...
which is a transcription factor. Additionally Alcohol usage is associated with lower Vitamin A levels which causes a reduction in retinoid conversion and signaling. Individuals who both smoke and drink are at a much higher risk of developing mouth, tracheal, and esophageal cancer. Ethanol is thought to potentially be a solvent for carcinogenic factors in smoking. Research has shown their risk of developing these cancers is 35 times higher than in individuals who neither smoke nor drink. This evidence may suggest that there is a cocarcinogenic interaction between alcohol and tobacco-related carcinogens. Individuals who both smoke and drink are at a much higher risk of developing mouth, tracheal, and esophageal cancer. Ethanol is thought to potentially be a solvent for carcinogenic factors in smoking. Research has shown their risk of developing these cancers is 35 times higher than in individuals who neither smoke nor drink. This evidence may suggest that there is a cocarcinogenic interaction between alcohol and tobacco-related carcinogens.


Local carcinogenic effect of ethanol

The risk of cancer associated with alcohol consumption is higher in tissues in closest contact on ingestion of alcohol, such as the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus. This is explained by the fact that ethanol is a proven carcinogen and in addition, metabolite of ethanol (acetaldehyde) produced in the liver is highly carcinogenic, thus explaining both local (mouth, throat, esophageal cancers) as well as distant (skin, liver, breast) cancers. It is well known that ethanol causes cell death at the concentrations present in alcoholic beverages. Few cells survive a one-hour exposure to 5–10% ethanol or a 15-second exposure to 30–40% ethanol in cell culture, where surviving cells might undergo genomic changes leading to carcinogenesis. But recent evidence suggests that the cytotoxic effect of ethanol on the cells lining the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus activates the division of the stem cells located in deeper layers of the mucosa to replace the dead cells. Every time stem cells divide, they become exposed to unavoidable errors associated with cell division (e.g., mutations arising during DNA replication and chromosomal alterations occurring during mitosis) and also become highly vulnerable to the genotoxic activity of DNA-damaging agents (e.g., acetaldehyde and tobacco carcinogens). Alcohol consumption probably increases the risk of developing cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus by promoting the accumulation of cell divisions in the stem cells that maintain these tissues in homeostasis. Because the cytotoxic activity of ethanol is concentration-dependent, the risk of these cancers will not only increase with increasing amounts of ethanol, but also with increasing concentrations; an ounce of whisky is probably more carcinogenic when taken undiluted than when taken mixed with non-alcoholic beverages. The local cytotoxic effect of ethanol may also explain the known synergistic effect of alcohol and tobacco use on the risk of these cancers.


Epithelial-mesenchymal transition

A study found that alcohol stimulates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), in which ordinary cancer cells change into a more aggressive form and begin to spread throughout the body.


Effect of alcohol on the progress of cancer when established

A study of the influence of alcohol intake on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with type C
cirrhosis Cirrhosis, also known as liver cirrhosis or hepatic cirrhosis, and end-stage liver disease, is the impaired liver function caused by the formation of scar tissue known as fibrosis due to damage caused by liver disease. Damage causes tissue rep ...
, found that alcohol influenced tumor volume doubling time (TVDT). A study of chick embryos suggests that alcohol stimulates their tumor growth by fueling the production of a growth factor that stimulates blood vessel development in tumors. A 2006 study in mice showed moderate drinking resulted in larger and stronger tumors via a process known as angiogenesis. A study where high amounts of alcohol were given to mice suggests that it accelerates their cancer growth by speeding up the loss of body fat and depressing immune activity.


