The military history of the

Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...

period encompasses roughly a century's worth of prolonged warfare and disorder in

Chinese history The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the ''Book of Documents'' (early chapter ...

. After the assassination of General-in-chief

He Jin He Jin () (died 22 September 189), courtesy name Suigao, was a Chinese military general and politician. He was the military Grand Marshal and regent of the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was an elder half-brother of Empress He, the emp ...

in September 189, the administrative structures of the Han government became increasingly irrelevant. By the time of death of

Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...

, the most successful warlord of North China, in 220, the Han empire was divided between the three rival states of

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <

Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <

Eastern Han Chinese

: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...

. Due to the ensuing turmoil, the competing powers of the Three Kingdoms era found no shortage of willing recruits for their armies, although press-ganging as well as forcible enlistment of prisoners from defeated armies still occurred. Following four centuries of rule under the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

, the Three Kingdoms brought about a new era of conflict in China that shifted institutions in favor of a more permanent and selective system of military recruitment. This ultimately included the creation of a hereditary military class as well as increasing reliance on non-Chinese cavalry forces and the end of universal conscription.

Organization

Recruitment and organization

As the Han dynasty fell into disarray after the

Yellow Turban Rebellion The Yellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a List of peasant revolts, peasant revolt in China against the Eastern Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in 184 CE during the reign of Emperor Ling of ...

, its system of conscription and checks on military leadership broke down, giving local leaders the autonomy to recruit their own personal armies. At the heart of each army was a group of trusted Companions (親近 ''qinjin'') consisting of family members, close friends and clansmen hired by whatever means was available to their lord.

's earliest commanders who formed the nucleus of his army were all clansmen ( Cao Xiu, Cao Zhen, Cao Chun). There was no need for conscription as the conflicts of the late Han dynasty created willing recruits who sought protection under a strong army. This type of soldier, characterized by a lack of loyalty to state or nation, primarily concerned with survival, made up the majority of the army outside of the leader's close following. Due to the lack of loyalty among common troops, acts of heroism and courage were particularly emphasized among commanders who were expected to lead from the front. A typical example of this type of commander would be Dian Wei, a former local bully noted for his great strength, appetite, and his choice of weaponry, two halberds of immense weight, who served under

. In 195, he personally led a group of volunteers clad in double armour (兩鎧 ''liang kai'') against

Lü Bu Lü Bu () (died 7 February 199), courtesy name Fengxian, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of Imperial China. Originally a subordinate of a minor warlord Ding Yuan, he betray ...

's forces while his liege made his escape. He was promoted to colonel of the bodyguard unit known as the Tiger Warriors and later met his death against Zhang Xiu in 197. While echoes of Han organization continued through the formal titles of military structure, in effect the wars of the Three Kingdoms were fought between armies of bands led by individuals selected by dint of violence and charisma.

Training

Military training programs for the general populace in the inner provinces were mostly discontinued after 30 AD to reduce the risk of rebellion. The total number of professional soldiers in standing armies in the Eastern Han, including all the smaller groups, amounted to approximately 20,000 soldiers. Expeditions and campaigns relied upon tens of thousands of troops from local militia armies and non-Chinese auxiliaries, supplemented by professional and semi-professional troops. The men in the inner provinces of the empire could be called to serve during emergencies or serve in local militias to fight against bandits, but these men received no formal training or regular exercise. On the other hand, men of the frontier provinces were liable for conscription and military service as before. This had a negative impact on the performance of the Han army, as noted by Ying Shao, who remarked that "sending uchmen into battle without training is just throwing them away". The majority of soldiers recruited during the early stages of the Three Kingdoms period were thus "neither disciplined nor well trained in the use of arms". Formations and drill still existed, but these were the exceptions rather than the norm, and there is no evidence of troops engaging in a regular training system or large scale exercises. Most commanders favored simple rather than complex formations and maneuvers. An example of a formation that did exist is

Zhuge Liang Zhuge Liang ( zh, t=諸葛亮 / 诸葛亮) (181 – September 234), courtesy name Kongming, was a Chinese statesman and military strategist. He was chancellor and later regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is r ...

's Eight Formation Plan, which included different configurations named after Heaven, Earth, Wind, and Clouds. It is not clear what these designations mean, but the Eight Formation Plan was traditionally a square formation composed of nine divisions in three sections. The lack of training severely constrained the kind of orders a commander could give for his troops to follow. As a consequence of the limited tactical flexibility at their disposal, the majority of battles were carried out in one of two ways: a head on charge by elite shock troops followed by the loosely organized army of incoherent and disparately trained and equipped soldiers, or ambush and surprise the enemy before they could even respond and cause them to route. The training that the privileged elite received was far greater in extent compared to that of the common soldier. For example,

's son,

Cao Pi Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest son ...

, started his military education in early childhood. He began training in archery at the age of five, started learning how to ride a horse at the age of six, and could both ride and shoot a target at a hundred paces by the time he was eight. Horse archery was also practiced in

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <

Hereditary troops

In contrast to the military hierarchy of the Han dynasty, leadership of a unit in the Three Kingdoms was functionally hereditary as long as the successor was loyal to his liege and proved militarily competent. When the commander died, a male member of his family inherited control of his troops, and when a soldier died one of his male relatives inherited his position in the unit. By the end of the Three Kingdoms, the term ''buqu'' (部曲) had come to designate the institution of hereditary military leadership. Both ''bu'' and ''qu'', meaning battalions and companies, were originally units of military organization during the Han. Under Cao Cao, a more systematic form of hereditary soldiery was implemented through "military families" (士家 ''shijia'') which later became "hereditary troops" (世兵 ''shibing''). As their name implies, able male members born into military families served for life, and when they could no longer serve because of illness or death, their sons or close family members replaced them. Their families lived at the capital and other major centers where they could be used by the government as hostages to ensure the loyalty of their soldiers. They were also forbidden from marrying into non-military families in order to prevent their offspring from exiting the system, thus creating a closed community of military households. Although commoners could still be called up in times of urgent need, the rise of government mandated military communities under

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

and the demobilization of local levies under the Jin dynasty, had by and large, replaced the universal conscription of the Han.

Tuntian

Tuntian, often rendered as " ilitaryagricultural colonies," were self-sustaining farming communities created for the purpose of providing food for the military. Generally consisting of displaced peoples, refugees, and bandits, tenants of a tuntian were expected to protect themselves in times of emergencies and in return were exempt from corvée labour. Unlike the tuntian system of the Han dynasty, which was generally hands off, the tuntian policy of the Three Kingdoms era was to directly provide them with supplies and material assistance. The policy of tuntian was implemented primarily by

, Tao Qian, and Gongsun Zan.

Equipment

Gold and Silver Inlaid Bronze Crossbow Trigger of General Sun Lin

Armies of the Three Kingdoms era used largely the same equipment as the Han dynasty since it directly follows the end of the Han. There were however some minor differences and developments such as the increasing prevalence of armoured cavalry. In one battle, the warlord

boasted that with only ten sets of horse armour he had faced an enemy with three hundred sets. The horse armour may however have just been partial frontal barding. Mounting

stirrup A stirrup is a light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, often called a ''stirrup leather''. Stirrups are usually paired and are used to aid in mounting and as a support while using a riding animal ( ...

s were already in use, possibly as early as the Han dynasty, but full riding stirrups would not appear until the 4th century. References to "dark armour" (''xuan kai'' or ''xuan jia'' 玄鎧/玄甲) and "brilliant armour" also began to appear in the 3rd century. This is probably in reference to the association of high quality steel with black ferrous material. Weapons were largely the same as well, although there was more focus on idiosyncratic weapons wielded by particularly noteworthy individuals. For example, one man named Chen An apparently wielded a great sword over two meters in length and

Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime es ...

's wife had over a hundred female attendants armed with daos. Trends in warfare that had already been underway during the Eastern Han continued to gain momentum. By the end of the Three Kingdoms, the single edged dao, with its thicker and more durable dull side, had overtaken the straight double-edged jian as the primary close combat weapon. The more expensive, lighter, and less durable jian entered the domain of court dancers, officials, and expert warriors. While halberds were still used during the period, long spears and lances (similar to pikes) re-rose in prominence over halberds for infantry and cavalry forces. This was believed to have been the result of the long spear and lances' simpler construction, the adoption of long spears and lances by heavy cavalry to strike infantrymen, and the adoption of tighter infantry formations with less room for swinging and hooking f halberdsin response to the greater threat by cavalry. Soldiers in the northeast specialized in long spears. After the Han dynasty, the crossbow gradually faded in importance until it made a mild resurgence during the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

, under which the ideal expeditionary army of 20,000 included 2,200 archers and 2,000 crossbowmen. References to "great shields" occur in their usage on the front line to protect spearmen and crossbowmen. Shields were also commonly paired with the single edged dao and used among cavalrymen. Descriptions of the

Battle of Guandu The Battle of Guandu was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao in 200 AD in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Cao Cao's decisive victory against Yuan Shao's numerically superior forces marked the turning point in their war. The victory ...

mention that Cao Cao's soldiers employed shield cover above their heads each time they moved out into the open due to oppressive arrow fire from

Yuan Shao Yuan Shao (, ; died 28 June 202), courtesy name Benchu (), was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil wars that occurred to ...

's wooden towers. Although Zhuge Liang is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow, this is actually due to a mistranslation confusing it with the multiple bolt crossbow. The source actually says Zhuge invented a multiple bolt crossbow that could shoot ten iron bolts simultaneously, each 20 cm long.

Dark armour

A report in 231 AD mentions the capture of 5,000 suits of "dark armour" (''xuan kai'' or ''xuan jia'' 玄鎧/玄甲) and 3,100 crossbows. Dark armour appears in Han texts as well, but only as the attire worn by honor guards at funeral processions. The only known trait about dark armour is that it reflected the sun's rays. This probably means dark armour was made of high quality steel, which was often associated with black ferrous material.

Brilliant armour

Cao Zhi Cao Zhi (; ; 192 – 27 December 232), courtesy name Zijian (), posthumously known as Prince Si of Chen (陈思王), was a prince of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China, and an accomplished poet in his time. His style o ...

mentioned three different kinds of armour, two of which were variants of "brilliant" armour: Brilliant armour was made of decarburized steel, which shines blue-black when polished, giving it its name. Chen Lin described brilliant armour in the following manner:

Wheel catapult

Ma Jun Ma Jun, may refer to: *Ma Jun (historian) (born 1953), Chinese historian. *Ma Jun (footballer) (born 1989), Chinese footballer. *Ma Jun (environmentalist) (born 1968), Chinese environmentalist. *Ma Jun (engineer) (born 1962), Chinese environmental ...

, a military engineer serving under

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

, devised a siege weapon which threw large stones using a wheel. This device consisted of a drum wheel attached with a curved knife. When rotated, the stones which hung on the wheel would be cut loose by the knife and launched. It is not clear how well this device worked in practice. Successful tests with roof tiles instead of stones are mentioned, but according to Liang Jieming, this contraption never made it past the testing phase and could not have been possible with the technology available at the time.

Special weapons

The historical novel

Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...

attributes a number of fictional weapons, often with special names, to certain individuals. Examples include

Liu Bei Liu Bei (, ; ; 161 – 10 June 223), courtesy name Xuande (), was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Although he was a distant relative of the H ...

's "Paired Winding Swords" (雙股劍), Guan Yu's " Green Dragon Crescent Blade" (青龍偃月刀), Zhang Fei's "Eighteen chi Serpent Lance" (丈八蛇矛), Zhao Yun's "Blue Steel Sword" (青釭劍),

's "Sword of Heaven" (倚天劍),

Sun Jian Sun Jian () () (155–191?), courtesy name Wentai, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He allied himself with Yuan Shu in 190 when warlords from eastern China formed a ...

's "Ancient Ingot Blade" (古錠刀), Cheng Pu's "Ironspine Serpent Lance" (鐵脊蛇矛), and Lü Bu's "Fangtianhua Ji" (方天畫戟), otherwise known as the "Sky Piercer" or "Sky Piercing Halberd". While these are completely fictional, the

Records of the Three Kingdoms The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220– ...

do mention weapons unique to individuals on at least two occasions: Dian Wei's double halberd which weighed 20 kg and Gongsun Zan's two-bladed spear.

Single combat

The

and

Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms () by Pei Songzhi (372-451) is an annotation completed in the 5th century of the 3rd century historical text ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'', compiled by Chen Shou. After leaving his native land, Pei ...

contain two instances of single combat between generals. In 192, after Dong Zhuo had been murdered, Li Jue and Guo Si formed an army to oust Wang Yun and

from

Chang'an Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...

. When Guo Si approached the city from the north, Lü Bu opened the gate and offered to settle the matter by single combat. Guo Si agreed and engaged with Lü Bu, who pierced Guo Si with his lance. Guo Si's men came forth, saving their general, and both sides withdrew. Another instance of individual combat occurred between Taishi Ci, then serving under

Liu Yao Liu Yao (died 329), courtesy name Yongming, was the final emperor of the Xiongnu-led Han Zhao dynasty of China. He became emperor in 318 after most other members of the imperial Liu clan were massacred by Jin Zhun in a coup. However, the empir ...

, and

Sun Ce Sun Ce () () (175–200), courtesy name Bofu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was the eldest child of Sun Jian, who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang w ...

. Taishi Ci was on a mission accompanied by only a single horseman when he met Sun Ce, who had 13 other men with him. Taishi Ci charged at Sun Ce and the two sides clashed in single combat. Sun Ce pierced Taishi's horse and managed to grab hold of his halberd while Taishi removed Sun's helmet. When their respective reinforcements showed up, they disengaged and the duel came to an end. Combat between generals and officers during battle is also mentioned by the Records. In 197 Yan Xing, an officer of Han Sui, engaged with Ma Chao and nearly killed him when his spear broke and pierced Ma Chao's neck. In 200

Yan Liang Yan Liang () (died 200) was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was slain by Guan Yu at the Battle of Boma. Life Little is known about Yan Liang's life. The only historic ...

, a general of

, was slain by Guan Yu, then serving under

, during the

Battle of Boma The Battle of Boma or Battle of Baima was the first of a series of battles that led to the decisive Battle of Guandu between the warlords Yuan Shao and Cao Cao in northern China in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Although Cao Cao won t ...

