Personification occurs when a thing or abstraction is represented as a person, in literature or art, as a type of
anthropomorphic
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
. The type of personification discussed here excludes passing literary effects such as "Shadows hold their breath", and covers cases where a personification appears as a character in literature, or a human figure in art. The technical term for this, since
ancient Greece
Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
, is
prosopopoeia. In the arts many things are commonly personified. These include numerous types of places, especially cities,
countries
A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. It may be a sovereign state or make up one part of a larger state. For example, the country of Japan is an independent, sovereign state, while th ...
and the
four continents, elements of the natural world such as the months or
Four Seasons,
Four Elements,
Four Winds,
Five Senses
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the central nervous system rec ...
, and abstractions such as virtues, especially the four
cardinal virtues
The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term ''cardinal'' comes from the ...
and
seven deadly sins
The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices within Christian teachings. Although they are not directly mentioned in the Bible, there are parallels with the seven things ...
, the nine
Muses, or
death.
In many
polytheistic early religions,
deities had a strong element of personification, suggested by descriptions such as "god of". In
ancient Greek religion
Religious practices in ancient Greece encompassed a collection of beliefs, rituals, and mythology, in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. The application of the modern concept of "religion" to ancient cultures has been ...
, and the related
ancient Roman religion
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
, this was perhaps especially strong, in particular among the minor deities. Many such deities, such as the or
tutelary deities for major cities, survived the arrival of
Christianity, now as symbolic personifications stripped of religious significance. An exception was the winged
goddess of Victory, Victoria/
Nike, who developed into the visualization of the Christian angel.
Generally, personifications lack much in the way of narrative
myths, although
classical myth
Classical mythology, Greco-Roman mythology, or Greek and Roman mythology is both the body of and the study of myths from the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans as they are used or transformed by cultural reception. Along with philosophy and polit ...
at least gave many of them parents among the
major Olympian deities. The
iconography of several personifications "maintained a remarkable degree of continuity from late antiquity until the 18th century". Female personifications tend to outnumber male ones, at least until modern
national personification
A national personification is an anthropomorphic personification of a state or the people(s) it inhabits. It may appear in political cartoons and propaganda.
Some early personifications in the Western world tended to be national manifestations o ...
s, many of which are male.
Personifications are very common elements in
allegory
As a literary device or artistic form, an allegory is a narrative or visual representation in which a character, place, or event can be interpreted to represent a hidden meaning with moral or political significance. Authors have used allegory t ...
, and historians and theorists of personification complain that the two have been too often confused, or discussion of them dominated by allegory. Single images of personifications tend to be titled as an "allegory", arguably incorrectly. By the late 20th century personification seemed largely out of fashion, but the semi-personificatory
superhero figures of many
comic book
A comic book, also called comicbook, comic magazine or (in the United Kingdom and Ireland) simply comic, is a publication that consists of comics art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are oft ...
series came in the 21st century to dominate popular cinema in a number of
superhero film franchises.
According to
Ernst Gombrich, "we tend to take it for granted rather than to ask questions about this extraordinary predominantly feminine population which greets us from the porches of cathedrals, crowds around our public monuments, marks our coins and our banknotes, and turns up in our cartoons and our posters; these females variously attired, of course, came to life on the medieval stage, they greeted the Prince on his entry into a city, they were invoked in innumerable speeches, they quarrelled or embraced in endless epics where they struggled for the soul of the hero or set the action going, and when the medieval versifier went out on one fine spring morning and lay down on a grassy bank, one of these ladies rarely failed to appear to him in his sleep and to explain her own nature to him in any number of lines".
History
Classical world
Personification as an artistic device is easier to discuss when belief in the personification as an actual spiritual being has died down; this seems to have happened in the ancient Graeco-Roman world, probably even before
Christianization
Christianization ( or Christianisation) is to make Christian; to imbue with Christian principles; to become Christian. It can apply to the conversion of an individual, a practice, a place or a whole society. It began in the Roman Empire, conti ...
. In other cultures, especially
Hinduism and
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, many personification figures still retain their religious significance, which is why they are not covered here. For example
Bharat Mata
Bhārat Mātā ( Mother India in English) is a national personification of India (Bharat ) as a mother goddess. In the visual arts she is commonly depicted dressed in a red or saffron-coloured sari and holding a national flag; she sometimes s ...
was devised as a Hindu goddess figure to act as a national personification by intellectuals in the
Indian independence movement
The Indian independence movement was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending British rule in India. It lasted from 1857 to 1947.