Genetic variation and cancer risk

Since acetaldehyde produced from the metabolism of alcohol plays a role in the carcinogenicity induced by alcohol consumption, mutations in the enzymes involved in the production of acetaldehyde can lead to increased cancer risk. These enzymes included Cytochrome P450 2E1 and alcohol dehydrogenase. A study found that "the
ADH1C Alcohol dehydrogenase 1C is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ''ADH1C'' gene. Function This gene encodes class I alcohol dehydrogenase Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) () are a group of dehydrogenase enzymes that occur in many organi ...
*1 allele and genotype ADH1C*1/1 were significantly more frequent in patients with alcohol-related cancers…" A European study has found two gene variants which offer "significant" protection against mouth and throat cancers. Alcohol is a known porphyrinogenic chemical. Several European studies have linked the inherited hepatic
porphyrias Porphyria is a group of liver disorders in which substances called porphyrins build up in the body, negatively affecting the skin or nervous system. The types that affect the nervous system are also known as acute porphyria, as symptoms are ra ...
with a predisposition to hepatocellular carcinoma. Typical risk factors for HCC need not be present with the acute hepatic porphyrias, specifically acute intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria and hereditary coproporphyria.
Porphyria cutanea tarda Porphyria cutanea tarda is the most common subtype of porphyria. The disease is named because it is a porphyria that often presents with skin manifestations later in life. The disorder results from low levels of the enzyme responsible for the fift ...
is also associated with HCC, but with typical risk factors including evidence of hepatotropic viruses, hemochromatosis and alcoholic cirrhosis. Tyrosinemia Type I, an inherited disorder in tyrosine metabolism impacting the second enzyme in the heme metabolic pathway is associated with a high risk of developing HCC in younger populations, including children.


Risk factor for specific cancers


Moderate consumption increases risk

A 2022 study from the
Seoul National University Hospital Seoul National University Hospital (서울대학교병원) is one of the oldest and biggest hospitals in South Korea. It is a general and teaching hospital of Seoul National University's College of Medicine. Its headquarters are in Yongon-dong, Jo ...
, over more than 4.5 million of people, who were screened over 7 years, found that * those who increased alcohol consumption had a higher cancer risk (including, but not limited to, alcohol-related cancers) than those who kept the same level of alcohol intake; * the risk increased "regardless of the baseline drinking level"; notably, non-drinkers who became mild or moderate drinkers also had a risk increase. In the specific case of increasing from no alcohol intake to moderate drinking, "a high incidence of
stomach The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach i ...
,
liver The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...
,
gallbladder In vertebrates, the gallbladder, also known as the cholecyst, is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although ...
and
lung cancer Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma (since about 98–99% of all lung cancers are carcinomas), is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissue (biology), tissues of the lung. Lung carcinomas derive from tran ...
,
multiple myeloma Multiple myeloma (MM), also known as plasma cell myeloma and simply myeloma, is a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white blood cell that normally produces antibodies. Often, no symptoms are noticed initially. As it progresses, bone pain, an ...
and
leukemia Leukemia ( also spelled leukaemia and pronounced ) is a group of blood cancers that usually begin in the bone marrow and result in high numbers of abnormal blood cells. These blood cells are not fully developed and are called ''blasts'' or ' ...
" was found. The study also had some limitations. For example, the participants were all registered at the South Korean National Health Insurance Service, but the study did not take into account alcohol metabolism diseases which are commonly found in East Asia. The participants were not younger than 40. No data was available to account for positive lifestyle and behaviors held during the screening, that may have influenced the cancer risk, nor for the participants' drinking habits that preceded the screening. A prior study found that, "Increasing but moderate alcohol consumption in women was determined to be associated with an increased risk of cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx, esophagus, larynx, rectum, breast, and liver…".


Cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, and larynx

Alcohol consumption at any quantity is a risk factor for cancers of the mouth,
esophagus The esophagus ( American English) or oesophagus (British English; both ), non-technically known also as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to ...
,
pharynx The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the oesophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its st ...
and
larynx The larynx (), commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the top of the neck involved in breathing, producing sound and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. The opening of larynx into pharynx known as the laryngeal inlet is about ...
. The U.S.
National Cancer Institute The National Cancer Institute (NCI) coordinates the United States National Cancer Program and is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is one of eleven agencies that are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ...
states "Drinking alcohol increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, larynx, and liver in men and women, … In general, risks increases above baseline with any alcohol intake (mild; <2 glass of wine per week) and increases significantly with moderate alcohol intake (one glass of wine per day) with highest risk in those with greater than 7 glasses of wine per week. (A drink is defined as 12 ounces of regular beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.5 ounces of 80-proof liquor.) … Also, using alcohol with tobacco is riskier than using either one alone, because it further increases the chances of getting cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus." The federal government's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 defines moderate alcohol drinking as up to one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men. Heavy alcohol drinking is defined as having more than three drinks on any day or more than seven drinks per week for women and more than four drinks on any day or more than 14 drinks per week for men. The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium co-ordinated a meta-study on the issue. A study looking at laryngeal cancer and beverage type concluded, "This study thus indicates that in the Italian population characterized by frequent wine consumption, wine is the beverage most strongly related to the risk of laryngeal cancer." A review of the epidemiological literature published from 1966 to 2006 concluded that: * The risk of esophageal cancer nearly doubled in the first two years following alcohol cessation, a sharp increase that may be due to the fact that some people only stop drinking when they are already experiencing disease symptoms. However, risk then decreased rapidly and significantly after longer periods of abstention. * Risk of head and neck cancer only reduced significantly after 10 years of cessation. * After more than 20 years of alcohol cessation, the risks for both cancers were similar to those seen in people who never drank alcohol. A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of oral cavity and pharynx cancers increases by 1 per 1000. The incidence of cancers of the esophagus and larynx increase by 0.7 per 1000. A 2008 study suggests that acetaldehyde (a breakdown product of alcohol) is implicated in oral cancer.