. In 214 Zhang Liao charged

's army with only 800 men and reportedly killed ten soldiers and two officers. He then broke through the enemy ramparts and challenged Sun Quan to a duel, to which he declined.

Three Kingdoms

Cao Wei

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

was founded by

in 220 and was usurped by Sima Yan's Jin dynasty in 266.

Cao Cao

was the son of Cao Song, whose original surname was Xiahou but took the name of Cao as a child when he was adopted by the eunuch

Cao Teng Cao Teng (died late 150s), courtesy name Jixing, was a eunuch who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served four Han emperors (Shun, Chong, Zhi, and Huan). Through his adopted son Cao Song, he was the grandfather of Cao Cao, wh ...

. During his childhood Cao Cao studied the '' Art of War'' and was fond of

hawking Hawking may refer to: People * Stephen Hawking (1942–2018), English theoretical physicist and cosmologist *Hawking (surname), a family name (including a list of other persons with the name) Film * ''Hawking'' (2004 film), about Stephen Haw ...

and hunting with dogs. He was also considered a troublemaker and local thug in his town. At one point in his youth, Cao Cao and

raided a wedding. Cao Cao kidnapped the bride and directed the pursuers toward Yuan Shao. Xu Shao foretold that Cao Cao would be "a good servant in time of peace, a dangerous chieftain in time of trouble". In the 170s Cao Cao became a chief of police in

Luoyang Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...

and made a name for himself as a strict enforcer of the law. He was eventually implicated and dismissed from his post in 178. Cao Cao took part in suppressing the Yellow Turban rebellion in 184 as a Commandant of Cavalry. He was then appointed Chancellor of Jinan Commandery, where he set about removing officials under the influence of the imperial family. Cao Cao became afraid of the enemies he had made at court so he left his post. In 188 Cao Cao became a colonel of the Western Garden. When Dong Zhuo seized power in 189, Cao Cao fled to

Chenliu Commandery Chenliu () is a town situated in Kaifeng County, Kaifeng in the province of Henan, China. See also *List of township-level divisions of Henan This is a list of township-level divisions of the province of Henan, People's Republic of China (P ...

, where he sold his family estates and raised troops to join

and the Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Irritated by Yuan Shao's lack of action, Cao Cao advanced into He'nan Commandery only to suffer defeat at the Battle of Xingyang. Cao Cao raised more troops in

Yang Province Yangzhou, Yangchow or Yang Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China mentioned in historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. Name There are four different theories regarding the origin of the ...

. In 191 he became Administrator of Dong Commandery for defeating the bandit chieftain Bo Rao. When

Liu Dai Liu Dai (died 192), courtesy name Gongshan, was a Chinese politician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Life Liu Dai was from Mouping County (牟平縣), Donglai Commandery (東萊郡), which is in present-day Muping Distri ...

, the Inspector of

Yan Province Yan Province or Yanzhou was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), it covered roughly present-day southwestern Shandong, eastern Henan, and the northwestern corner of Jiangsu Jiangsu (; ...

, died in 192 while dealing with the Yellow Turbans from

Qing Province Qingzhou or Qing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China dating back to BCE that later became one of the thirteen provinces of the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The Nine Provinces were first described in the ''Tribute ...

, Cao Cao succeeded him. By the end of the year Cao Cao had negotiated the surrender of the rebels, who augmented his army with 30,000 additional soldiers, known collectively as the Qingzhou Troops (青州兵). In 193 Cao Cao drove away Yuan Shu to the south. At this time however, his father Cao Song and brother Cao De were killed by some of the rogue troops of Tao Qian, the Governor of

Xu Province Xuzhou as a historical toponym refers to varied area in different eras. Ordinarily, it was a reference to the one of the Nine Provinces which modern Xuzhou inherited. History Pre-Qin era Xuzhou or Xu Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ...

. Cao Cao invaded Xu Province in retaliation massacring hundreds of thousands of civilians on his first campaign, but in 194 while on his second campaign against Tao Qian his former friend

Zhang Miao Zhang Miao (died 195), courtesy name Mengzhuo, was a Chinese politician and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Early life and career Zhang Miao was from Shouzhang County (), Dongping Commandery (), which is in present- ...

raised the flag of rebellion in Yan Province. With the aid of

, the rebels dealt several defeats to Cao Cao, taking most of the province. Eventually the tide turned on them and Cao Cao regained his territories. Zhang Miao's family was destroyed while Lü Bu fled to Xu Province. In 196 Cao Cao took control of the imperial court and moved it to Xu city. In 197 Cao Cao came into conflict with Zhang Xiu and Liu Biao. However he retreated due to news of a potential raid by Yuan Shao. In 198

took refuge with Cao Cao and requested his aid against Lü Bu. Cao Cao laid siege to Lü Bu in

Xiapi Commandery Pizhou () is a county-level city under the administration of Xuzhou, Jiangsu province, China. As of 2006 it had a population of 163,000; it borders the Shandong prefecture-level cities of Linyi to the northeast and Zaozhuang to the northwest. His ...

and killed him that winter, taking control of Xu Province. Liu Bei rebelled and was driven away. Yuan Shao crossed the Yellow River with a large army in the spring of 200 but was too slow to mobilize. In the winter Cao Cao led a raiding party behind enemy lines and destroyed their supply train at the

, causing Yuan Shao's army to disintegrate. Meanwhile, Liu Bei had been making trouble in Ru'nan Commandery with the bandit Gong Du. With Yuan Shao no longer posing a threat, Cao Cao returned to deal with Liu Bei, driving him away to take refuge with Liu Biao. In the summer of 202, Yuan Shao died, leaving his territory to his sons. They fought among themselves and fell prey to Cao Cao's advances. By 205 he had ousted Yuan Tan and

Yuan Shang Yuan Shang (died December 207), courtesy name Xianfu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was the third son and successor of the warlord Yuan Shao. In the 14th-centur ...

from their southern territories. Over the next two years he brought

Ji Province Ji Province, also known by its Chinese name Jizhou, was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. It is referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Rites of Zhou,Offices of Summer (夏 ...

and southern Bing Province under his control. In the summer of 207 Cao Cao made a roundabout trip north and defeated the Wuhuan at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. They fled to

Gongsun Kang Gongsun Kang () ( 200s to 210s) was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He became a vassal of the state of Cao Wei in the early Three Kingdoms periodMore specifically, as mentioned ...

in Liaodong Commandery, but he beheaded them and delivered their heads to Cao Cao. As Cao Cao prepared to campaign south in 208, Liu Biao died. His son Liu Zong surrendered while Liu Bei fled further south. Cao Cao followed and defeated Liu Bei at the Battle of Changban. Seizing the naval base at Jiangling, Cao Cao moved his new river fleet downstream. His confrontation with Liu Bei and the

's general Zhou Yu culminated in defeat and the destruction of his fleet at the

Battle of Red Cliffs The Battle of Red Cliffs, also known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive naval battle in the winter of AD 208–209 at the end of the Han dynasty, about twelve years prior to the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history. T ...

. Failing to cross the Changjiang, Cao Cao retreated north. In 211 Cao Cao moved west against Zhang Lu and in doing so also drew the ire of Ma Chao and Han Sui. They were outmaneuvered and defeated at the Battle of Tong Pass. In 212 Cao Cao left Xiahou Yuan behind to continue the northwestern campaign while he returned east to attack Sun Quan across the

Huai River The Huai River (), Postal Map Romanization, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins ...

. The invasion force reached the banks of the Changjiang but failed to break the enemy defenses. Cao Cao returned to Ye City in 213. In 215 Cao Cao eliminated Zhang Lu and occupied

Hanzhong Commandery Hanzhong (; abbreviation: Han) is a prefecture-level city in the southwest of Shaanxi province, China, bordering the provinces of Sichuan to the south and Gansu to the west. The founder of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, was once enfeoffed as the ...

. Cao Cao attacked Sun Quan again in 217 after Sun Quan's failed attack in 215. However he was never able to make it past the Changjiang defenses but was able to gain Sun Quan's nominal surrender. In the spring of 219, his general Xiahou Yuan was killed at the

Battle of Mount Dingjun The Battle of Mount Dingjun was fought between the warlords Liu Bei and Cao Cao in 219 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms stretch of Chinese history. Liu Bei's victory in the battle marked a major milestone in his Hanzhong Campaign and a ...

and Cao Cao lost his position in Hanzhong Commandery. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu also defeated Yu Jin's fores in Nanyang Commandery and laid siege to

Cao Ren Cao Ren () (168 – 6 May 223), courtesy name Zixiao, was a military general serving during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China under the warlord Cao Cao, who was also his older second cousin. He continued serving in the state of Cao Wei – f ...

Fancheng Fancheng is a district of the city of Xiangyang, Hubei, People's Republic of China. History Fancheng, or Fan City, was an ancient city in Hubei, situated on the northern side of the Han River, opposite Xiangyang on the southern side of the r ...

. However he was unable to take the city and was himself killed when Sun Quan's general

Lü Meng Lü Meng () (178 – January or February 220), courtesy name Ziming, was a Chinese military general and politician who served under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Early in his career, he fought in several batt ...

who took advantage of the situation and attacked him from behind. Cao Cao died soon afterward on 15 March, 220. He was succeeded by his son

. Although primarily known as a military leader, Cao Cao also compiled a commentary on the ''Art of War'' and was a renowned poet and player of the game of

weiqi Go is an abstract strategy board game for two players in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent. The game was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago and is believed to be the oldest board game continuously played to ...

. His two most famous poems, ''Though the Tortoise Lives Long'' and ''Short Song Style'' were written during and right before the battles of

White Wolf Mountain White Wolf Mountain is a 460-acre private ski area located in the Lake Tahoe area, California. The ski area is discussed relating to the owner of Palisades Tahoe and Alpine Meadows (ski resort) interest in using White Wolf Mountain's interconnecte ...

and Red Cliff.

Later history

On 11 December, 220,

deposed the last Han emperor and proclaimed himself Emperor of

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

. During his reign Cao Pi alienated his brothers Cao Zhang and

. Cao Pi deeply distrusted his close kin and reduced their powers out of suspicion of their loyalty. Cao Pi died in 226 and was succeeded by his son Cao Rui. Although Cao Rui was twenty years old, he was nonetheless appointed a regency council by his father prior to his death. By 236, three members of the regency council had died, leaving

Sima Yi Sima Yi ( ; 179 CE – 7 September 251 CE), courtesy name Zhongda, was a Chinese military general, politician, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He formally began his political career in 208 un ...

as the primary leader of Cao Wei. Before this time,

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <

occupied

Wudu Commandery Wuḍūʾ ( ar, الوضوء ' ) is the Islamic procedure for cleansing parts of the body, a type of ritual purification, or ablution. The 4 Fardh (Mandatory) acts of ''Wudu'' consists of washing the face, arms, then wiping the head and the feet ...

. He was, however, unable to make any further gains during his battles against Sima Yi and died in 234. In 238 Sima Yi annexed the Gongsun state in the northwest. This was followed by a campaign into

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...

in 244 and 245. Cao Rui died in 239 and was succeeded by his adopted son Cao Fang, who fell under the regency of Cao Shuang and Sima Yi. In 249 Sima Yi killed Cao Shuang and seized power in Wei. He died two years later and was succeeded by his son

Sima Shi Sima Shi () (208 – 23 March 255), courtesy name Ziyuan, was a military general and regent of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. In 249, he assisted his father Sima Yi in overthrowing the emperor Cao Fang's regent Cao Shuang, all ...

. Cao Fang tried to retake power for himself in 254 but failed and was replaced by his cousin, Cao Mao. Sima Shi died in 255 and was succeeded by his brother

Sima Zhao Sima Zhao () (211 – 6 September 265), courtesy name Zishang, was a Chinese military general, politician, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Sima Zhao capably maintained control of Wei, which had been ...

. In 260 Cao Mao, like his cousin, attempted to seize control of the state, but failed and died in the process. In 264 Sima Zhao conquered

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <

Sima Yan. On 8 February 266, Sima Yan deposed the last emperor of Wei,

Cao Huan Cao Huan () (245/246–302/303), courtesy name Jingming, was the fifth and last emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. On 4 February 266, he abdicated the throne in favour of Sima Yan (later Emperor Wu of the Jin dyn ...

, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Jin dynasty. Sima Yan went on to annex the southern state of

Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <

Eastern Han Chinese

: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...

in 280, putting an end to the period of the Three Kingdoms.

Shu Han

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <

in 221 and was conquered by

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

in 263.

Liu Bei

was a very distant descendant of

Emperor Jing of Han Emperor Jing of Han (Liu Qi (劉啟); 188 BC – 9 March 141 BC) was the sixth emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty from 157 to 141 BC. His reign saw the limiting of the power of the feudal kings/princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Sev ...

. His father Liu Hong died when he was still very young and his mother made a living by selling straw sandals. In 175 Liu Bei was sent to study at the Taixue of

, where he became friends with Gongsun Zan. Liu Bei had very little interest in books but had a knack for fighting and inspired many young men to join him. With the support of two merchants, Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang, Liu Bei was able to create a sizable following including his long time friends Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. When the

broke out in 184 Liu Bei led his troops against them under various commanders. He did well in both campaigns but was only rewarded with a very low position in the imperial service. He abandoned his post when an officer tried to reduce his position and joined Guanqiu Yi on an expedition against rebels in

Danyang Commandery Danyang may refer to: Locations in China *Danyang, Jiangsu (丹阳市), county-level city of Jiangsu **Danyang railway station **Danyang East railway station **Danyang North railway station *Danyang, Ma'anshan (丹阳镇), town in Bowang District, M ...

. For his service in that expedition he was rewarded with the post of assistant magistrate in a county in

Pingyuan Commandery Pingyuan Commandery ( zh, 平原郡) was a historical commandery of China, existing from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty. It was centered around present-day northwestern Shandong province. The commandery was carved out of the Jibei Kingdom during Emp ...