The first nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian independence emerged from Bengal. ...
from the 1870s, but now has some actual
Hindu temple
A Hindu temple, or ''mandir'' or ''koil'' in Indian languages, is a house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together through worship, sacrifice, and devotion.; Quote: "The Hind ...
s.
Personification is found very widely in classical literature, art and drama, as well as the treatment of personifications as relatively minor deities, or the rather variable category of
daemons. In classical Athens, every geographical division of the state for local government purposes had a personified deity which received some cultic attention, as well as ''Demos'', a male personification for the governing assembly of free citizens, and ''
Boule'', a female one for the ruling council. These appear in art, but are often hard to identify if not labelled.
Personification in the Bible is mostly limited to passing phrases which can probably be regarded as literary flourishes, with the important and much-discussed exception of
Wisdom in the
Book of Proverbs
The Book of Proverbs ( he, מִשְלֵי, , "Proverbs (of Solomon)") is a book in the third section (called Ketuvim) of the Hebrew Bible and a book of the Christian Old Testament. When translated into Greek and Latin, the title took on differen ...
, 1–9, where a female personification is treated at some length, and makes speeches. The
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are figures in the Christian scriptures, first appearing in the Book of Revelation, a piece of apocalypse literature written by John of Patmos.
Revelation 6 tells of a book or scroll in God's right hand ...
from the
Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament (and consequently the final book of the Christian Bible). Its title is derived from the first word of the Koine Greek text: , meaning "unveiling" or "revelation". The Book of ...
can be regarded as personification figures, although the text does not specify what all personify.
According to James J. Paxson in his book on the subject "''all'' personification figures prior to the sixth century A.D. were ... female"; but major rivers have male personifications much earlier, and are more often male, which often extends to "Water" in the
Four Elements. The predominance of females is at least partly because
Latin grammar gives nouns for abstractions the female gender.
Pairs of
winged victories decorated the
spandrels of Roman
triumphal arches and similar spaces, and
ancient Roman coinage
Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage. From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denom ...
was an especially rich source of images, many carrying their name, which was helpful for medieval and Renaissance antiquarians. Sets of representing the major cities of the empire were used in the
decorative arts
]
The decorative arts are arts or crafts whose object is the design and manufacture of objects that are both beautiful and functional. It includes most of the arts making objects for the interiors of buildings, and interior design, but not usua ...
. Most imaginable virtues and virtually every
Roman province was personified on coins at some point, the provinces often initially seated dejected as "CAPTA" ("taken") after its conquest, and later standing, creating images such as
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
that were often revived in the Renaissance or later.
Lucian (2nd century AD) records a detailed description of a lost painting by
Apelles
Apelles of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἀπελλῆς; fl. 4th century BC) was a renowned painter of ancient Greece. Pliny the Elder, to whom much of modern scholars' knowledge of this artist is owed (''Naturalis Historia'' 35.36.79–97 and ''passim'') ...
(4th century BC) called the ''Calumny of Apelles'', which some Renaissance painters followed,
most famously Botticelli. This included eight personifications of virtues and vices: Hope, Repentance, Perfidy, Calumny, Fraud, Rancour, Ignorance, Suspicion, as well as two other figures.
Platonism
Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary platonists do not necessarily accept all of the doctrines of Plato. Platonism had a profound effect on Western thought. Platonism at le ...
, which in some manifestations proposed systems involving numbers of spirits, was
naturally conducive to personification and allegory, and is an influence on the uses of it from classical times through various revivals up to the
Baroque
The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including th ...
period.
Literature
According to Andrew Escobedo, “literary personification marshalls inanimate things, such as passions, abstract ideas, and rivers, and makes them perform actions in the landscape of the narrative.” He dates “the rise and fall of its
ersonification'sliterary popularity” to "roughly, between the fifth and seventeenth centuries". Late antique philosophical books that made heavy use of personification and were specially influential in the
Middle Ages included the ''
Psychomachia
The ''Psychomachia'' (''Battle of Spirits'' or ''Soul War'') is a poem by the Late Antique Latin poet Prudentius, from the early fifth century AD. It has been considered to be the first and most influential "pure" medieval allegory, the first i ...