Breast cancer

Alcohol is a risk factor for breast cancer in women. A woman drinking an average of two units of alcohol per day has an 8% higher risk of developing breast cancer than a woman who drinks an average of one unit of alcohol per day. A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of breast cancer increases by 11 per 1000. Approximately 6% (between 3.2% and 8.8%) of breast cancers reported in the UK each year could be prevented if drinking was reduced to a very low level (i.e. less than 1 unit/week).
Non-Technical Summary
. UK Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment (COC)
Moderate to heavy consumption of alcoholic beverages (at least three to four drinks per week) is associated with a 1.3-fold increased risk of the recurrence of breast cancer. Further, consumption of alcohol at any quantity is associated with significantly increased risk of relapse in breast cancer survivors.


Colorectal cancer

Drinking may be a cause of earlier onset of colorectal cancer. The evidence that alcohol is a cause of bowel cancer is convincing in men and probable in women. The National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute, Cancer Research, the American Cancer Society, the Mayo Clinic, and the Colorectal Cancer Coalition, American Society of Clinical Oncology and the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center list alcohol as a risk factor. A WCRF panel report finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of colorectal cancer in men at consumption levels above 30 grams of absolute alcohol daily. The
National Cancer Institute The National Cancer Institute (NCI) coordinates the United States National Cancer Program and is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is one of eleven agencies that are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ...
states, "Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of colorectal cancer" A 2011 meta-analysis found that alcohol consumption was associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer.


Liver cancer

Alcohol is a risk factor for liver cancer, through cirrhosis. "Cirrhosis results from scar formation within the liver, most commonly due to chronic alcohol use." "Approximately 5 percent of people with cirrhosis develop liver cancer. Cirrhosis is a disease that develops when liver cells are replaced with scar tissue after damage from alcohol abuse, …" The NIAAA reports that "Prolonged, heavy drinking has been associated in many cases with primary liver cancer." However, it is liver cirrhosis, whether caused by alcohol or another factor, that is thought to induce the cancer." "The chances of getting liver cancer increase markedly with five or more drinks per day" (NCI). A study concluded that for every additional drink regularly consumed per day, the incidence of liver cancer increases by 0.7 per 1000. In the United States, liver cancer is relatively uncommon, affecting approximately 2 people per 100,000, but excessive alcohol consumption is linked to as many as 36% of these cases by some investigators. "Overall, 61% of HCC were attributable to HCV epatitis C virus 13% to HBV epatitis B virus and 18% to heavy alcohol drinking." A study in the province of
Brescia Brescia (, locally ; lmo, link=no, label= Lombard, Brèsa ; lat, Brixia; vec, Bressa) is a city and ''comune'' in the region of Lombardy, Northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometers from the lakes Garda and Iseo ...
, northern Italy concluded, "On the basis of population attributable risks (AR), heavy alcohol intake seems to be the single most relevant cause of HCC in this area (AR: 45%), followed by HCV (AR: 36%), and HBV (AR: 22%) infection."