. When the anti- Dong Zhuo coalition formed, Liu Bei raised troops in their service, but soon afterwards left to join his friend Gongsun Zan in the north. Liu Bei assisted Gongsun Zan against his rival

in 191 and was given the post of magistrate in Pingyuan Commandery. His post didn't last long as Yuan Shao dealt a devastating blow to Gongsun Zan in 192 and Liu Bei was forced to move east to Qi Commandery. When Tao Qian of

offered him 4,000 troops and a post in Pei Commandery, Liu Bei accepted. Tao Qian died in 194 and Liu Bei succeeded him as Governor of Xu Province. In 196 Yuan Shu invaded from the south and fought Liu Bei for a month at a stalemate. During this time however, Liu Bei had lost

due to Zhang Fei killing its Chancellor allowing

, who was at the time taking refuge in the province, to attack Liu Bei and forced him to surrender. Having defeated Liu Bei and taken control of Xu Province, Lü Bu drove away Yuan Shu's army. Though he was defeated, Liu Bei still retained Pei Commandery. When Yuan Shu attacked Liu Bei again, Lü Bu prevented his advance out of fear that Yuan Shu would become too powerful. Liu Bei continued to recruit troops until 198 when he intercepted a trade convoy from Lü Bu. Lü Bu's officers

Gao Shun Gao Shun () (died 7 February 199) was a military officer serving the warlord Lü Bu during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Although he only had 700 men under his command, his unit was nicknamed as the "camp crusher (or formation breaker ...

and Zhang Liao retaliated, taking Pei Commandery and forcing Liu Bei to flee to

. Cao Cao sent an army under Xiahou Dun to assist Liu Bei against Lü Bu. In the autumn their army was defeated by Gao Shun. When Cao Cao joined them in the winter, they successfully laid siege to Lü Bu in Xiapi Commandery and killed him the following year. In 199 Liu Bei was sent to intercept Yuan Shu from making contact with Yuan Shao. When Liu Bei reached Xu Province, he rebelled, killing the Inspector

Che Zhou Che, Ché, Chè or CHE may refer to: People * Ché Ahn, (born 1956), American Christian pastor * Che Guevara (1928–1967), Argentine Marxist revolutionary * Che (surname) (车), Chinese surname * Che Lovelace (born 1969), Trinidadian artist Ar ...

. Cao Cao's initial attempt to suppress him ended in failure but the second one in 200 succeeded. Liu Bei abandoned his family and Guan Yu, who were captured, and fled to Yuan Shao in

. He was sent to Ru'nan Commandery to assist the bandit Gong Du but suffered defeat at the hands of Cao Cao's officer

.He was however able to defeat and kill Cao Cao's officer Cai Yang. Yuan Shao's army was defeated in 200 at the

and Liu Bei was forced to take refuge with

Liu Biao Liu Biao () () (151 – September 208), courtesy name Jingsheng, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He is best known for serving as the Governor of Jing Province (coveri ...

Jing Province Jingzhou or Jing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Jingzhou became an administrative division during the reign of Empe ...

. Stationed on the northern frontier of Jing Province, in 202 Liu Bei achieved victory against Xiahou Dun and Yu Jin at the

Battle of Bowang The Battle of Bowang, also known as the Battle of Bowang Slope, was a battle fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Liu Bei in 202 in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Background Liu Bei originally sought refuge under the northern warlord Yuan Sh ...

. After that Cao Cao became preoccupied with the north while Liu Bei was recalled to court. During his stay with Liu Biao, Liu Bei recruited

, who would later become the leading military figure of Shu Han. In the autumn of 208 Liu Biao died and Cao Cao moved to invade. Liu Biao's son Liu Zong chose to surrender. Liu Bei led his followers south to the Changjiang where they were heavily defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of Changban in Nan Commandery. While Cao Cao occupied the naval base at Jiangling, Liu Bei retreated to the southeast towards

Xiakou Xiakou may refer to these towns in China: * Xiakou, Chongqing (峡口), in Nan'an District, Chongqing * Xiakou, Gansu (峡口), in Lintao County, Gansu *Xiakou, Fucheng County (霞口), in Fucheng County, Hebei * Xiakou, Shijiazhuang (下口), in P ...

, and Zhou Yu, general of

to the east, came upriver with a sizable army. Having augmented his main army with Jing Province's fleet, Cao Cao continued his advance in the winter against Zhou Yu and Liu Bei's forces arrayed on the east bank of the Changjiang. Despite his superior numbers, Cao Cao was defeated at the

and his fleet was destroyed by a deployment of fire ships by Sun Quan's officer,

Huang Gai Huang Gai () ( 180s–210s), courtesy name Gongfu, was a military general who served under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He previously served under Sun Quan's predecessors – Sun Jian (Sun Quan's father) and ...

. In the winter of 208-209 Liu Bei has conquered most of southern Jing while Zhou Yu had captured Jiangling thus ending any hope Cao Cao had of obtaining area across the Changjiang. After Liu Qi died in 208, Liu Bei became the Governor of Jing Province. Zhou Yu died in 210 and his successor

Lu Su Lu Su (172–217), courtesy name Zijing, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty. In the year 200, when Sun Quan had just taken over the reins of power, his adviser Zho ...

convinced Sun Quan to "lend"(give) Liu Bei Nan Commandery. In 211 Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to Yi Province as an ally. In 212 Liu Bei betrayed Liu Zhang and attacked him, waging a two-year war that ended in Liu Zhang's surrender and Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province. In 215 Sun Quan demanded that Liu Bei give him all of southern Jing Province that Liu Bei had obtained. When Liu Bei denied his demands, Sun Quan sent an invasion force commanded by

and

and Liu Bei sent Guan Yu to confront the two in response while he gathers troops for an inevitable battle. A settlement was eventual reached, dividing southern Jing along the

Xiang River The Xiang River is the chief river of the Lake Dongting drainage system of the middle Yangtze, the largest river in Hunan Province, China. It is the 2nd largest tributary (after Min River) in terms of surface runoff, the 5th largest tributar ...

. In 217 Liu Bei invaded

, which was then under the control of Cao Cao, and solidified his gains in 219 by achieving a decisive victory over the Cao army and killing Xiahou Yuan. In the autumn of 219, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong at a coronation ceremony in Mianyang, and established a court in

Chengdu Chengdu (, ; Simplified Chinese characters, simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively Romanization of Chi ...

. Liu Bei's general, Guan Yu, besieged Fan city, in modern Xiangfan, but Cao Cao's cousin

held out and Cao Cao's officer Xu Huang came to his rescue and drove Guan Yu away from Fan Castle. In the winter while Guan Yu was fighting against Cao Ren an offensive by Lü Meng into Nan Commandery ruined Guan Yu's position and he was killed by Lu Meng upon his capture. Sun Quan thus had seized all of Jing Province. On 15 May 221, Liu Bei proclaimed himself emperor. He then attacked Sun Quan through the

Three Gorges The Three Gorges () are three adjacent gorges along the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, in the hinterland of the People's Republic of China. With a subtropical monsoon climate, they are known for their scenery. The "Three Gorges Scenic A ...

and into the middle Changjiang. The following year

Lu Xun Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Sun; ; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün), was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. W ...

destroyed Liu Bei's line of camps and forced him to retreat to Baidi Castle with heavy losses. Liu Bei fell ill soon after the battle and upon Sun Quan being under attack by the forces of

the two reformed their alliance. Liu Bei died in the summer of 223 and was succeeded by his son

Liu Shan Liu Shan () (207–271), courtesy name Gongsi, was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. As he ascended the throne at the age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhuge Lia ...

, though the government was effectively under the control of Zhuge Liang as a part of Liu Bei's dying request.

Liu Shan

was only 17 years old when his father died and lacked the ability to lead so

became de facto head of state. In 224 and 225 Zhuge Liang embarked on a Southern Campaign which brought at least nominal submission from chieftains in the south of Yi Province. In the north Zhuge Liang made several attempts to break through the Qinling range, managing to occupy

in 229. However he was unable to press farther north in his conflicts with

and died in 234. Unlike the Sun and Cao regimes, Shu Han never managed to create anything more than an ad hoc warlord regime, probably because its leaders were not native to the region. In 264 Shu Han was conquered by

, the de facto ruler of Cao Wei, whose son Sima Yan would go on to depose the Cao sovereign on 8 February 266, and proclaim himself emperor of the Jin dynasty.

Eastern Wu

Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <

Eastern Han Chinese

: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...

, also known as Sun Wu, was founded by

in 229 and was conquered by the Jin dynasty in 280.

Sun Jian

The twins

and Sun Qiang were born in 155 AD to an undistinguished merchant family based in the county of Fuchun,

Wu Commandery Wu Commandery was a commandery of imperial China. It covers parts of the contemporary Northern Zhejiang and Southern Jiangsu. The capital of Wu commandery was Wu (today's Suzhou). Major counties of Wu commandery include Wu (county), Yuhang county, ...

Yang province Yangzhou, Yangchow or Yang Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China mentioned in historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. Name There are four different theories regarding the origin of the ...

. Although his family was of no great importance, they were purportedly descendants of the military strategist

Sun Zi The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core. The Sun radiates this energy mainly as light, ultraviolet, and infrared radia ...

, who is traditionally credited with the authorship of ''The Art of War''. Whether the claimed ancestry is true or not, Sun Jian's family played little role in the affairs of the Han dynasty, and next to nothing is known about Sun Jian's obscure lineage. As a youth, Sun Jian was described as unusual in appearance, kind, intelligent, but fond of odd behavior. At the young age of 16 he was appointed a junior civil officer in the county administration. Sun Jian first made a name for himself at the age of 17 when he went on a trip with his father to Qiantang. During the trip they heard of a band of pirates led by Hu Yu robbing nearby travelers. Sun Jian wanted to attack them while his father wanted nothing to do with the pirates. Even so, Sun Jian set out to confront the pirates. He climbed onto a hill overlooking their camp and waved his sword as if directing soldiers to attack. The pirates thought Sun Jian was part of a government force so they fled. Sun Jian chased after them and took one head as proof of his success. Thereafter, he was promoted to Commandant. In 172, Sun Jian was appointed Major of troops in Wu Commandery to put down Xu Chang's rebellion in

Kuaiji Commandery Kuaiji Commandery (Chinese: t , s , p ''Kuàijī Jùn''), formerly romanized as K'uai-chi Commandery, was a former commandery of China in the area of Hangzhou Bay. When first established, its capital was at Wu (present-day ...

. Sun Jian's success against the rebels drew the attention of Zang Min, who was in overall command of local forces. With Zang Min's recommendation, Sun Jian became Assistant in the county of

Yandu Yandu District () is one of three districts of Yancheng, Jiangsu province, China. (The other two are Tinghu District and Dafeng District). Yandu District occupies southwestern suburbs of Yancheng. Administrative division Yandu District is divided ...

, Guangling Commandery. For the next ten years he remained an official in

, where he gained a sizable following, and was well liked by those around him: When the

broke out in 184, Sun Jian was called up by Zhu Jun in Kuaiji Commandery, and appointed Associate Major. None could stand against him. Sun Jian constantly led at the forefront of his troops, being the first to scale the walls of Wancheng, dealing the last great blow to the Yellow Turbans. After the Yellow Turbans' defeat, Sun Jian was transferred over to the west to deal with the Liang Province rebellion. During his time there, he came to butt heads with Dong Zhuo, who felt that Sun Jian was a good commander but lacked quality troops. In 186, Sun Jian returned to the capital and in 187 was promoted to Grand Administrator of

Changsha Commandery Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, and th ...

. As Grand Administrator, Sun Jian destroyed the local rebels Ou Xing, Zhou Chao, and Guo Shi, even aiding neighboring commanderies, much to the consternation of his clerical officers: For his service in defeating the rebels, Sun Jian was enfeoffed as Marquis of Wucheng, the highest noble rank attainable for a man outside of the imperial family. When Dong Zhuo seized power at

in 189, Sun Jian joined Yuan Shu and the anti-Dong Zhuo coalition. When Sun Jian passed by

, he killed its Inspector Wang Rui as well as the Administrator of Nanyang Commandery, Zhang Zhi, and took over their troops. Sun Jian took the lead in the allied offensive but was defeated by Xu Rong in 191. After recovering from his losses, Sun Jian defeated

Hu Zhen Hu Zhen ( 190–192), courtesy name Wencai, was a military officer serving under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was described as an influential man from Liang Province (). In 191, he was sent to Yangren ( ...

and captured the capital of Luoyang. Defending the devastated city however was unfeasible, so he retreated with the Imperial Seal in tow, and passed it down to Yuan Shu. While Sun Jian was attacking Luoyang, the alliance had already broken up, and

's general

Zhou Yu (Renming) Zhou Yu ( 190s), courtesy name Renming, was a Chinese military general and politician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was from Kuaiji Commandery, which is around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang. He had two brothers: Zho ...

attacked his base camp. Sun Jian returned and drove back Zhou Yu's army. Yuan Shu then sent him against

in Jing Province, where Sun Jian died at the age of 37 in a skirmish near

Xiangyang Xiangyang is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Hubei province, China and the second largest city in Hubei by population. It was known as Xiangfan from 1950 to 2010. The Han River runs through Xiangyang's centre and divides the city no ...

Sun Ce

, son of

, was 16 years old when his father died. His cousin, Sun Ben, whose father Sun Qiang had died in 175, took over his personal following and served under Yuan Shu. When Yuan Shu was driven to

Jiujiang Commandery Jiujiang (), formerly transliterated Kiukiang or Kew Keang, is a prefecture-level city located on the southern shores of the Yangtze River in northwest Jiangxi Province, People's Republic of China. It is the second-largest prefecture-level city ...

in 193, Sun Ce was given commission and sent south with some of his father's former troops. Sun Ce was defeated by Zu Lang and returned north the following year. He was granted another thousand troops and sent to take

Lujiang Commandery Lujiang County () is a Counties of China, county of Anhui, Anhui Province, East China, East China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hefei, the capital of Anhui. It is the southernmost county-level division under the ...

from Lu Kang. Although successful in his endeavor, he was not promoted as was promised by Yuan Shu. In 195 he was sent against

. Sun Ce quickly took over the region and pushed Liu Yao to Yuzhang Commandery. By 197 when Yuan Shao declared himself emperor, Sun Ce had become the dominant power in Yang Province, so he rejected his former allegiance and allied himself to

. In 198 Sun Ce invaded Lujiang Commandery and defeated Liu Xun and

Huang Zu Huang Zu (, ) (died 208) was Chinese military general and politician during the Eastern Han dynasty. . He served as the Administrator of Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei) under Liu Biao, the Gover ...