'' of
Prudentius
Aurelius Prudentius Clemens () was a Roman Christian poet, born in the Roman province of Tarraconensis (now Northern Spain) in 348.H. J. Rose, ''A Handbook of Classical Literature'' (1967) p. 508 He probably died in the Iberian Peninsula some tim ...
(early 5th century), with an elaborate plot centred around battles between the virtues and vices, and ''
The Consolation of Philosophy
''On the Consolation of Philosophy'' ('' la, De consolatione philosophiae'')'','' often titled as ''The Consolation of Philosophy'' or simply the ''Consolation,'' is a philosophical work by the Roman statesman Boethius. Written in 523 while he ...
'' (c. 524) by
Boethius
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, commonly known as Boethius (; Latin: ''Boetius''; 480 – 524 AD), was a Roman senator, consul, ''magister officiorum'', historian, and philosopher of the Early Middle Ages. He was a central figure in the tra ...
, which takes the form of a dialogue between the author and "Lady Philosophy".
Fortuna and the
Wheel of Fortune were prominent and memorable in this, which helped to make the latter a favourite medieval trope. Both authors were Christians, and the origins in the pagan classical religions of the standard range of personifications had been left well behind.
A medieval creation was the
Four Daughters of God, a shortened group of virtues consisting of: Truth, Righteousness or Justice, Mercy, and Peace. There were also the
seven virtues, made up of the four classical
cardinal virtues
The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term ''cardinal'' comes from the ...
of
prudence,
justice
Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
,
temperance
Temperance may refer to:
Moderation
*Temperance movement, movement to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed
*Temperance (virtue), habitual moderation in the indulgence of a natural appetite or passion
Culture
* Temperance (group), Canadian dan ...
and
courage
Courage (also called bravery or valor) is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Valor is courage or bravery, especially in battle.
Physical courage is bravery in the face of physical pain, ...
(or fortitude), these going back to
Plato's ''
Republic'', with the three
theological virtues of
faith,
hope
Hope is an optimistic state of mind that is based on an expectation of positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in one's life or the world at large.
As a verb, its definitions include: "expect with confidence" and "to cherish ...
and
charity
Charity may refer to:
Giving
* Charitable organization or charity, a non-profit organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being of persons
* Charity (practice), the practice of being benevolent, giving and sharing
* C ...
. The
seven deadly sins
The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, is a grouping and classification of vices within Christian teachings. Although they are not directly mentioned in the Bible, there are parallels with the seven things ...
were their counterparts.
The major works of
Middle English literature had many personification characters, and often formed what are called "personification allegories" where the whole work is an allegory, largely driven by personifications. These include ''
Piers Plowman'' by
William Langland ( c. 1370–90), where most of the characters are clear personifications named as their qualities, and several works by
Geoffrey Chaucer, such as ''
The House of Fame'' (1379–80). However, Chaucer tends to take his personifications in the direction of being more complex characters and give them different names, as when he adapts part of the French ''
Roman de la Rose
''Le Roman de la Rose'' (''The Romance of the Rose'') is a medieval poem written in Old French and presented as an allegorical dream vision. As poetry, ''The Romance of the Rose'' is a notable instance of courtly literature, purporting to pro ...
'' (13th century). The English
mystery plays and the later
morality plays have many personifications as characters, alongside their biblical figures.
Frau Minne, the spirit of
courtly love
Courtly love ( oc, fin'amor ; french: amour courtois ) was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and performing var ...
in German medieval literature, had equivalents in other vernaculars.
In
Italian literature Petrach's ''
Triomphi'', finished in 1374, is based around a procession of personifications carried on "cars", as was becoming fashionable in courtly festivities; it was illustrated by many different artists.
Dante has several personification characters, but prefers using real persons to represent most sins and virtues.
In
Elizabethan literature many of the characters in
Edmund Spenser's enormous epic ''
The Faerie Queene'', though given different names, are effectively personifications, especially of virtues. ''
The Pilgrim's Progress'' (1678) by
John Bunyan was the last great personification allegory in English literature, from a strongly Protestant position (though see Thomson's ''Liberty'' below). A work like
Shelley's ''
The Triumph of Life
''The Triumph of Life'' was the last major work by Percy Bysshe Shelley before his death in 1822.Sandy, Mark. "The Triumph of Life". The Literary Encyclopedia. First published 20 September 2002 http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&UID= ...