Lung cancer

Alcohol intake of more than 2 drinks per day is associated with a small increased risk of lung cancer. Commenting on a study by Freudenheim ''et al.'', R. Curtis Ellison MD writes, "This study, like others, suggests a weak, positive association between consuming larger amounts of alcohol (>2 drinks a day) and lung cancer risk." However, studies on the relationship between alcohol consumption and lung cancer have yielded conflicting results. Studies are typically impacted by confounding due to factors like smoking which is one of the most significant risk factors for the development of lung cancer. The association of alcohol consumption with lung cancer is unclear.


Skin cancer

Results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and nutrition (EPIC) cohort indicated a positive association between alcohol consumption and skin cancer. Baseline alcohol intake as well as lifetime alcohol consumption were associated with an increased risk of the development of squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, and melanoma in men. There was also an increased risk of these skin cancers in women, but the association wasn't as strong as that seen in men. Any alcohol intake is associated with the development of
malignant melanoma Melanoma, also redundantly known as malignant melanoma, is a type of skin cancer that develops from the Biological pigment, pigment-producing cells known as melanocytes. Melanomas typically occur in the skin, but may rarely occur in the mouth, i ...
.


Stomach cancer

"Statistically significant increases in risk also existed for cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast, and ovaries." "While alcohol has been extensively studied as a cause of stomach cancer there is no conclusive evidence that it increases risk. However, results from at least three studies suggest that heavy alcohol consumption may increase the risk of stomach cancer in heavy smokers." A Taiwanese study concluded, "…cigarette smoking may play the most harmful role in the initial development of gastric cancer, and that drinking alcohol may promote the process." A Norwegian study found that, "No statistically significant associations between various degrees of exposure to alcohol and risk of gastric cancer was revealed, but combined high use of cigarettes (>20/day) and alcohol (>5 occasions/14 days) increased the risk of noncardia gastric cancer nearly 5-fold (HR = 4.90 5% CI = 1.90–12.62, compared to nonusers."


Consumption of 50g or more per day increases risk


Endometrial cancer

Alcohol has been identified as a risk factor for endometrial cancer. Data however, on the association of alcohol intake and endometrial cancer is conflicting. Where data exists for an association low to moderate intake of alcohol, (less than two drinks per day) is not associated with an increased risk but an association has been suggested for higher alcohol intake. "Our results suggest that only alcohol consumption equivalent to 2 or more drinks per day increases risk of endometrial cancer in postmenopausal women." "In conclusion, our results suggest that low alcohol consumption (up to one drink per day) is unlikely to substantially influence risk of endometrial cancer."


Gallbladder cancer

Alcohol has been suggested as a risk factor for gallbladder cancer. Evidence suggests that a high intake of alcohol is associated with gallbladder cancer. Men may be at a higher risk of alcohol-related gallbladder cancer than women.


Ovarian cancer

"Thus, the results of this study suggest that relatively elevated alcohol intake (of the order of 40 g per day or more) may cause a modest increase of epithelial ovarian cancer risk.". "Associations were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the ovary and prostate, but only for 50 g and 100 g a day." "Statistically significant increases in risk also existed for cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast, and ovaries." "Thus, this pooled analysis does not provide support for an association between moderate alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk."


Prostate cancer

"Data from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study showed only a weak association between overall alcohol intake and prostate cancer risk, and no association at all between red wine intake and prostate cancer risk." A meta-analysis published in 2001 found a small but significant increased risk for men drinking more than 50 g/day of alcohol, with a slightly higher risk for men consuming more than 100 g/day. Since that analysis, cohort studies in America have found increased risks for men drinking moderate amounts of spirits, and for 'binge drinkers, but moderate consumption of beer or wine has not been linked to an increased risk. Alcohol consumption of 50 g and 100 g per day is also associated with cancers of the ovary and prostate.Alcohol consumption and cancer risk
However, one study concludes, that moderate alcohol consumption increases the risk of prostate cancer. Liquor, but not wine or beer, consumption was positively associated with prostate cancer." The
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, formerly known as the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and also known as Fred Hutch or The Hutch, is a cancer research institute established in 1975 in Seattle, Washington. History The center grew out o ...
found that men who consumed four or more glasses of red wine per week had a 50 percent reduction in the risk of developing prostate cancer. They "found no significant effects – positive nor negative – associated with the consumption of beer or hard liquor and no consistent risk reduction with white wine, which suggests that there must be a beneficial compound in red wine that other types of alcohol lack. That compound … may be an antioxidant called resveratrol, which is abundant in the skins of red grapes.". A
meta analysis A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. Meta-analyses can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting me ...
of studies published in 2009 found that consumption of only 2 standard drinks per day increased the cancer risk by 20%.