. In 200 the Administrator of Yuzhang Commandery surrendered. At this point

Yan Baihu Yan Baihu () was a bandit leader active in the Wu or Jiangdong region during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Life "Baihu" was not Yan's real name, but a nickname given to him due to his physical prowess or skin colour; thus his name ...

and

Xu Gong Xu Gong () (died 200) was a Chinese politician and minor warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Life Xu Gong started his career sometime between 190 and 193 as the Commandant () of Wu Commandery (around present-day Su ...

rebelled, so Sun Ce returned east, killing Xu Gong. Before he could deal with Yan Baihu however, Sun Ce was ambushed and killed by Xu Gong's retainers. He was 26 at the time of death.

Sun Quan

Battle of Red Cliffs 208 extended map-en

succeeded his elder brother and spent the next two years studying. In 203 Sun Quan attacked and destroyed

's fleet. In 204 he dealt with a rebellion in

which killed his brother Sun Yi. In 205 his officer He Qi began expanding into modern

Fujian Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...

and by 208 a full commandery had been created in the area. The attack on Huang Zu renewed in 207 and Sun Quan's forces successfully defeated and killed him in 208 at the Battle of Jiangxia.

died that year and his son Liu Zong surrendered to

. As

and Liu Qi fled south, Cao Cao requested Sun Quan's support, but Sun Quan decided to resist the northern encroachment instead and sent his generals Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu to support Liu Bei's cohort. Despite Cao Cao's overwhelming numerical superiority, his forces failed to cross the Changjiang and were defeated at the

Battle of Red Cliff The Battle of Red Cliffs, also known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive naval battle in the winter of AD 208–209 at the end of the Han dynasty, about twelve years prior to the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history. T ...

by an attack of fire ships from Sun Quan's officer

managed to hold onto Jiangling for another year before retreating north. Liu Qi died soon afterwards and

was split between Liu Bei and Sun Quan. While Sun Quan's forces were preparing to launch an invasion of Yi Province ruled by Liu Zhang, his general Zhou Yu fell ill and died in 209. Zhou Yu's successor

convinced Sun Quan to let Liu Bei "borrow" Nan Commandery in order to stabilize the situation on the western frontier. Meanwhile, Sun Quan established his capital at Jianye, in modern

Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...

. Sun Quan's attempts to capture territory north of the Changjiang ended in failure both in 208 and in 215. However, when he demanded the "return" of Nan Commandery from Liu Bei in 215, and was denied, Sun Quan moved west and occupied the commanderies of Jiangxia,

Changsha Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, an ...

, and

Guiyang Guiyang (; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ), historically rendered as Kweiyang, is the capital of Guizhou province of the People's Republic of China. It is located in the center of the province, situated on the east of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, ...

. In 217 Cao Cao made a major attack on the south. Despite failing to achieve any real gains, Cao Cao stationed a substantial army in the area, threatening Sun Quan's territory forcing Sun Quan to act as a figurative subordinate to Cao Cao. In 219 Sun Quan's general

attacked Guan Yu's position in Jing Province on advice from Sima Yi during Guan Yu's attack on Fan Castle. Guan Yu was caught off guard and killed while the whole province fell under Sun Quan's control. Liu Bei retaliated in 221 but failed to make any headway and the invasion was defeated by Sun Quan's general

. In 226 Sun Quan launched attacks towards the south and annexed Jiaozhou. In 229, Sun Quan declared himself emperor of Eastern Wu, creating the last of the Three Kingdoms. For the next 20 years, Sun Quan conducted several military campaigns in the north as well as an expedition to

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...

in 230, but nothing ever came of these ventures. Noted for his longevity, Sun Quan was nevertheless unsuccessful as a military commander in comparison to his peers Liu Bei and Cao Cao. He died in 252 and was succeeded by his son Sun Liang.

Demise

After the death of

, the dynasty became paralyzed by infighting. Sun Liang assassinated his guardian Zhuge Ke under the influence of a distant relative Sun Jun. When Sun Jun died in 256, he was succeeded by his cousin Sun Lin. In 258 Sun Liang sought to rid himself of his overseers but failed and was dethroned. He was replaced by Sun Xiu, sixth son of Sun Quan, then 22 years old. Sun Xiu staged a coup against Sun Lin and seized power for himself. Sun Xiu died in 264 and was succeeded by Sun Hao. However, by this time he could do little to stop the might of the Jin dynasty, which had just recently conquered

Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <

Dong Zhuo, Li Jue, and Guo Si

Dong Zhuo and his brother Dong Min were born to Dong Junya (hailing from

Lintao Lintao County ) is administratively under the control of Dingxi, Gansu province. History Until the 20th century, Lintao was known as Didao (). The Battle of Didao was fought in the area in 255 CE, during the Three Kingdoms era. In the 8th ...

, Longxi Commandery) in

Yingchuan Commandery Yingchuan Commandery ( zh, 潁川郡) was a Chinese commandery from the Warring States period to Tang dynasty, located in modern central Henan province. The name referred to the Ying River, which flowed through its territory. The commandery was es ...

. As a youth, Dong Zhuo was reputed to possess immense strength and to carry two bows at each side. In 165 he became a major under

Zhang Huan Zhang Huan (; born 1965) is a Chinese artist based in Shanghai and New York City. He began his career as a painter and then transitioned to performance art before making a comeback to painting. He is primarily known for his performance work, but a ...

. For his service in defeating Qiang rebels, Dong Zhuo was promoted through the imperial ranks until he became Administrator of

Hedong Commandery Hedong Commandery () was a historical region in the Qin and Han dynasties of ancient China. Hedong was located to the east of the Yellow River in Shanxi (around present-day Yuncheng). History Hedong Commandery was established by the Qin state duri ...

in the early 180s. In the summer of 184, Dong Zhuo was dispatched to take over overall operations against the

, however he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and dismissed in the autumn. Dong Zhuo was then dispatched as a subordinate general under Zhang Wen against the Liang Province rebellion. In late 185, Dong Zhuo and Bao Hong defeated the Liang rebels at Meiyang in

Youfufeng Fufeng ( zh, 扶風), also known as You Fufeng ( zh, 右扶風), was a historical region located in modern western Shaanxi. In early Han dynasty, the administrator of the capital Chang'an and its vicinities was known as ''You Neishi'' (右內史) ...

Commandery. However, when they gave chase to the rebel forces, they were surrounded and forced to fight their way out. Dong Zhuo disguised his army as fishermen to escape the enemy forces. When they passed by, Dong Zhuo had his men destroy the river dam, blocking the enemy's path, and securing their retreat. Dong Zhuo refused to obey a summons from Zhang Wen, whose staff officer

recommended he execute Dong Zhuo. Dong Zhuo later served in the imperial army against another group of rebel forces laying siege to

Chencang Chencang District , is a district of the city of Baoji, Shaanxi province, China. Chencang is the former name of Baoji, which was given to the district. The district makes up the outer areas of Baoji, most of the area being rural. In 2020, the Bao ...

in Youfufeng Commandery. The commanding general Huangfu Song defeated the rebels without heeding any of the advice Dong Zhuo gave him. It was said that Dong Zhuo was arrogant and insubordinate. In 189,

Emperor Ling of Han Emperor Ling of Han (156 – 13 May 189), personal name Liu Hong, was the 12th and last powerful emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. Born the son of a lesser marquis who descended directly from Emperor Zhang (the third Eastern Han emperor), L ...

died. General-in-Chief

called on Dong Zhuo to support his elimination of the eunuchs from power. However, by the time he reached

, He Jin had already been killed by the eunuchs, who were in turn killed by the guards. On 25 September, 189, Dong Zhuo took possession of the emperor

Liu Bian Liu Bian (176 – 6 March 190), also known as Emperor Shao of Han and the Prince of Hongnong, was the 13th emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He became emperor around the age of 13 upon the death of his father, Emperor Ling, and ru ...

and his brother Liu Xie, establishing his puppet regime in Luoyang. On 28 September he forced Liu Bian to abdicate in favor of his brother Liu Xie. Then he killed Liu Bian a few days later. In the spring of 190 the governors in the east formed a coalition and led a Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Pressured by the enemy alliance, Dong Zhuo moved the court west to

in the summer after plundering Luoyang. In the spring of 191 Luoyang was captured by Yuan Shu's general Sun Jian. On 22 May, 192, Dong Zhuo was killed by Wang Yun and

, who were soon overthrown by Dong Zhuo's former officers, Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou. In 194 there was a brief war with Ma Teng and Han Sui who were defeated by Guo Si and Fan Chou. In 195 Li Jue killed Fan Chou and took over his troops. Guo Si turned on Li Jue and infighting between them went on for months until a ceasefire was called. In the confusion of the conflict, the emperor was able to escape Chang'an and fled east with the help of several supporters. The emperor reached Luoyang in 196 and was then taken to

. In 197 Guo Si was killed by his officer Wu Xi. In 198 a local warlord

Duan Wei Duan may refer to: * Duan (surname), a Chinese surname ** Duan dynasty, the ruling dynasty of the Dali Kingdom * Duan tribe, pre-state tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China * Duan language, spoken on the Laotian–Vietnamese border * D ...

killed Li Jue.

Gongsun Du, Kang, Gong, and Yuan

Gongsun Du was born in Xiangping ( Liaoyang,

Liaoning Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...

). In his early years, Du's father fled to

Xuantu Commandery Xuantu Commandery (; ko, 현도군) was a commandery of the Chinese Han dynasty. It was one of Four Commanderies of Han, established in 107 BCE in the northern Korean Peninsula and part of the Liaodong Peninsula, after the Han dynasty conquered ...

, where Du became an office runner. Du attracted the support of the governor Gongsun Yu, whose daughter he eventually married. He rose up the ranks of officialdom in

until he became regional inspector. Gongsun Du was appointed Administrator of Liaodong Commandery by Dong Zhuo in 189 on the recommendation of Xu Rong. As a result of his lowly origins, Du harbored an intense hatred for the elite landowning class. Once he became administrator, Du carried out his vendetta against the wealthy by publicly flogging to death the Magistrate of Xiangping and extirpating the gentry. Du dominated the northeast and expanded into the territory of

and the Wuhuan. When Cao Cao attempted to bestow titles upon Du, he rejected them and proclaimed himself king. Du died in 204 and was succeeded by his son,

. In 204 Kang expanded into Goguryeo and created

Daifang Commandery The Daifang Commandery was an administrative division established by the Chinese Han dynasty on the Korea, Korean Peninsula between 204 and 314. History Gongsun Kang, a warlord in Liaodong, separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery ...

. When the Wuhuan were defeated by

in 207,

Yuan Xi Yuan Xi (died December 20711th month of the 12th year of the ''Jian'an'' era, per Emperor Xian's biography in ''Book of the Later Han''. The month corresponds to 7 Dec 207 to 5 Jan 208 in the Julian calendar.), courtesy name Xianyi or Xianyong ...

, and the Wuhuan leaders Louban and Supuyan fled to Kang. Kang killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao. In 208, Kang sent aid to Balgi in support of his claim to the

throne, but was defeated by Gyesu, younger brother of

Sansang of Goguryeo King Sansang of Goguryeo (died 227, r. 196–227 ) was the 10th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the third son of the eighth king Sindae and the younger brother of the ninth king Gogukcheon, who died w ...

. However in 209 Kang invaded Goguryeo again, took its capital and forced them to submit. Goguryeo was forced to move its capital further east. Kang died in 220 when his children were too young to rule, so his brother

Gongsun Gong Gongsun Gong () ( 200s–230s) was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms. He was a son of Gongsun Du and a younger brother of Gongsun Kang, who both consecutiv ...

succeeded him. Gong maintained his independence, albeit while accepting titles issued by

. Gong became ill and was replaced by his nephew Gongsun Yuan in 228. Yuan ruled independently until

invaded in 238 and annexed his territory.

Gongsun Zan

Gongsun Zan was born to a family of high officials and received education from

Lu Zhi Lu Zhi or Lu Chih may refer to: *Empress Lü (呂雉), first empress of the Han dynasty *Lu Zhi (Han dynasty) (盧植), minister of the Eastern Han dynasty **Lu Zhi (卢志), great-grandson of the Eastern Han minister and confidant/strategist of Si ...

and Liu Kuan, in the process becoming friends with

. He took office as a local officer in Liaoxi Commandery, where the administrator was so impressed with his appearance and booming voice that he gave his daughter to him in marriage. Later on, Zan became assistant magistrate of a county in Liaodong Commandery and made a name for himself fighting the Wuhuan and Xianbei. He was particularly known for leading a unit of mounted archers who only rode white horses. It was said that he was so well known among the Xianbei that they used his image for target practice. Despite Zan's success in halting Xianbei raids on Han territory, he was dismissed for losing a large portion of his men in an attack against numerically superior forces. Zan was eventually reappointed and given command of Wuhuan auxiliaries in 187 to deal with the Liang Province rebellion. For his service he was promoted to Commandant of Cavalry and went on to defeat the rebels Zhang Ju,

Zhang Chun Liu Yu (courtesy name Bo'an; died 193) was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty. Life Liu Yu's ancestral home was in Tan County (郯縣), Donghai State (東海國), which is around presen ...

, and the Wuhuan chieftain

Qiuliju Qiuliju ( 180s–190s) was a leader of the Wuhuan tribes in Liaoxi Commandery (遼西郡; commandery capital in present-day Yi County, Liaodong) during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He had about 5,000 tribal clans under his rule. Life ...

in 188. However Qiuliju escaped and surrendered to the governor of

You Province You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese language, Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture (''Zhou (country subdivision), zhou'') in North China, northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient so ...