'', unfinished at his death in 1822, which to many earlier writers would have called for personifications to be included, avoids them, as does most Romantic literature, apart from that of
William Blake. Leading critics had begun to complain about personification in the 18th century, and such "complaints only grow louder in the nineteenth century". According to Andrew Escobedo, there is now "an unstated scholarly consensus" that "personification is a kind of frozen or hollow version of literal characters", which "depletes the fiction".
Visual arts
Personifications, often in sets, frequently appear in
medieval art, often illustrating or following literary works. The virtues and vices were probably the most common, and the virtues appear in many large sculptural programmes, for example the exteriors of
Chartres Cathedral
Chartres Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres (french: Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Chartres), is a Roman Catholic church in Chartres, France, about southwest of Paris, and is the seat of the Bishop of Chartres. Mostly co ...
and
Amiens Cathedral. In painting, both virtues and vices are personified along the lowest zone of the walls of the
Scrovegni Chapel
The Scrovegni Chapel ( it, Cappella degli Scrovegni ), also known as the Arena Chapel, is a small church, adjacent to the Augustinian monastery, the ''Monastero degli Eremitani'' in Padua, region of Veneto, Italy. The chapel and monastery ...
by
Giotto (c. 1305), and are the main figures in
Ambrogio Lorenzetti
Ambrogio Lorenzetti (; – 9 June 1348) or Ambruogio Laurati was an Italian painter of the Sienese school. He was active from approximately 1317 to 1348. He painted ''The Allegory of Good and Bad Government'' in the Sala dei Nove (Salon of Nine ...
's ''
Allegory of Good and Bad Government'' (1338–39) in the
Palazzo Pubblico of
Siena
Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena.
The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centuri ...
. In the ''Allegory of Bad Government'' Tyranny is enthroned, with Avarice, Pride, and Vainglory above him. Beside him on the magistrate's bench sit Cruelty, Deceit, Fraud, Fury, Division, and War, while Justice lies tightly bound below. The so-called ''
Mantegna Tarocchi
The Mantegna Tarocchi, also known as the Tarocchi Cards, Tarocchi in the style of Mantegna, Baldini Cards, are two different sets each of fifty 15th-century Italian old master prints in engraving, by two different unknown artists. The sets are k ...
'' (c. 1465–75) are sets of fifty educational cards depicting personifications of social classes, the planets and heavenly bodies, and also social classes.
A new pair, once common on the portals of large churches, are
Ecclesia and Synagoga
Ecclesia and Synagoga, or Ecclesia et Synagoga in Latin, meaning "Church and Synagogue", are a pair of figures personifying the Church and the Jewish synagogue, that is to say Judaism, found in medieval Christian art. They often appear sculpted ...
. Death envisaged as a skeleton, often with a
scythe
A scythe ( ) is an agricultural hand tool for mowing grass or harvesting crops. It is historically used to cut down or reap edible grains, before the process of threshing. The scythe has been largely replaced by horse-drawn and then tractor m ...
and
hour-glass
An hourglass (or sandglass, sand timer, sand clock or egg timer) is a device used to measure the passage of time. It comprises two glass bulbs connected vertically by a narrow neck that allows a regulated flow of a substance (historically sand) ...
, is a late medieval innovation, that became very common after the
Black Death
The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353. It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing ...
. However, it is rarely seen in
funerary art "before the
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) ...
".
When not illustrating literary texts, or following a classical model as Botticelli does, personifications in art tend to be relatively static, and found together in sets, whether of statues decorating buildings or paintings, prints or media such as porcelain figures. Sometimes one or more virtues take on and invariably conquer vices. Other paintings by Botticelli are exceptions to such simple compositions, in particular his ''
Primavera'' and ''
The Birth of Venus'', in both of which several figures form complex allegories. An unusually powerful single personification figure is depicted in ''
Melencolia I'' (1514) an
engraving by
Albrecht Dürer
Albrecht Dürer (; ; hu, Ajtósi Adalbert; 21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528),Müller, Peter O. (1993) ''Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Dürers'', Walter de Gruyter. . sometimes spelled in English as Durer (without an umlaut) or Due ...