Small intestine cancer

A study of small intestine cancer patients reported that alcohol consumption was associated with adenocarcinomas and malignant carcinoid tumors. "In men and women combined, a significant 3-fold increased risk in heavy drinkers (80+g ethanol/day) relative to more moderate drinkers and non-drinkers was observed." "Alcohol and tobacco consumption did not increase the risk of adenocarcinoma of the small intestine. … While the present data are inconsistent with a major effect of tobacco or alcohol, a moderate association between these factors and small bowel cancer may have been obscured by the play of chance."


Evidence is mixed


Leukemia

Intake of alcohol during pregnancy has been associated with
childhood leukemia Childhood leukemia is leukemia that occurs in a child and is a type of childhood cancer. Childhood leukemia is the most common childhood cancer, accounting for 29% of cancers in children aged 0–14 in 2018. There are multiple forms of leukemia t ...
. A review published by the National Cancer Institute placed maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy in the category of "suggestive" but concluded that the risk was not important. ;Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) For ALL in children, maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy is "unlikely to be an important risk factor for ALL"Malcolm A. Smith, Lynn A. Gloeckler Ries, James G. Gurney, Julie A. Ros

National Cancer Institute 34 SEER Pediatric Monograph
;Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) A study concluded, "In conclusion, even though our study did not show a clear association between alcohol intake and leukemia risk, some of the patterns of the risk estimates (a possible J-shaped dose-response curve between alcohol intake and ALL, AML, and CLL risks, and the positive association between alcohol and CML), may be suggestive." ;Childhood AML "Three studies have reported an increased risk (approximately 1.5-2 fold) in mothers who drank alcoholic beverages during pregnancy. These associations have been particularly apparent in children diagnosed younger than three years of age.". "Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy increases the risk of infant leukemia, especially AML." ;Acute non-lymphocytic leukemia (ANLL) A study found that intrauterine exposure to alcohol doubled the risk for childhood ANLL. ;Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) A study concluded, "In conclusion, even though our study did not show a clear association between alcohol intake and leukemia risk, some of the patterns of the risk estimates (a possible J-shaped dose-response curve between alcohol intake and ALL, AML, and CLL risks, and the positive association between alcohol and CML), may be suggestive." ;Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) A population-based case-control study in Italy found a non-significant positive association between drinking and CML. ;Hairy cell leukemia A study concluded, "There was no association found for cigarette smoking, alcohol or coffee consumption and hairy cell leukemia."


Multiple myeloma (MM)

Alcohol has been suggested as a possible cause of multiple myeloma, although a study found no association between MM in a comparison study between drinkers and non-drinkers.