, Liu Yu. Liu Yu was rewarded with rank and enfeoffment, making Zan resentful of him. When Dong Zhuo took power, he made Gongsun Zan a general in charge of Ji county in Guangyang Commandery under Liu Yu, who became Grand Marshal. In 191 Zan defeated a group of

Yellow Turbans The Yellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt in China against the Eastern Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in 184 CE during the reign of Emperor Ling. Although the main rebelli ...

moving north from the Shandong Peninsula. His cousin Gongsun Yue died in the hands of

while on a mission to Yuan Shu, making the two enemies. He then seized a part of

but was badly defeated the next year. Recouping his losses, Zan defeated an invasion by Cui Juye and sent

Tian Kai Tian Kai (died 199) was an official serving under the warlord Gongsun Zan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Life Little is recorded about Tian Kai in history. He probably started his career as a subordinate of the warlord Gongsun ...

to invade

, which was also defeated. In 193 a truce was arranged, but Yuan Shao's ally Liu Yu attacked Zan anyway, and was defeated and killed. In 195 insurgents led by Xianyu Fu and

Yan Rou Yan Rou () ( 193–220) was a military general of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He previously served under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Life Yan Rou was from Guangyang Commandery (廣陽 ...

removed Zan from power with the assistance of Yuan Shao's troops. Zan retreated to Yi city where he secluded himself with his harem. He managed to repulse one attack by Qu Yi before Yuan Shao brought his main army in 198 and laid siege to the city. Zan sent his son Xu to seek aid from Zhang Yan, leader of the Heishan bandits. However by the time reinforcements arrived, Yuan Shao's sappers had already breached Zan's fortifications and Zan killed himself and his family rather than surrender. Gongsun Xu was later killed by the Tuge tribe of the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...

Kong Rong

Kong Rong Kong Rong () (153 – 26 September 208), courtesy name Wenju, was a Chinese poet, politician, and minor warlord. who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was a 20th generation descendant of Confucius. As he was once the Chance ...

was a descendant of

Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...

born in 153 to a minor government official,

Kong Zhou Kong Zhou (died 190), courtesy name Gongxu, was an official and minor warlord who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty of China. Life Little is recorded about Kong Zhou in history. He was from Chenliu Commandery (), which is around present-day ...

, in Lu Commandery. As the sixth child Kong Rong showed great wit and harbored aspirations beyond his age. In 169, the reformist Zhang Jian fled the court in fear of the eunuchs and sought refuge at the Kong estate. Kong Rong hid him from the authorities until he left, but they came back later and arrested Kong Rong as well as his brother Kong Bao. Kong Bao claimed responsibility, arguing that Zhang Jian initially sought his aid while his brother only acted as the agent. He was executed. In the late 170s, Kong Rong joined the offices of Yang Ci, from which position he fought the influence of the palace eunuchs. In 184, Kong Rong sought an audience with

, who gave him employment in the Imperial Censorate. Kong Rong resigned from his position on grounds of disagreements with the head of the Censorate,

Zhao She Zhao She ( 3rd century BC; zh, 趙奢) was a Chinese bureaucrat A bureaucrat is a member of a bureaucracy and can compose the administration of any organization of any size, although the term usually connotes someone within an institution o ...

. Later he became General of the Household in charge of the palace guards. When Dong Zhuo took power in 189, Kong Rong opposed the deposition of

. As a result, Kong Rong was demoted and sent to deal with

Beihai Commandery Beihai Commandery ( zh, 北海郡) was a historical commandery of China, located in present-day northern Shandong province. Beihai was created during Emperor Jing of Han's reign. According to Zhou Zhenhe, Beihai was likely established on six cou ...

, which was experiencing serious troubles with banditry. As Chancellor of

, Kong Rong sought to restore order by settling the people and building schools. However he was criticized as pretentious and ineffectual, having done little to deal with the

and local bandits. In 193 he was attacked by the bandit leader Guan Hai. Kong Rong sent his subordinate Taishi Ci to seek aid from

. Liu Bei sent a relief force and scattered the bandit army. In 196

's son Yuan Tan attacked Beihai Commandery, but Kong Rong had made no preparations, and instead spent his time in literary pursuits. When Yuan Tan captured Beihai Commandery, Kong Rong fled to

, who made him Court Architect. Kong Rong constantly demeaned Cao Cao's achievements and made fun of him but was tolerated due to his popularity at court. In 208 Kong Rong finally went too far and was killed for ridiculing Cao Cao in a self-righteous manner. His son and daughter were also executed.

Liu Biao

, a distant descendant of

, was born in 142 in Shanyang Commandery. As a child, he studied under the Administrator of Nanyang Commandery, Wang Chang. In the 160s, Liu Biao joined the reformist faction at the Taixue of

. As a result, he was ousted from office in 169. When the Great Proscription came to an end in 184, Liu Biao was reinstated as a clerk in the offices of General-in-Chief

. In 190,

killed Wang Rui, the Inspector of

. Liu Biao was appointed the new Inspector of

, but Yuan Shu was already in control of Nanyang Commandery, so he went further south and set up base in

. He was attacked by Sun Jian in 191, but Sun Jian died almost immediately after in a skirmish. In the late 190s a rebellion by Zhang Xiu disrupted Liu Biao's territory until Zhang Xiu died in 200. He gave refuge to

, who urged him to attack

in 207, but Liu Biao declined. In 208 Liu Biao was invaded by Cao Cao in the north and

in the south. Liu Biao died that autumn and his son Liu Zong surrendered to Cao Cao.

Liu Yan and Liu Zhang

Liu Yan was a descendant of Liu Yu, the fifth son of

. Seeking to distance himself from the turmoil at the capital, Liu Yan sought and received appointment as Governor of Yi Province in 188. He set his headquarters at

Mianzhu Mianzhu ( zh, s=绵竹, t=綿竹, w=Mienchu, p=Miánzhú) is a county-level city of Deyang, Sichuan province in Southwest China. It has an area of and a population of 510,000 in 2004. The city was heavily damaged during the 2008 Sichuan earthq ...

Guanghan Commandery Guanghan ( zh, s=广汉, t=廣漢, p=Guǎnghàn; formerly known as Hanchow) is a county-level city under the administration of Deyang in Sichuan province, southwest China, and only from Chengdu. The predominant industries are tourism, pharmaceut ...

. Soon after he raised troops in the name of Dong Zhuo and appointed the sect leaders Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu as officers. They were sent to attack Su Gu, the Administrator of

, who defied Liu Yan. After Su Gu was defeated, Zhang Lu took Hanzhong Commandery for himself and eliminated Zhang Xiu. Liu Yan recruited troops from migrants and refugees from

Central China Central China () is a geographical and a loosely defined cultural region that includes the provinces of Henan, Hubei and Hunan. Jiangxi is sometimes also regarded to be part of this region. Central China is now officially part of South Central ...

, creating a unit known as the Dongzhou Troops (東州兵 ''dongzhoubing''). The Administrator of Jianwei Commandery,

Ren Qi Ren Qi (born 1984-02-24 in Shanghai) is a former male Chinese volleyball player. He was part of the silver medal-winning team at the 2006 Asian Games. He competed for Team China at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), ...

and loyalist Jia Long attacked Liu Yan in 191, but they were defeated and killed. After moving his capital to Luo city, also in Guanghan, Liu Yan formed an alliance with Ma Teng in 194 and attacked Li Jue's regime in

. The campaign ended in failure and Liu Yan's sons Fan and Dan died in the attempt. Liu Yan died the same year after having moved his capital to

in Shu Commandery, where his son Liu Zhang succeeded him. Liu Zhang put down an insurrection caused by Hu Mao, an agent of the Chang'an regime. In 200 Zhang Lu openly defied Liu Zhang, who in retaliation killed Zhang Lu's mother, who had been staying at his court as hostage. Zhang Lu invaded Liu Zhang's territory, occupying northern

Ba Commandery BA, Ba, or ba may refer to: Businesses and organizations * Bangladesh Army * Bibliotheca Alexandrina, an Egyptian library and cultural center * Boeing (NYSE stock symbol BA) * Booksellers Association of the UK and Ireland * Boston Acoustics, an ...

. A follower of Liu Zhang also rebelled at this time due to grievances with the Dongzhou Troops, but he was defeated and killed. After

's defeat at the

in 208, Liu Zhang formed an alliance with

. When Cao Cao's general

Zhong Yao Zhong Yao (151 – April or May 230), also referred to as Zhong You, courtesy name Yuanchang, was a Chinese calligrapher and politician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He served in the state of ...

was sent against Zhang Lu in 211, Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to Guanghan hoping that someone from the same imperial clan would help him. Liu Bei spent the next year complaining about the lack of supplies, then turned on Liu Zhang, killed his officers, and waged war on him. By 214 Liu Bei's forces had advanced to Chengdu, where a siege lasting several weeks occurred before Liu Zhang surrendered. Liu Zhang was exiled to

where he eventually entered the court of

when his general

defeated Guan Yu in 219.

Lü Bu

killed his patron

Ding Yuan Ding Yuan () (died 189), courtesy name Jianyang, was a Chinese politician and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. In 189, both he and Dong Zhuo were summoned into the capital Luoyang with their individual troops to a ...

at the bequest of Dong Zhuo and became his bodyguard. In 190 Lü Bu was sent to plunder the tombs of

. His behavior was unruly and disruptive to his unit, causing his commander

to suffer defeat at the hands of

. Lü Bu was also defeated and driven from Luoyang. Conflict between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu soon came to a head and in 192 Lü Bu conspired with Wang Yun to kill Dong Zhuo. After ambushing and killing Dong Zhuo, Wang Yun's government was toppled by Li Jue in less than a month and Lü Bu was forced to flee to Yuan Shu but was turned away because of the unruly behavior of his men. Next Lü Bu visited Zhang Yang and then left when Li Jue offered a price for his head. In 193 he participated in

's campaign against the Black Mountain bandits. Once again the brutality of his men caused upset and Yuan Shao sent Lü Bu back to Luoyang while ordering the escort to kill Lü Bu. Lü Bu managed to avoid assassination and fled. In 194 Lü Bu joined

Zhang Chao Zhang Chao () was a Chinese literatus, publisher, and fiction writer from Anhui Province, China. He was born in 1650 during the Qing dynasty. Zhang had extensive knowledge in the field of Confucianism,Preface of ''Shadows of Sweet Dreams'', Page ...

and

's rebellion against

. While initially successful, the rebel forces failed to take Puyang in Dong Commandery, and the tide turned against them. By the summer of 195 Lü Bu was forced to flee again, this time to

. In 196 Yuan Shu attacked Liu Bei. Lü Bu switched sides, capturing Liu Bei's assets in

, and taking his surrender. After defeating Liu Bei, Lü Bu turned on Yuan Shu and drove back his army. The defeated Liu Bei later fled to Cao Cao, who in 198 sent Xiahou Dun to assist Liu Bei against Lü Bu. Lü Bu was unable to coordinate his commanders, who acted separately, and was driven back to Xiapi Commandery where his officers eventually betrayed him, opening the gates for the opposing army. When Lü Bu tried to persuade Cao Cao to accept him as a subordinate, Liu Bei argued against it. Lü Bu was strangled to death.

Shi Xie

Shi Xie was born to Shi Ci in

Cangwu Commandery Cangwu Commandery ( zh, 蒼梧郡) was a Chinese commandery that existed from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty. Cangwu's territory was located in the modern provinces of Guangxi and Guangdong, with its capital at Guangxin (廣信), present-day Wuzhou. H ...

in the year 137. He attended the Taixue in

before returning home upon his father's death and took up the post of Administrator of Jiaozhi Commandery in the 180s. After the Administrator

Zhu Fu Zhu Fu is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Sneering Tiger", he ranks 93rd among the 108 Stars of Destiny and 57th among the 72 Earthly Fiends. Background Zhu Fu ...

was killed in 190, Shi Xie and his brothers Yi, Wei, and Wu took full control of Jiaozhou. He ruled from his capital

Long Biên Long Biên (Vietnamese), also known as Longbian ( <

Eastern Han Chinese

: *''lioŋ-pian/pen'';Schuessler, Ax ...

(

Luy Lâu Luy Lâu (Vietnamese) or Leilou (<

Middle Chinese

) in modern

Hanoi Hanoi or Ha Noi ( or ; vi, Hà Nội ) is the capital and second-largest city of Vietnam. It covers an area of . It consists of 12 urban districts, one district-leveled town and 17 rural districts. Located within the Red River Delta, Hanoi is ...

and brought prosperity to the region, taking in many refugees from the north. His brothers Yi, Wei, and Wu administered the commanderies of Hepu, Jiuzhen, and Nanhai respectively. In 192, the southernmost district of

Rinan Commandery Rinan (; vi, Nhật Nam), also rendered as Jih-nan, was the southernmost commandery of the Chinese Han dynasty. It was located in the central area of modern-day Vietnam between Quảng Bình and Bình Định provinces. It was administered by ...

, Xianglin, broke away and became the Kingdom of

Lâm Ấp Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese pronunciation of Middle Chinese 林邑 *''liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚'', > standard Chinese: Linyi) was a kingdom located in central Vietnam that existed from around 192 AD to 629 AD in what is today central Vietnam, and was one of the ...

, otherwise known as

Champa Champa (Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ; km, ចាម្ប៉ា; vi, Chiêm Thành or ) were a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is contemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd cen ...

. Aside from this incident, Shi Xie's realm was relatively secluded from the state of endemic warfare and turmoil to the north. He provided support to the general Zhang Jin, situated in

Cangwu Cangwu County (; Standard Zhuang, Zhuang: ') is a county in eastern Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, bordering Guangdong province to the east. It is under the administration of Wuzhou city. Climate References

Counties of Guan ...

and

Yulin Yulin may refer to the following places in China: Cities and prefectures *Yulin, Guangxi (玉林市), a prefecture-level city in Guangxi *Yulin, Shaanxi (榆林市), a prefecture-level city in Shaanxi * Yulin Prefecture (鬱林州), a prefecture b ...

commanderies, in his conflicts with

from 196 to 205, but stopped after the general's death. Shi Xie played no further role in the military affairs of the warlord states. When Shi Wu died in 200, the Shi family lost control of the Pearl River region, but Shi Xie contented himself with ruling the reduced portion of Jiaozhi. Shi Xie was well disposed towards the northern warlords and acquiesced to

's chosen Inspector of Jiaozhi,

Bu Zhi Bu Zhi (died June or July 247), courtesy name Zishan, was a Chinese military general and politician of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Originally a scholar of humble background, he became a subordinate of the wa ...

, who visited Nanhai Commandery in 211. Shi Xie then sent his son Xin to Sun Quan as hostage in 217. Reduced to only Jiaozhi Commandery, Shi Xie died in 226 at the age of 90. His son Shi Hui was given the post of prefect in

Jiuzhen Commandery Jiuzhen (Vietnamese: Cửu Chân, Chinese: 九真) was a Chinese commandery within Jiaozhou. It is located in present-day Thanh Hóa Province, Vietnam. Michel Ferlus (2012) and Frédéric Pain (2020) propose that 九真 Old Chinese Old Chin ...

while Chen Shi became prefect of Jiaozhi Commandery. At this point Sun Quan's agent,

Lü Dai Lü Dai (161 – 21 October 256), courtesy name Dinggong, was a military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Lü Dai started his career as a minor official in his h ...