. ''
Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time
''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'' (also called ''An Allegory of Venus and Cupid'' and ''A Triumph of Venus'') is an allegorical painting of about 1545 by the Florentine painter Agnolo Bronzino. It is now in the National Gallery, London. Scholars d ...
'' (c. 1545) by
Agnolo Bronzino
Agnolo di Cosimo (; 17 November 150323 November 1572), usually known as Bronzino ( it, Il Bronzino ) or Agnolo Bronzino, was an Italian Mannerist painter from Florence. His sobriquet, ''Bronzino'', may refer to his relatively dark skin or reddis ...
has five personifications, apart from Venus and Cupid. In all these cases, the meaning of the work remains uncertain, despite intensive academic discussion, and even the identity of the figures continues to be argued over.
Theory
Around 300 BC,
Demetrius of Phalerum is the first writer on
rhetoric to describe prosopopoeia, which was already a well-established device in rhetoric and literature, from
Homer onwards.
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (; 35 – 100 AD) was a Roman educator and rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian ...
's lengthy ''
Institutio Oratoria
''Institutio Oratoria'' (English: Institutes of Oratory) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 AD. The work deals also with the foundational education ...
'' gives a comprehensive account, and a
taxonomy of common personifications; no more comprehensive account was written until after the Renaissance. The main
Renaissance humanist
Renaissance humanism was a revival in the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. During the period, the term ''humanist'' ( it, umanista) referred to teache ...
s to deal with the subject at length were
Erasmus in his ''
De copia'' and
Petrus Mosellanus in ''Tabulae de schematibus et tropis'', who were copied by other writers throughout the 16th century.
From the late 16th century theoretical writers such as
Karel van Mander in his ''
Schilder-boeck
or is a book written by the Flemish writer and painter Karel van Mander first published in 1604 in Haarlem in the Dutch Republic, where van Mander resided. The book is written in 17th-century Dutch and its title is commonly translated into Engl ...
'' (1604) began to treat personification in terms of the
visual arts
The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts a ...
. At the same time the
emblem book, describing and illustrating emblematic images that were largely personifications, became enormously popular, both with intellectuals and artists and craftsmen looking for motifs. The most famous of these was the ''Iconologia'' of
Cesare Ripa
Cesare Ripa (c. 1555, Perugia – Rome) was an Italian iconographer who worked for Cardinal Anton Maria Salviati as a cook and butler.
Life
Little is known about his life. He was born of humble origin in Perugia about 1555. The exact date ...
, first published unillustrated in 1593, but from 1603 published in many different illustrated editions, using different artists. This set at least the identifying attributes carried by many personifications until the 19th century.
From the 20th century into the 21st, the past use of personification has received greatly increased critical attention, just as the artistic practice of it has greatly declined. Among a number of key works, ''
The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition'' (
1936
Events
January–February
* January 20 – George V of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India, dies at his Sandringham Estate. The Prince of Wales succeeds to the throne of the United Kingdom as King E ...
), by
C. S. Lewis
Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College, 1925–1954) and Cambridge Univer ...
was an exploration of
courtly love
Courtly love ( oc, fin'amor ; french: amour courtois ) was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and performing var ...
in medieval and Renaissance literature.
Innovation
The classical repertoire of virtues, seasons, cities and so forth supplied the majority of subjects until the 19th century, but some new personifications became required. The 16th century saw the new
personification of the Americas, and made the
four continents an appealing new set, four figures being better suited to many contexts than three. The 18th-century discovery of Australia was not so quickly followed by an addition to the set, if only for reasons of geometry; Australia is not included in the continents at the corners of the
Albert Memorial
The Albert Memorial, directly north of the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington Gardens, London, was commissioned by Queen Victoria in memory of her beloved husband Prince Albert, who died in 1861. Designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the Gothic R ...
(1860s). This does have a set of three-figure groups representing
agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...
,
commerce
Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, nation ...
,
engineering and
manufacturing, typical of the requirements for large public schemes of the period. A rather late example is the
Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House
The Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House (originally the New York Custom House) is a government building, museum, and former custom house at 1 Bowling Green, near the southern end of Manhattan in New York City, United States. Designed by Cass ...
in New York City (1901–07), which has large groups for the four continents by the entrance, and 12 figures personifying seafaring nations from history high on the facade.