Pancreatic cancer

Whilst the association between alcohol abuse and pancreatitis is well established the association between alcohol consumption and
pancreatic cancer Pancreatic cancer arises when cell (biology), cells in the pancreas, a glandular organ behind the stomach, begin to multiply out of control and form a Neoplasm, mass. These cancerous cells have the malignant, ability to invade other parts of t ...
is less clear. Overall the evidence suggests a slightly increased risk of pancreatic cancer with chronic heavy alcohol consumption but the evidence remains conflicting with a number of studies finding no association., but no increased risk for people consuming up to 30g of alcohol a day Overall, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association. Although drinking alcohol excessively is a major cause of chronic pancreatitis, which in turn predisposes to pancreatic cancer, chronic pancreatitis associated with alcohol consumption is less frequently a precursor for pancreatic cancer than other types of chronic pancreatitis.Pancreatic cancer risks and causes
Cancer Research UK Cancer Research UK (CRUK) is the world's largest independent cancer research organization. It is registered as a charity in the United Kingdom and Isle of Man, and was formed on 4 February 2002 by the merger of The Cancer Research Campaign and t ...
Some studies suggest a relationship, the risk increasing with increasing amount of alcohol intake. The risk is greatest in heavy drinkers, mostly on the order of four or more drinks per day. There appears to be no increased risk for people consuming up to 30g of alcohol a day, which is approximately 2 alcoholic beverages/day, so most people who take alcohol do so at a level that "is probably not a risk factor for pancreatic cancer". A pooled analysis concluded, "Our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of pancreatic cancer with consumption of 30 or more grams of alcohol per day". Several studies caution that their findings could be due to confounding factors. Even if a link exists, it "could be due to the contents of some alcoholic beverages" other than the alcohol itself. One Dutch study even found that drinkers of white wine had lower risk. "About 7 out of 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis are due to long term heavy drinking. Chronic pancreatitis is a known risk factor for cancer of the pancreas. But chronic pancreatitis that is due to alcohol doesn't increase risk as much as other types of chronic pancreatitis. So if there is a link with alcohol and pancreatic cancer risk, it is only very slight." "Our findings indicate that alcohol drinking at the levels typically consumed by the general population of the United States is probably not a risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Our data suggest, however, that heavy alcohol drinking may be related to pancreatic cancer risk." "Relative risks of pancreatic cancer increased with the amount of alcohol consumed (Ptrend = 0.11) after adjustment for age, smoking status, and pack-years of smoking." "Alcoholics had only a modest 40% excess risk of pancreatic cancer … The excess risk for pancreatic cancer among alcoholics is small and could conceivably be attributed to confounding by smoking." "It was shown that the relative risk of cancer of the pancreas increases with fat and alcohol intakes, … Alcohol may be not directly involved in the aetiology of cancer of the pancreas: its effect could be due to the contents of some alcoholic beverages." "When compared with data from non-drinkers, the cumulative lifetime consumption of all types of alcohol in grams of ethanol… beer, spirits, red wine and fortified wine was not related to risk. The consumption of white wine was inversely associated with risk…. The uniformly reduced risk estimates for the lifetime number of drinks of white wine were based on small numbers…." "For the most part, consumption of total alcohol, wine, liquor and beer was not associated with pancreatic cancer." "Data from these two large cohorts do not support any overall association between coffee intake or alcohol intake and risk of pancreatic cancer." "Our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of pancreatic cancer with consumption of 30 or more grams of alcohol per day."


Not suspected to increase risk

This section lists cancers where alcohol is not listed as a risk factor and where papers have been published.


Childhood astrocytoma

A study concluded that foetal exposure to alcohol is not associated with childhood astrocytoma.


Bile duct cancer

A review of the literature found that there is no association between alcohol use and
bile duct cancer Cholangiocarcinoma, also known as bile duct cancer, is a type of cancer that forms in the bile ducts. Symptoms of cholangiocarcinoma may include abdominal pain, yellowish skin, weight loss, generalized itching, and fever. Light colored stool ...
.


Bladder cancer

"Epidemiological data on alcohol drinking and bladder cancer are suggestive of no association, although findings were not always consistent. For both habits, an explanation of the moderate increase in risk observed in some investigations might be attributed to residual confounding by smoking, or to an association between alcohol, coffee, and yet unidentified risk factors for bladder cancer."


Cervical cancer

A study concluded "that alcoholic women are at high risk for ''in situ'' and invasive cervical cancer" but attributed this to indirect, lifestyle-related reasons.


Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) breast cancer

"DCIS patients and control subjects did not differ with respect to oral contraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy, alcohol consumption or smoking history, or breast self-examination. Associations for LCIS were similar."


Ependymoma

A review of the basic literature found that consumption of beer was associated with increased risk in one study but not in another


Intraocular and uveal melanomas

A study found no association between alcohol and uveal melanoma.


Nasopharynageal cancer / Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC)

A
systematic review A systematic review is a Literature review, scholarly synthesis of the evidence on a clearly presented topic using critical methods to identify, define and assess research on the topic. A systematic review extracts and interprets data from publ ...
found evidence that light drinking may decrease the risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma whereas high intake of alcohol may increase the risk.


Neuroblastoma

A few studies have indicated an increased risk of neuroblastoma with use of alcohol during pregnancy.


Salivary gland cancer (SGC)

Alcohol use is associated with an increased risk of salivary gland cancer.


Testicular cancer

A review concluded that "There is no firm evidence of a causal relation between behavior risks obacco, alcohol and dietand testicular cancer."