, decided to split Jiaozhou in half with the northern portion (

Guangzhou Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of Guangdong province in southern China. Located on the Pearl River about north-northwest of Hong Kon ...

) assigned to himself and the southern half, the new Jiaozhou, to Dai Liang. Shi Hui refused to let Dai Liang into the province and decided to rebel. His officials opposed him in rebelling against Sun Quan and laid siege to him in his capital, however they were unable to breach the city gates and were eventually forced to make peace. Lü Dai contacted Shi Hui's cousin and sent him with an offer of clemency on the condition that Shi Hui surrender peacefully. Shi Hui accepted the offer and together with his brothers and sons surrendered. Lü Dai reneged on his promise and beheaded them all, after which he abolished the two provinces, once again merging them together into Jiaozhou. After Shi Xie's death, the southern frontier continued to be viewed as an area of barbarians in the Han imagination. When Xue Zong visited the south in 231, he described the place in the following manner: Shi Xie is primarily remembered today in

Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...

as Sĩ Nhiếp, the father of education and

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

, which he patronized greatly during his reign. He was credited with compiling a dictionary of

Classical Chinese Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning "literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning "literar ...

terms explained in vernacular

Vietnamese language Vietnamese ( vi, tiếng Việt, links=no) is an Austroasiatic languages, Austroasiatic language originating from Vietnam where it is the national language, national and official language. Vietnamese is spoken natively by over 70 million people, ...

several centuries later. According to Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was "the first Vietnamese."

Yuan Shao, Shang, Xi, and Tan

was born to a highly distinguished official family who had held office as one of the Three Ducal Ministers, the three highest posts below emperor, for three generations. The exact circumstances of Yuan Shao's birth and lineage are not clear but it's said that he was the son of Yuan Feng by a concubine, who then chose to adopt the lineage of his uncle Yuan Cheng (who lacked an heir). This was a source of contention between Shao and his half brother Yuan Shu, who was the son of Feng and his chief wife, making him senior to Shao within the Feng family. However, because Shao was adopted into the family of Feng's elder brother Cheng, he became the senior cousin, and higher up in the Yuan hierarchy than Shu. Envious of Shao's greater prestige and popularity, Shu referred to him as "our family slave" and claimed that Shao was not a true member of the Yuan clan. Yuan Shao grew to be a handsome young man and a popular leader among his peers in

. At some point, he and

raided a wedding, but after Cao Cao kidnapped the bride, he directed the pursuers to Shao. In the late 160s, Shao, then in his 20s, aided the reformist faction in escaping persecution by the eunuchs. After that he received appointment as a county magistrate in Dong Commandery. He then left office for six years to mourn the death of his adoptive mother and father. Upon returning to Luoyang, Shao entered the service of the Imperial Censorate, and rose through the ranks until he became a colonel in the imperial corps of the Western Garden by 188. Following the death of

in 189, Yuan Shao urged

to destroy the eunuchs. When He Jin was killed, Shao led a massacre of the eunuchs. After Dong Zhuo came to power, Shao fled east and formed a coalition army to embark on a Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Based in Suanzao in

, the coalition army met with little success throughout 190, so in 191 Shao took over

from Han Fu. When the coalition dissolved, Shao sent men against Yuan Shu's officer

. Gongsun Zan attacked Shao but was defeated at Jie Bridge between Julu and Qinghe commanderies. Shao set his capital at the city of Ye (Hebei) in Wei Commandery. In 193 Shao attacked the Black Mountain bandits and forced them into hiding. In 195, Zang Hong rebelled against Shao but was defeated and sentenced to death. Shao's follower Chen Rong criticized him of dishonorable conduct and was executed as well. With the support of the Wuhuan, he made the final attack on Gongsun Zan in 198 and eliminated him the beginning of next year. In 199 Shao became hostile to Cao Cao and moved against him. His army moved too slow however and in early winter of 200, Cao Cao destroyed two of his supply trains at the

. His army scattered and fled. Shao became ill and died in 202. He was succeeded by his son

. Cao Cao attacked in the autumn. By the summer of 203 Yuan Shang had been defeated and driven back to Ye, however Cao Cao decided to withdraw at this point. Shang came into open conflict with his brother Yuan Tan, who fled east. In 204 Shang besieged his brother at

but Cao Cao moved against him at Ye and forced him to flee to

Zhongshan Commandery Zhongshan Kingdom or Zhongshan Principality ( zh, 中山國) was a kingdom of the Han dynasty, located in present-day southern Hebei province. The kingdom was carved out of Changshan Commandery in 154 BC and granted to Liu Sheng, son of the rei ...

where Tan attacked him. Shang fled again to his other brother

while Cao Cao attacked Tan at Nanpi in

Bohai Commandery Bohai Commandery (勃海郡 or 渤海郡) was a commandery of China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty. It was centered around modern southern Hebei province. The commandery was established during Emperor Gaozu of Han's reign. In Western Han, it ad ...

and killed him. In 205 Shang and Xi were ejected from their territory by mutineers and fled to the Wuhuan under Tadun, but Tadun was defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207. They fled for the last time, this time to

, who killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao.

Yuan Shu

Yuan Shu was born to a highly distinguished official family who had held office as one of the Three Ducal Ministers, the three highest posts below emperor, for three generations. Despite acquiring a respectful reputation for himself and later becoming General of the Household Rapid as Tigers, Yuan Shu was ultimately overshadowed by his more popular and successful half-brother

. Yuan Shu and Yuan Shao urged

to kill the eunuchs at

. When Dong Zhuo took over, Yuan Shu fled to Nanyang Commandery. His army took part in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo under

's command, but when Sun Jian returned from

, Yuan Shao became hostile and sent

Zhou Ang Zhou Ang ( 190s) was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was from Kuaiji Commandery, which is around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang. He had two brothers: ...

against him. Yuan Shu allied with Gongsun Zan while his half brother allied with

. Sun Jian soon died in a skirmish while on campaign against Liu Biao so Yuan Shu withdrew east to

where he was driven away as well by

in 193. He then retreated to

Shouchun Shou County or Shouxian () is a county in the north-central part of Anhui Province, China, and is located on the southern (right) bank of the Huai River. It is the southernmost county-level division of the prefecture-level city of Huainan. Its po ...

. The next year Yuan Shu sent Wu Jing against Governor of

, with the extra help of

in 195. In 196 Yuan Shu defeated

with the aid of

, who then changed sides and forced Yuan Shu's forces back to Shouchun. In 197 Yuan Shu declared himself emperor of the Zhong dynasty, which made everybody hate him. Sun Ce abandoned him while

seized territory north of the

. His fledgling dynasty was left in ruin and in 199 Yuan Shu attempted to escape to

, but was driven back to Shouchun, where he died outside the city. His family fled to Liu Xun, Administrator of

. Liu Xun later fled to Cao Cao when Sun Ce captured his capital. He was executed for extortion and corruption at a later date.

Zhang Lu

Zhang Lu was the head of a Daoist movement known as the

Way of the Five Pecks of Rice The Way of the Five Pecks of Rice () or the Way of the Celestial Master, commonly abbreviated to simply The Celestial Masters, was a Chinese Taoist movement founded by the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. At its height, the moveme ...

. in 190 Liu Yan, Governor of Yi Province, sent Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu (not related) against the rebellious Administrator of

, Su Gu. Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu killed Su Gu and took the territory for themselves. Zhang Lu killed Zhang Xiu and established a theocracy with religious Libationers as the primary civil authority. He preached confession of sins and the use of charms to cure illness. Minor wrongdoers were forced to become public servants who provided refreshments for travelers on the road. Alcohol was banned. In 200 Zhang Lu moved against Liu Zhang and seized northern

. His mother, who had been kept as a captive by Liu Zhang, was killed. In 214 Zhang Lu provided Ma Chao with some troops but when Ma Chao asked for more, he refused, after which Ma Chao turned to

. In 215

attacked Zhang Lu. After his brother Zhang Wei was defeated, Zhang Lu fled to the Zong and Banshun natives for protection but they surrendered to Cao Cao and Zhang Lu was forced to submit as well. Cao Cao treated him well and his family was given honored positions at court. Zhang Lu died in Ye city in 216.

Zhang Yang

Born in Yunzhong Commandery, Zhang Yang was noted for his courage and fighting skills. He served as Assistant Officer for Military Affairs in Bing Province before joining the Western Garden corps as an acting major in 188. In 189, General-in-Chief

sent Zhang Yang to attack the hill bandits in Shangdang Commandery, however He Jin died later that year and Dong Zhuo seized power at the capital. Zhang Yang tried to seize Shangdang Commandery for himself. While he failed to oust the commandery's Administrator, he managed to gather several thousand followers while plundering the local counties. When the coalition against Dong Zhuo formed, he attempted to join it, but his partner the wandering Xiongnu mercenary

Yufuluo Chizhi Shizhu Hou (; 150–196; r. 188–195 AD), personal name Yufuluo (於夫羅), was a puppet chanyu of the Southern Xiongnu during the late Han Dynasty. In 188, he was appointed chanyu by the Han court following the murder of his father Qian ...

forced him to attack

instead. They were defeated at the city of Ye. After that Zhang Yang received commission from Dong Zhuo as Administrator of Henei Commandery, so he based himself at Yewang across the

Yellow River The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Standard Beijing Mandarin, Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system in the world at th ...

from

. In 192 and 193 he gave refuge to

. When

attacked Lü Bu at

Xiapi Pizhou () is a county-level city under the administration of Xuzhou, Jiangsu province, China. As of 2006 it had a population of 163,000; it borders the Shandong prefecture-level cities of Linyi to the northeast and Zaozhuang to the northwest. His ...

in 198, Zhang Yang attempted to strike Cao Cao from the rear, but was killed by his own officer Yang Chou, who held a grudge against Lü Bu. After he defected to Cao Cao, Yang Chou was in turn killed by another officer Sui Gu who then attempted to seek help from Yuan Shao. He was defeated the following year by Cao Cao's officers

Shi Huan Shi Huan (died 209), courtesy name Gongliu, gained a reputation for valour and loyalty comparable to Han Hao. Shi Huan served the Han dynasty, Eastern Han dynasty warlord Cao Cao from early on and was a trusted figure who helped supervise offici ...

and

Minor warlords

Gao Gan

Born to Gao Gong in

, Gao Gan was a nephew of

. He played an instrumental role in convincing Han Fu to hand over

to Yuan Shao in 191. As reward, Yuan Shao made Gao Gan Governor of Bing Province. In 202, Gao Gan joined the Southern Xiongnu chanyu

Huchuquan Huchuquan was the last chanyu () of the Southern Xiongnu during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He was a younger brother of the Xiongnu chanyu in exile, Yufuluo. History After his brother died in 195, Huchuqua ...

in attacking

. They were defeated and Huchuquan surrendered to

's officer

. Gao Gan surrendered to Cao Cao in 204 but felt unsatisfied with his new position as Inspector of Bing Province. In 205, Gao Gao seized Shangdang Commandery and invaded Hedong Commandery. Gao Gan failed to take Ye and was driven back. In 206, Cao Cao personally led an attack on Gao Gao, forcing him to flee to the Xiongnu and then to the south in

, where he was captured and killed.

Han Fu

Han Fu was appointed Governor of

in 189. While he nominally participated in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo, he stayed at the city of Ye. After the coalition broke up, he became hostile to

in 191 and denied him supplies. Using his family connections, Yuan Shao intimidated Han Fu into handing over his position to him. After doing so, Han Fu's family was constantly harassed until they fled to

. He eventually killed himself.

Liu Chong

Liu Chong Liu Min (劉旻) ( 895 – 954), named Liu Chong (劉崇) before 951,, also known Emperor Shizu of Northern Han by his temple name '' Shizu'' (世祖), was the founding emperor of the Northern Han state during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ...

, otherwise known as Prince Min of Chen, was the son of Liu Cheng. In 173, Liu Chong and former Chancellor Wei Yin offered sacrifices to Huang–Lao for good fortune, but the practice was seen as reprehensible by the senior officials. The official Shi Qian accused Wei Yin and Liu Chong of impiety. An official inquiry was carried out which resulted in the arrest of both Shi Qian and Wei Yin. They were both executed and no further investigation of Liu Chong occurred. Liu Chong was said to be a fine shot with the crossbow and had written a treatise on the weapon called the ''Nushe bifa''. When the

broke out in 184, he raised several thousand archers and brought them to the capital where his presence quelled any unrest. In 190, he formed an alliance with Dong Zhuo and styled himself General Who Supports Han while his Chancellor Luo Jun maintained his territory in Chen Commandery. When Yuan Shu's request for supplies was denied by Luo Jun in 197, he sent assassins who killed both Luo Jun and Liu Chong.

Liu Yao

, son of Liu Yu and nephew of

, was born in 157 in

Donglai Commandery Donglai Commandery ( zh, 東萊郡) was a historical Chinese commandery on the Jiaodong Peninsula, existing from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty. Donglai Commandery was likely established during Emperor Jing of Han's reign on the lands of Jiaodong Comm ...

. At the age of 18 he saved his uncle Liu Wei from a kidnapping. He became a county magistrate in Liang but resigned because he disapproved of the favor shown by the Chancellor to eunuchs. Liu Yao then served as an Assistant Officer in

and in the clerical bureau at the capital, but refused an invitation to join the Censorate. In the 190s

established himself in

while his officer Zhu Hao held Yuzhang Commandery. In 195

defeated Liu Yao's forces and forced him to flee to Yuzhang Commandery, where Ze Rong had previously seized power. He eliminated Ze Rong but otherwise played no role in external affairs until 198 when he died. His family entered the court of Sun Ce and were treated well.

Liu Yu

Liu Yu, son of Liu Shu, held local office his county and became a magistrate in

Donghai Commandery Donghai Commandery ( zh, 東海郡) was a historical commandery of China from Qin dynasty to Tang dynasty. It was located in present-day southern Shandong and northern Jiangsu. Donghai Commandery was established in the Qin dynasty, possibly under ...