The invention of
movable type printing saw ''Dame Imprimerie'' ("Lady Printing Press") introduced to the pageants of
Lyons
Lyon,, ; Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area of France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of t ...
, a major printing centre, along with "Typosine", a new muse of printing. A large gilt-bronze statue by
Evelyn Beatrice Longman
Evelyn Beatrice Longman (November 21, 1874 – March 10, 1954) was a sculptor in the U.S. Her allegorical figure works were commissioned as monuments and memorials, adornment for public buildings, and attractions at art expositions in early 20th ...
, something of a specialist in "allegorical" statues, was commissioned by
AT&T
AT&T Inc. is an American multinational telecommunications holding company headquartered at Whitacre Tower in Downtown Dallas, Texas. It is the world's largest telecommunications company by revenue and the third largest provider of mobile te ...
for the top of their New York headquarters. Since 1916 it has been titled at different times as the ''Genius of Telegraphy'', ''Genius of Electricity'', and since the 1930s ''
Spirit of Communication
''Spirit of Communication'' is the formal name for the statue by Evelyn Beatrice Longman originally called ''Genius of Telegraphy''. The statue has been the symbol of AT&T (and also the former Western Electric) since their commission was comple ...
''. Shakespeare's spirit
Ariel was adopted by the sculptor
Eric Gill
Arthur Eric Rowton Gill, (22 February 1882 – 17 November 1940) was an English sculptor, letter cutter, typeface designer, and printmaker. Although the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' describes Gill as ″the greatest artist-cra ...
as a personification of broadcasting, and features in his sculptures on
Broadcasting House
Broadcasting House is the headquarters of the BBC, in Portland Place and Langham Place, London. The first radio broadcast from the building was made on 15 March 1932, and the building was officially opened two months later, on 15 May. The main ...
in London (opened 1932).
National personifications
A number of national personifications stick to the old formulas, with a female in classical dress, carrying attributes suggesting power, wealth, or other virtues.
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
is an example, derived from her figure on Roman coins, with a glance at the ancient goddess
Roma;
Germania and
Helvetia
Helvetia () is the female national personification of Switzerland, officially ''Confoederatio Helvetica,'' the Swiss Confederation.
The allegory is typically pictured in a flowing gown, with a spear and a shield emblazoned with the Swiss fla ...
are others.
Libertas, the Roman goddess of
liberty
Liberty is the ability to do as one pleases, or a right or immunity enjoyed by prescription or by grant (i.e. privilege). It is a synonym for the word freedom.
In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society fr ...
, had been important under the
Roman Republic, and was somewhat uncomfortably co-opted by the empire; it was not seen as an innate right, but as granted to some under Roman law. She had appeared on the coins of the assassins of
Julius Caesar, defenders of the
Roman republic. The medieval republics, mostly in Italy, greatly valued their liberty, and often use the word, but produce very few direct personifications. With the rise of
nationalism and new states, many nationalist personifications included a strong element of liberty, perhaps culminating in the ''
Statue of Liberty''. The long poem ''Liberty'' by the Scottish
James Thomson (1734), is a lengthy
monologue spoken by the "
Goddess of Liberty", describing her travels through the ancient world, and then English and British history, before the resolution of the
Glorious Revolution of 1688 confirms her position there. Thomson also wrote the lyrics for ''
Rule Britannia'', and the two personifications were often combined as a personified "British Liberty", to whom a large monument was erected in the 1750s on his estate at
Gibside by
a Whig magnate.
But, sometimes alongside these formal figures, a new type of national personification has arisen, typified by
John Bull (1712) and
Uncle Sam (c. 1812). Both began as figures in more or less satirical literature, but achieved their prominence when taken in to
political cartoons and other visual media. The post-revolutionary
Marianne
Marianne () has been the national personification of the French Republic since the French Revolution, as a personification of liberty, equality, fraternity and reason, as well as a portrayal of the Goddess of Liberty.