Thyroid cancer

A 2009 review found that alcohol intake does not affect the risk of developing thyroid cancer. However, a 2009 study of 490,000 men and women concluded that alcohol may reduce the risk of thyroid cancer. A 2009 study of 1,280,296 women in the United Kingdom concluded, "The decreased risk for thyroid cancer that we find to be associated with alcohol intake is consistent with results from some studies, although a meta-analysis of 10 case–control studies and two other cohort studies reported no statistically significant associations."


Vaginal cancer

A Danish study found that "Abstinence from alcohol consumption was associated with low risk for both VV-SCCvagina and VV-SCCvulva in our study." A study concluded that alcoholic women are at high risk for cancer of the vagina. In both studies, indirect, lifestyle-related reasons were cited.


Vulvar cancer

One study reported "No consistent association emerged between milk, meat, liver, alcohol and coffee consumption and risk of vulvar cancer." A Danish study found the reverse, that alcohol consumption is significantly associated with VV-SCCvagina and VV-SCCvulva cancer. A Swedish study concluded that alcoholic women are at no higher risk for cancer of the vulva.


Might reduce risk


Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL)

A study concluded, "The results of this large-scale European study … suggested a protective effect of alcohol on development of NHL for men and in non-Mediterranean countries." A population based case-control study in Germany found that alcohol reduced the risk of HL for both men and women but more so for men, whose risk was lowered by 53%. A population-based case-control study in Italy reported a protective effect of alcohol consumption on risk of HL among non-smokers. Analysis of data from a series of case-control studies in Northern Italy revealed a modest positive effect of alcohol on lowering risk of HL among both smokers and non-smokers. A study considering more than 1 million American women found that increasing levels of alcohol consumption were associated with a decreased risk of Hodgkin's Lymphoma.


Kidney cancer (Renal cell carcinoma) (RCC)

"Moderate alcohol consumption was associated with a lower risk of renal cell cancer among both women and men in this pooled analysis" "This pooled analysis found an inverse association between alcohol drinking and RCC. Risks continued to decrease even above eight drinks per day (i.e. >100 g/day) of alcohol intake, with no apparent levelling in risk." A study concluded, "Results from our prospective cohort study of middle-aged and elderly women indicate that moderate alcohol consumption may be associated with decreased risk of RCC." Researchers who conducted a study in Iowa reported that "In this population-based case-control investigation, we report further evidence that alcohol consumption decreases the risk of RCC among women but not among men. Our ability to show that the association remains after multivariate adjustment for several new confounding factors (i.e., diet, physical activity, and family history) strengthens support for a true association. Another study found no relationship between alcohol consumption and risk of kidney cancer among either men or women. A Finnish study concluded, "These data suggest that alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of RCC in male smokers. Because most of the risk reductions were seen at the highest quartile of alcohol intake and alcohol is a risk factor for a number of cancers particularly among smokers, these data should be interpreted with caution." "Our data suggest an inverse association between alcohol intake and risk of renal cell cancer…" Compared with nondrinkers, men who drank one or more drinks per day had a 31% lower risk of kidney cancer among 161,126 Hawaii-Los Angeles Multiethnic Cohort participants. A study considering more than 1 million American women found that increasing levels of alcohol consumption were associated with a decreased risk of renal cancer.


Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)

A study concluded, "People who drink alcoholic beverages might have a lower risk of NHL than those who do not, and this risk might vary by NHL subtype." "Compared with nondrinkers, alcohol consumers had a lower risk for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma overall … and for its main subtypes." A study concluded, "Nonusers of alcohol had an elevated NHL risk compared with users…" Some studies have found a protective effect on NHL of drinking some forms of alcoholic beverage or in some demographic groups. A study of men in the US found that consumption of wine, but not beer or spirits, was associated with a reduced NHL risk and a large European study found a protective effect of alcohol among men and in non-Mediterranean countries.." A study of older women in Iowa found alcohol to reduce the risk of NHL and the amount of alcohol consumed, rather than the type of alcoholic beverages, appeared to be the main determinant in reducing risk." A possible mechanism has been suggested. Some studies have not found a protective effect from drinking. British research found no association between frequency of drinking and NHL and research in Sweden found that total beer, wine, or liquor intake was not associated with any major subtype of NHL examined, apart from an association between high wine consumption and increased risk of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.." One study of NHL patients concluded, "Our findings strongly encourage physicians to advise NHL patients to stop smoking and diminish alcohol consumption to obtain improvements in the course of NHL." A study considering more than 1 million American women found that increasing levels of alcohol consumption were associated with a decreased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.