. It was said that his virtue protected the county from a plague of locusts. He was promoted to Inspector of

, where he wore the local clothing of fur and felt. His government was praised by the people and he received regular tribute from the non-Chinese. In 184, he was sent as Chancellor to Ganling, where his record of humane rule settled the hotbed of Yellow Turban discontent. In 188, he was sent back to

. As Governor, he persuaded the Wuhuan chieftain

to surrender and murdered the rebel

suggested that he be made regent instead of Dong Zhuo or even take the throne for himself, but Liu Yu declined. Under Liu Yu's governorship, You Province prospered as a result of policies encouraging silk production, market trading, and production of salt and iron. The province's prosperity and low grain prices attracted many southern refugees. In 191 Liu Yu allied with Yuan Shao, and Gongsun Zan with Yuan Shu. In 193 Liu Yu attempted to oust Gongsun Zan, who had built a fortified camp within the walls of his capital in Guangyang Commandery, but failed. Gongsun Zan counterattacked, driving him from the city. Liu Yu was captured a few days later and executed.

Lu Kang

Lu Kang was born in 125 to an influential local family of

. He served as an officer under the Administrator Li Su, who was later executed for his cowardice. Lu Kang escorted the Administrator's body home to carry out a full mourning, for which he gained a reputation for loyalty. He went on to become a magistrate in

and ended the military levy there and governed the territory through honest and generous government. In 185, Lu Kang protested the extravagance and corruption involved in the rebuilding of palaces in

and as a result was dismissed for a time before he became a consultant at the capital. In 188, he became Administrator of

in 188. He put down the rebel chieftain Huang Rang and continued to send reports and tribute to the capital even as the Han dynasty fell apart. In 193, Yuan Shu asked Lu Kang for supplies and was refused. Yuan sent

against Lu Kang, who surrendered after a two-year siege, in 195. Lu Kang died a month later.

Huang Ang

Huang Ang was the clan leader of

Jiuquan Commandery Jiuquan, formerly known as Suzhou, is a prefecture-level city in the northwesternmost part of Gansu provinces of China, Province in the People's Republic of China. It is more than wide from east to west, occupying , although its built-up area is ...

until his family was massacred by the Administrator

Xu Yi Xu Yi (徐儀; born 1963) is a Chinese-born French composer and music educator in France. Early life In 1963, Xu was born in Nanjing, China. Xu began playing the Chinese violin, erhu, at a very young age. Education Xu was a student at the S ...

in 210. He subsequently attacked Xu Yi and killed him. Huang Ang was himself killed in 210 by the vigilante Yang Feng. His relative Huang Hua succeeded him and joined forces with Zhang Jin to oppose

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

in 220. When Zhang Jin was killed Huang Hua surrendered.

Ma Ai

Ma Ai was the Administrator of Dunhuang Commandery until he died in 220. Zhang Gong succeeded him and willingly assisted

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

in re-establishing control over the northwest.

Sheng Xian

Sheng Xian was a close friend of

and Administrator of

. He left office in 193 took refuge with his former officer Gao Dai. It's not clear under what circumstances he left. One account suggests he became ill, another that

took over by force. Sheng Xian was eventually killed by

, who viewed him as a threat to his own authority.

Tao Qian

Tao Qian became Inspector of

in after 185. He dealt with the

and restored order to the region, making the province prosperous and a refuge for displaced peoples. In 191 Tao Qian sent 3,000 men to support Zhu Jun against Dong Zhuo. In 193 he entered a loose alliance with Yuan Shu and Gongsun Zan, but that winter Tao Qian's soldiers killed Cao Song,

's father. In retaliation Cao Cao brought the full force of his army down on him, ravaging

Pengcheng Xuzhou (徐州), also known as Pengcheng (彭城) in ancient times, is a major city in northwestern Jiangsu province, China. The city, with a recorded population of 9,083,790 at the 2020 census (3,135,660 of which lived in the built-up area ma ...

and

commanderies. Tao Qian fled to

in 194 and received the aid of

and

, but died from illness soon afterwards.

Wang Lang

Wang Lang Wang Lang may refer to: *Wang Lang (Xin dynasty) (died 24), warlord during the Xin-Eastern Han transition *Wang Lang (Cao Wei) (died 228), minor warlord during the late Han period who became an official of Cao Wei *Wang Lang Market, in Bangkok Noi, ...

was a scholar who studied the '' Book of Changes'' and compiled a commentary on it called the ''Yi Zhuan''. He served as a gentleman cadet and county magistrate in

Pengcheng Commandery Pengcheng Commandery was a historical commandery of China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, centered in Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou). Han dynasty In the early Han dynasty, Pengcheng was a commandery in the Chu Kingdom, a semi-independent kingd ...

. He left office when his patron Yang Ci died and refused invitations from the capital. In 191, Wang Lang became Headquarters Officer to Tao Qian. Tao Qian made Wang Lang the Administrator of

, where Wang Lang established a luxurious court, which recorded one of the earliest local histories of China. In 196,

invaded Wang Lang's territory and forced him to surrender, but Wang Lang refused to serve him. Two years later Wang Lang was allowed to leave for

's court, where he would eventually rise to the position of Excellency under the rule of

in 220. During his career he campaigned against the use of mutilation as a punishment and argued for the importance of education as a means to reduce the need for severe punishments. Wang Lang died in 228, leaving a collection of memorials and commentaries on the classics.

Xu Gong

took over

in 193. In 196 he was defeated by

and forced to take refuge with

. In 200 Xu Gong allied himself to

but was defeated in battle and executed. His retainers ambushed Sun Ce and killed him later that year.

Xu Zhao

Xu Zhao Xu or XU may refer to: People and characters * Xu (surname), one of two Chinese surnames ( or /), transliterated as Xu in English * ǃXu, a name for the ǃKung group of Bushmen; may also refer to the ǃKung language or the ǃKung people * ǃXu ( ...

was a leader in southern

. He gave refuge to both Sheng Xian and

as they were driven from their territory in the north. Although Cheng Pu advised

to attack Xu Zhao, Sun Ce refused out of respect for his willingness to help others in need. Xu Zhao was later destroyed by

in 200.

Zhang Chao

was the Administrator of Guangling Commandery in 190. He joined the coalition in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo. In 194 Zhang Chao joined his brother

in alliance with

against

. They were defeated and Zhang Chao was besieged in

Yongqiu Qi County or Qixian () is a county of Kaifeng, Henan, People's Republic of China, with an area of 1243 square km and a population of 1.05 million. History From Shang to Western Zhou, Qi County was the place of the State of Qi. In Qin Dynasty, Qi ...

in 195. He killed himself and his family.

Zhang Jin

Zhang Jin was the Administrator of Zhangye Commandery. He joined Huang Hua in opposing

in 220 but was killed by

Su Ze Su Ze (died 223), courtesy name Wenshi, was an official of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, he started his career as the Administrator of various commanderies in northwest Ch ...

Zhang Meng

Zhang Meng was the Administrator of

Wuwei Commandery Wuwei may refer to: Philosophy *Wu wei (), Chinese philosophical concept from Confucianism and an important concept in Chinese statecraft and Taoism Places *Wuwei, Gansu (), prefecture-level city *Wuwei, Anhui (), Wuhu, Anhui People *Wuwei Chanyu ...

. In 206 Zhang Meng killed the Inspector Handan Shang and promised to pay retribution to anyone who attended to his corpse. An Assistant Officer loyal to Handan Shang carried out the mourning rites and went to Zhang Meng's residence to seek revenge for his superior. Recognizing his great sense of loyalty, Zhang Meng decided not to put him to death, and let Pang Yu leave for

. In 210 Zhang Meng was defeated by Han Sui.

Zhu Jun

Zhu Jun's father died when he was very young. His mother raised him working as a silk seller. After working as a clerk in his local county office, Zhu Jun joined the commandery staff, where he spent almost 20 years before becoming Registrar to the Administrator Yin Duan. In 173, Yin Duan was reported by provincial authorities for failing to defeat the rebel Xu Chang, but Zhu Jun intercepted the letter, resulting in a reduced sentence for Yin Duan. Zhu Jun went on to become a magistrate in

before he was sent to Jiaozhi in 181 as Inspector to deal with a rebellion by Liang Long. He raised 5,000 troops from his home in

and defeated the rebellion within a matter of weeks. Zhu Jun was recalled to the capital and promoted to Counsellor Remonstrant. In 184, Zhu Jun and Huangfu Song were sent to deal with the

in the south. They experienced some setbacks but managed to pacify Yingchuan, Runan, and Chen commanderies by autumn. Zhu Jun then moved to Nanyang Commandery and defeated the rebels there through deception. In 185, he was promoted again but left office when his mother died. He returned to the capital at some point and took up a number of posts. When Dong Zhuo seized power in 189, he wanted to make Zhu Jun his chief assistant, but Zhu Jun refused in protest of moving the capital to

. Dong Zhuo left Zhu Jun in charge of

after he headed west for Chang'an. Zhu Jun defected to the coalition forces and moved south in 191 to

. In the following year, he was defeated by Dong Zhuo's commanders Guo Si and Li Jue. He returned to the imperial court after Dong Zhuo's assassination and served until 195 when he was taken captive by Guo Si, who had by then broken out in open conflict with Li Jue. Zhu Jun fell ill and died soon after. He was noted for being filial and generous to his peers.

Former rebels

Han Sui

Han Sui was born to an influential family in

Jincheng Commandery Jincheng is a prefecture-level city in the southeast of Shanxi province, China, bordering Henan province to the south and southeast. It is an industrial city in an area where coal mining is an important industry. The entire city has a population ...

. His father held appointment at the capital and in 178, Han Sui followed in his father's footsteps by becoming a Reporting Officer at

. During his stay at the capital, he became friends with

, and was instrumental in urging General-in-Chief

to eliminate the eunuchs. However He Jin was reluctant and after some time Han Sui returned to his homeland in the west, where he became Assistant Officer of

Liang Province Liang Province or Liangzhou () was a province in the northwest of ancient China, in the approximate location of the modern-day province of Gansu. It was bordered in the east by Sili Province. History Establishment The province was first con ...

. In 184, Han Sui and his colleague

Bian Zhang Bian Zhang (died 186), originally named Bian Yun, was an official who lived in the Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served as the Prefect of Xin'an County. In 185, Beigong Boyu of the Qiang tribe rebelled in Liang Province. Beigong Boyu took ...

joined Beigong Boyu in the Liang Province rebellion. Together they attacked

in 185 and 188/189. After their first failure to take Chang'an, Han Sui killed Beigong Boyu and seized command himself with Wang Guo as a figurehead. They failed to take Chang'an again in 189. Wang Guo was deposed and the rebel forces split up into three groups: Han Sui in Jincheng Commandery, Ma Teng in Longxi Commandery, and Song Jian on the upper

. He initially supported Dong Zhuo and his successor Li Jue, but turned on them in 194 when he joined Ma Teng in attacking Chang'an. They were defeated at Changping Slope northwest of Chang'an and Han Sui was forced to withdraw to Youfufeng Commandery. Han Sui fell out with Ma Teng, possibly due to the machinations of Cao Cao's agent

, and they began to skirmish with Ma Teng taking the heavier losses, causing him to join

. In 210 Han Sui defeated Zhang Meng in

. In 211 Cao Cao sent troops against Zhang Lu. Believing that this was a preliminary attack on themselves, Han Sui and Ma Chao forged an alliance and confronted the enemy troops with initial success, driving them away. Later, Cao Cao personally led an army against the western alliance. When the three armies met at

Huayin Huayin is a county-level city in Weinan, Shaanxi province, China. Prior to 1990, Huayin was regarded as a county. Huayin literally means 'to the north of Mount Hua Mount Hua () is a mountain located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi Pro ...

, Han Sui attempted to negotiate with Cao Cao and talked of the old days when they were friends at Luoyang, but Cao Cao's replies were mixed. The two sides agreed on a day to do battle. Han Sui and Ma Chao were defeated and forced to retreat. In 214 Xiahou Yuan drove Han Sui from

Hanyang Commandery Tianshui Commandery ( zh, 天水郡), known as Hanyang Commandery ( zh, 漢陽郡) during the Eastern Han dynasty, was a historical commandery of China in eastern Gansu. The modern city of Tianshui receives its name from the commandery. History Th ...

. Han Sui's officer Yan Xing rebelled against him and defected to Cao Cao. Han Sui died in 215 at the age of 70.

Ma Teng and Ma Chao

Ma Teng's family claimed descent from the famed general

Ma Yuan Ma Yuan may refer to: * Ma Yuan (Han dynasty) (馬援; 14 BC – 49 AD), general of the Han dynasty * Ma Yuan (painter) (馬遠; 1160–1225), painter of the Song dynasty * Ma Yuan (judge) (馬原), a former Vice President of the Supreme People's ...

, but his father was quite poor while his mother was of Qiang origin. Ma Teng grew to be quite tall at eight chi in height (185 cm). He made a living cutting firewood before joining the militia against the Liang Province rebellion. Ma Teng rose to major under Inspector Geng Bi until Geng Bi was killed by mutineers in 187. Ma Teng then joined the mutineers, styling himself a general under the command of Wang Guo. After Wang Guo was defeated in 189, Ma Teng set himself up as an independent ruler in Longxi Commandery. When Dong Zhuo retreated to

, he persuaded Ma Teng and Han Sui to assist him against the other warlords. Ma Teng continued his allegiance to the Chang'an regime for a time even after Dong Zhuo's death and usurpation by Li Jue. In 194, he betrayed Li Jue and attacked Chang'an with the aid of Han Sui and supporters in

. Ma Teng and Han Sui were defeated at Changping Slope northwest of Chang'an and he retreated to

. Around 197 Ma Teng began to quarrel with Han Sui and their forces engaged in battle with Ma Teng losing the exchange. His son Ma Chao was wounded in battle by Yan Xing while his wife and other sons were also lost, forcing him to retreat to Youfufeng Commandery. He threw in his lot with

in 202, sending Ma Chao to fight

's officer Guo Yuan in

, and in 205 he himself campaigned against

's officer Zhang Cheng. In 208 Ma Teng was enfeoffed but kept hostage in Ye while his son Ma Chao succeeded him in Liang Province. In 211 Ma Chao and Han Sui became hostile to Cao Cao. Ma Teng was killed the next year. Ma Chao and Han Sui were defeated by Cao Cao at

and retreated west. In 213 Ma Chao made an alliance with the Qiang and Di people as well as Zhang Lu. He then seized

. In the autumn an uprising by

Yang Fu Yang Fu ( 210s–230s), courtesy name Yishan, was a Chinese politician of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He previously served as a regional official in Liang Province during the late Eastern Han dynasty. In the 2 ...

and

Jiang Xu Jiang Xu ( 211–213), courtesy name Boyi, was a military general who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He is best known for his involvement in the conflict between the warlord Ma Chao and the Han central government (under the contr ...

defeated Ma Chao and forced him to take refuge with Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu provided Ma Chao with troops to make an attempt to re-establish himself in Liang Province, but Ma Chao was defeated by Xiahou Yuan. Realizing that Zhang Lu would not provide him with any more troops, Ma Chao joined

, who made him a general. Under Liu Bei, Ma Chao campaigned against Cao Cao in

in 217 but failed to make any headway. Ma Chao died in 222.