Marianne is displayed in ...
in France, official since 1792, is something of a mixture of styles, sometimes formal and classical, at others a woman of the streets of Paris personified. The
Dutch Maiden
The Dutch Maiden (Dutch: ''Nederlandse Maagd'') is a national personification of the Netherlands. She is typically depicted wearing a Roman garment and with a lion, the Leo Belgicus, by her side. In addition to the symbol of a national maiden, the ...
is one of the earliest of these figures, and was mainly visual from the start, her efforts to repulse unwelcome Spanish advances shown in 16th-century
popular prints.
[Hubert de Vries]
"The Dutch Virgin: Symbols of State of the Netherlands"
Reinvented national personifications are the main characters in the modern Japanese manga and anime series ''
Hetalia
is a Japanese webcomic, later adapted as a manga and an anime series, by Hidekaz Himaruya. The series' main presentation is as an often over-the-top allegory of political and historic events as well as more general cultural comparison ...
''.
See also
*
Anthropomorphism
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology.
Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
*
Allegorical sculpture
Allegorical sculpture are sculptures of personifications of abstract ideas as in allegory. Common in the western world, for example, are statues of Lady Justice representing justice, traditionally holding scales and a sword, and the statues of Pru ...
*
Heraldry
*
Mascot
*
Moe anthropomorphism
is a form of anthropomorphism in anime and manga where '' moe'' qualities are given to non-human beings (such as animals, plants, supernatural entities and fantastical creatures), objects, concepts, or phenomena. In addition to ''moe'' feature ...
; personification style mainly used in anime and manga
*
Pathetic fallacy, the literary device involving ascribing human emotion and conduct to non-human objects in the natural world
*
Tropical cyclone naming
Tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones are named by various warning centers to simplify communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts, watches and warnings. The names are intended to reduce confusion in the ...
Notes
References
*
Bartrum, Giulia, ''Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy'', British Museum Press, 2002,
*Escobedo, Andrew, ''Volition's Face: Personification and the Will in Renaissance Literature'', 2017, University of Notre Dame Press, , 9780268101695
google books
*
Gombrich, Ernst, "Personification", in R. R. Bolgar (ed.), ''Classical Influences in European Culture AD 500–1500'', 1971, Cambridge UP
PDF*Hall, James, ''Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art'', 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray,
*
Hartt, Frederick, ''History of Italian Renaissance Art'', (2nd edn.)1987, Thames & Hudson (US Harry N Abrams),
*Heuer, Jennifer, "Gender and Nationalism" in ''Nations and Nationalism: A Global Historical Overview'', Eds Guntram H. Herb, David H. Kaplan, 2008, ABC-CLIO, , 9781851099085
google books*Higham, John (1990). "Indian Princess and Roman Goddess: The First Female Symbols of America", ''Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society''. 100: 50–51, JSTOR o
PDF*Melion, Walter, Remakers, Bart, ''Personification: Embodying Meaning and Emotion'', 2016, BRILL, , 9789004310438
google books*Paxson, James J., ''The Poetics of Personification'', 1994, Cambridge University Press, , 9780521445399
google books*Sear, David, ''Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume 2'', 46–48, 49–51, 2002, Spink & Son, Ltd, , 9781912667239
google books*
Smith, Amy C., ''Polis and Personification in Classical Athenian Art'', 2011, BRILL, , 9789004194175
google books
Further reading
*Jennifer O’Reilly: ''Studies in the Iconography of the Virtues and Vices in the Middle Ages.'' New York/London 1988.
*
Emma Stafford
Emma Stafford is Professor of Greek Culture at the University of Leeds. Her work focuses on Heracles/Hercules and his reception.
Education and early career
Stafford read classics at New Hall, University of Cambridge (1987–90) and began he ...
: ''Worshipping virtues. Personification and the Divine in Ancient Greece.'' London 2000.
*
Emma Stafford
Emma Stafford is Professor of Greek Culture at the University of Leeds. Her work focuses on Heracles/Hercules and his reception.
Education and early career
Stafford read classics at New Hall, University of Cambridge (1987–90) and began he ...
, Judith Herrin (eds.): ''Personification in the Greek world. From Antiquity to Byzantium.'' Aldershot/Hampshire 2005.
*Tucker, Shawn R., ''The Virtues and Vices in the Arts: A Sourcebook'', 2015, Wipf and Stock Publishers, , 9781625647184
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Anthropomorphism
Rhetorical techniques
Figures of speech
Literary theory
Iconography