Recommended maximum alcohol intake

As outlined above, there is no recommended alcohol intake with respect to cancer risk alone as it varies with each individual cancer. See Recommended maximum intake of alcoholic beverages for a list of governments' guidances on alcohol intake which, for a healthy man, range from 140–280g per week. One meta-analysis suggests that risks of cancers may start below the recommended levels. "Risk increased significantly for drinkers, compared with non-drinkers, beginning at an intake of 25 g (< 2 standard drinks) per day for the following: cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx (relative risk, RR, 1.9), esophagus (RR 1.4), larynx (RR 1.4), breast (RR 1.3), liver (RR 1.2), colon (RR 1.1), and rectum (RR 1.1)" World Cancer Research Fund recommends that people aim to limit consumption to less than two drinks a day for a man and less than one drink a day for a woman. It defines a "drink" as containing about 10–15 grams of ethanol.World Cancer Research Fund, Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective, http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/


Alcohol industry manipulation of the science on alcohol and cancer

A study published in 2017 has found that front organisations set up by the world's leading alcohol companies are actively misleading the public about the risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption. The study drew parallels with the long-standing activities of the tobacco industry. It also claimed that there was a particular focus on misleading women drinkers, because much of the misinformation about cancer produced by these companies was found to be focused on breast cancer. The alcohol industry around the world has also campaigned to remove laws that require alcoholic beverages to have cancer warning labels. A 2019 survey conducted by the
American Institute for Cancer Research The American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) is a large American cancer research organization associated with the World Cancer Research Fund umbrella organization An umbrella organization is an association of (often related, industry-spec ...
(AICR) showed that only 45% of Americans were aware of the associated risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, up from 39% in 2017. The AICR believes that alcohol-related advertisements about the healthy cardiovascular benefits of modest alcohol overshadow messages about the increased cancer risks.


References


External links

* International:
International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC; french: Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer, CIRC) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations. Its role is to conduct and ...
br>home page
* International Agency for Research on Cancer
IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Volume 44 Alcohol Drinking: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation
* IAR
Alcoholic beverages (Group 1) Ethanol in alcoholic beverages (Group 1) VOL.: 96 5. Summary of Data Reported
* Australia: ''Cancer Control Bulletin'
Alcohol and cancer risk
* Australia
POSITION STATEMENT: Alcohol and Cancer Prevention
* Australia: Cancer Institute NSW
Alcohol as a cause of Cancer
(PDF format) * Canada:
Public Health Agency of Canada The Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC; french: Agence de la santé publique du Canada, ASPC) is an agency of the Government of Canada that is responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic dis ...
/ Agence de santé publique du Canad
Review of Lifestyle and Environmental Risk Factors for Breast Cancer
(Contents and Introduction
PDF
(full report in PDF format) * UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Product

* UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Product

* UK: ttp://www.nhs.uk/news/2009/02February/Pages/Alcoholcancerrisk.aspx Cancer risk of drinking* US:
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), as part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, supports and conducts biomedical and behavioural research on the causes, consequences, treatment, and prevention of alcoholism ...
br>Alcohol Alert No. 21-1993 Alcohol and cancer
* US
National Cancer Institute
* US: National Toxicology Program ''Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition'
Alcoholic Beverage Consumption
(PDF) * US: Ohio Department of Healt
Alcohol and cancer
(PDF format) ;Other sites * Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition Alcohol Work Grou
Report on the Links between Alcohol and Cancer
(PDF format)


Even small amounts of alcohol increase a woman's risk of cancer
;Science and medical sites *
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, formerly known as the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and also known as Fred Hutch or The Hutch, is a cancer research institute established in 1975 in Seattle, Washington. History The center grew out o ...
br>Alcohol Use Increases the Risk of Hormonally Sensitive Breast Cancers in Postmenopausal Women

Alcohol, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer: Treat With Caution
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alcohol And Cancer
Cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...
Cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...
Cancer research Carcinogens IARC Group 1 carcinogens Risk factors Cancer