Song Jian

Song Jian led an uprising in

in 184. After 185 he returned to his home county of Fuhan and declared himself King of the Sources of the River Who Will Pacify Han. In the winter of 214

's general Xiahou Yuan attacked Fuhan and killed Song Jian and his officers.

Bandits

Congqian

Congqian's name means "Follow Money". He was a bandit active in

until put down by He Kui and Zhang Liao in 200.

Gan Ning

Gan Ning was the leader of an influential vigilante bandit group in

known for their expertise with bows and crossbows. Gan Ning treated local officials who aided him generously but plundered the territories of those who did not. Later he abandoned his life as a

youxia ''Youxia'' () was a type of ancient Chinese warrior folk hero celebrated in classical Chinese poetry and fictional literature. It literally means "wandering vigilante", but is commonly translated as "knight-errant" or less commonly as "cavalier", ...

and studied philosophy. When Liu Yan, the Governor of Yi Province, died in 194, his son Liu Zhang refused to hand over the province to the court appointed Inspector, Hu Mao. Gan Ning aided Hu Mao in his conflict with Liu Zhang but they were defeated. Gan Ning fled with 800 followers to

and then

, who treated him with disdain due to his past history as a bandit. At the Battle of Xiakou in 203, Huang Zu's fleet was defeated in an attack by

, and he himself was nearly captured until Gan Ning killed the enemy general,

Ling Cao Ling Cao (died 203) was a Chinese military general serving under the warlords Sun Ce and Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was the father of Ling Tong. He was killed by Gan Ning after his ambush at Xiakou. Service under ...

, with an arrow. Despite being saved by Gan Ning, Huang Zu continued to treat his savior coldly and refused to bestow upon him any rewards or promotions. He even tried to induce Gang Ning's men to abandon him. In 207, Gan Ning was assigned to an eastern border post with the help of a sympathetic officer, Su Fei. From there he crossed over the border and defected to Sun Quan, where he found better terms of service. When Huang Zu was destroyed by Sun Quan in the following year, Gan Ning spoke in favor of Su Fei, saving his life. Gan Ning participated in several following campaigns, notably at the Battle of Yiling where he held off

's forces long enough for reinforcements to arrive despite being outnumbered five to one. In 215, he maintained the rearguard when Sun Quan was defeated at the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford, saving his lord's life. In 217, he took a small raiding party into

's main camp at the Battle of Ruxu and decimated the enemy forces. Gan Ning died in 220.

Gong Du

Gong Du was a bandit in Runan Commandery. In 200, Gong Du allied with

and with the assistance of

killed

's officer, Cai Yang. The next year Cao Cao retaliated, forcing Liu Bei to flee, and scattering Gong Du's followers.

White Tiger Yan

, or "White Tiger Yan", was a bandit leader of possibly

Shanyue The Shanyue (山越) were an ancient conglomeration of upland Yue hill tribes living in what is today the mountainous regions of Southern China and Northern Vietnam during the Han dynasty. Since the Southern part of China was not yet controlle ...

origins. When

came to

in 195, Yan Baihu gave refuge to the displaced

and threatened the flank of Sun Ce's army. However Sun Ce paid him no attention and the two avoided any altercations. In 197,

's agent Chen Yu provoked Yan into rebellion. Sun Ce sent Lü Fan to drive out Chen Yu while he himself attacked Yan. The defeated Yan fled south to join

but died soon afterwards. Remnants of Yan's band joined Xu Gong in 200 to threaten Sun Ce's rear as he attacked

in the west. Sun Ce decided to retreat and finish off the bandits once and for all, only to fall into an ambush and die at their hands.

Yang Feng

Yang Feng was a leader of the Bobo bandit group in

Xihe Commandery Xihe Commandery ( zh, 西河郡) was a historical commandery of China, located in modern northern Shanxi and part of Inner Mongolia. The name "Xihe" referred to a southward section in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The commandery was sepa ...

. He joined Li Jue but rebelled against him in 195. In 196 Yang Feng aided

Emperor Xian of Han Emperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie (劉協), courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last Emperor of China, emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220. ...

in escaping the capital. Dong Zhao approached Yang Feng on behalf of

and convinced him to let the emperor travel to Xu city. Later Yang Feng tried to interfere in the move and was defeated by Cao Cao in battle, after which he fled to Yuan Shu. In 197 Yang Feng rebelled against Yuan Shu in support of

, however Lü Bu did not come to his aid and Yang Feng was forced to flee to

. Liu Bei invited him to a banquet, at which he was bound and killed.

Zhang Yan

Zhang Yan, originally Chu Yan, was the leader of a bandit group in the Taihang Mountains in 184. At some point he joined another bandit, Oxhorn Zhang, but Zhang was fatally wounded in a raid and died soon afterwards. His last act was to transfer his men over to Chu Yan, who took the name of Zhang to honor his patron. Zhang Yan went on to create a bandit confederacy known as the Black Mountain bandits that ravaged the neighboring commanderies of Changshan, Zhao,

Zhongshan Zhongshan (; ) is a prefecture-level city in the south of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province, China. As of the 2020 census, the whole city with 4,418,060 inhabitants is now part of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen conurbation with 65,565,622 i ...

Shangdang Shangdang Commandery or Shangdang Prefecture (, also named Shangtang) was an administrative subdivision of ancient China from the time of the Spring and Autumn period (771–403 BCE). Consisting of a number of districts or ''Zhōu'' (, or prefec ...

, and

Henei Henei Commandery ( zh, 河內郡) was a commandery of China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, located in modern Henan province, to the north of Yellow River. In ancient China, Henei ("Inside the Yellow River") referred to the land north of the low ...

. In 190 Zhang Yan had a loose alliance with Gongsun Zan against

. In 193 Yuan Shao attacked the Black Mountain bandits, forcing them off the southern hills and into the mountains. When Yuan Shao made his final attack on Gongsun Zan in 199, Zhang Yan tried to save him but failed. Zhang Yan surrendered to

when he took over

in 205. He was made a general as well as a marquis.

Zheng Jiang

A woman bandit active in

Dongping Commandery , other_name = , nickname = , settlement_type = , total_type = , motto = , image_skyline = BaifoShan Park.jpg , imagesize = , image_caption = , image_ ...

about 210. Apparently her appearance was foretold in a dream of Liu Zhen, one of

's staff, where she was represented by a snake with four legs. She was defeated soon after. It is not clear in the text if she was a single person or two women named Zheng and Jiang.

Zu Lang

Zu Lang was a local leader who defeated

in a skirmish in 194 and then driven into the southern hills by Wu Jing, Sun Ce's maternal uncle. He was eventually captured but Sun Ce showed him no ill will and recruited him into his staff.

Yellow Turbans

Zhang Rao, Guan Hai, He Man, He Yi, Huang Shao, Liu Pi, Xu He, and Sima Ju were leaders of the

during the early 190s. They had substantial followings numbering in the tens of thousands. In 192, Zhang Rao defeated

's forces. In 193, Guan Hai besieged Kong Rong but was defeated by

. In 196,

took to the field against the other Yellow Turbans and defeated Huang Shao, after which He Man and He Yi surrendered. In 200, Liu Pi supported

's invasion from the north by plundering the region around Cao Cao's headquarters at Xu city. He was later joined by

, whom Yuan Shao sent to assist him, but they were defeated by

. Liu Pi was killed. In 206, Sima Ju and Xu He attacked a number of cities in

sent Xiahou Yuan,

Zang Ba Zang Ba ( 162–230s), courtesy name Xuangao, was a military general who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He served the warlord Tao Qian initially, followed by Lü Bu and finally Cao Cao and his succ ...

, and

Lü Qian Lu, Lü, or LU may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Lu (music), Tibetan folk music * Lu (duo), a Mexican band ** ''Lu'' (album) * Character from Mike, Lu & Og * Lupe Fiasco or Lu (born 1982), American musician * Lebor na hUidre, a manuscript ...

with a large force to deal with them. After several engagements and heavy casualties on both sides, the two Yellow Turban rebels were killed.

Non-Han actors

Champa

The Cham people in Xianglin, the southernmost district of

, broke away and became the Kingdom of

(

) in 192. In 248, Lâm Ấp seized Rinan Commandery. Due to the ensuing turmoil in

involving Lady Triệu, Eastern Wu was unable to retaliate.

Di

The Di (Five Barbarians) were a people related to the Qiang living in what is now

Gansu Province Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibeta ...

. In 213, the Di kings Agui and Qianwan entered an alliance with Ma Chao. The next year Xiahou Yuan attacked their camp in

and defeated them, killing Agui and forcing Qianwan to flee. Their people were resettled in Youfufeng Commandery. The Di went on to form three of the later

Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms (), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. The majority of these states were founded by ...

: Cheng Han (304-347),

Former Qin The Former Qin, also called Fu Qin (苻秦), (351–394) was a dynastic state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history ruled by the Di ethnicity. Founded by Fu Jian (posthumously Emperor Jingming) who originally served under the Later ...

(351-394) and

Later Liang Later Liang may refer to the following states in Chinese history: * Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) (後涼; 386–403), one of the Sixteen Kingdoms * Western Liang (555–587), also known as Later Liang (後梁), a state during the Southern and Nor ...

(386-403).

Goguryeo

The

Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

n kingdom of

was invaded by

in 204, resulting in the

. In 208, Kang sent aid to Balgi in support of his claim to the Goguryeo throne, but was defeated by Gyesu, younger brother of

. However some time later Kang invaded Goguryeo again and forced them to submit.

took the capital of Goguryeo so that Goguryeo was forced to move its capital further east.

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

also invaded Goguryeo from 244 to 245. The Wei general Guanqiu Jian took the capital of Gungnae. The invasions, a retaliation against a Goguryeo raid in 242, destroyed the Goguryeo capital of Hwando, sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of the state in Chinese historical texts.Byington, Mark E
"Control or Conquer? Koguryǒ's Relations with States and Peoples in Manchuria,"
''Journal of Northeast Asian History'' volume 4, number 1 (June 2007):93.

Nanman

Banshun and Zong

The Banshun, also known as the Bandun Man, which literally means "board shield barbarians", were a native people of

, Yi Province, who often served as elite troops in the Han army against other peoples such as the Qiang and the natives of Wuling Commandery. They rebelled in 179 due to unrest caused by the

, but when amnesty was issued by

Cao Qian Cao or CAO may refer to: Mythology *Cao (bull), a legendary bull in Meitei mythology Companies or organizations *Air China Cargo, ICAO airline designator CAO *CA Oradea, Romanian football club * CA Osasuna, Spanish football club *Canadian Assoc ...

in 182, the rebellion was ended. There was another brief uprising in 188 but it amounted to nothing. Related to the Banshun were the neighboring Zong people, who became interested in the mysticism of the

Celestial Master This is a list of the Celestial Masters, leaders of Zhengyi Dao, continuing Wudoumi Dao (Way of the Five Pecks of Rice). After the death of the 64th Celestial Master Zhang Yuanxian in 2008, controversy arose over the legitimate succession, with ...

Zhang Lu and moved north to the border of his territory. When

attacked Zhang Lu in the summer of 215, he fled to Duhu of the Zong and

Fuhu Fuhu was a company that made the Nabi series of tablet computers. The company filed for bankruptcy, eventually leading to the company's closure on January 9, 2016. Mattel later acquired and continued the brand with the Nabi SE for a few years unt ...

of the Banshun for refuge. However Duhu and Fuhu surrendered to Cao Cao in the autumn and received appointment, with Zhang Lu following in the winter. In 219

's officer Huang Quan attacked them and drove several non-Chinese groups north into Cao Cao's territory. The Zong therefore became known as the Di people from Ba.

Gaoding

Gaoding was a powerful chieftain in Yuexi Commandery. In 218 he led an attack on Jianwei Commandery but was repelled by the Administrator Li Yan. He caused trouble again in 223 and was killed in

Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign, also known as the War of Pacification in Nanzhong, was a military campaign which took place in 225 during the early Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. It was led by Zhuge Liang, the Chancellor (China), ...

two years later.

Meng Huo

Meng Huo Meng Huo was a local leader in the Nanzhong region in the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was popularly depicted as a local leader representing the gentries of the Nanzhong region, but some historians doubt his h ...

was a local leader of the

Nanman The Man, commonly known as the Nanman or Southern Man (, ''lit. Southern Barbarians''), were ancient indigenous peoples who lived in inland South and Southwest China, mainly around the Yangtze River valley. In ancient Chinese sources, the term ...

mentioned in ''

'' by

Pei Songzhi Pei Songzhi (372–451), courtesy name Shiqi, was a Chinese historian and politician who lived in the late Eastern Jin dynasty and Liu Song dynasty. His ancestral home was in Wenxi County, Shanxi, but he moved to the Jiangnan region later. He i ...

. In 225, Meng Huo rebelled with Yong Kai. He was captured by

seven times before he surrendered. Meng Huo's role was greatly expanded upon in ''

'', in which he is portrayed as the king of the Nanman and husband to

Lady Zhurong Lady Zhurong, sometimes referred to as Madam Zhurong, is a fictional character in the 14th-century Chinese historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. She is the wife of the Nanman chieftain Meng Huo, who rules the lands in the Nanzhong re ...

, a descendant of the God of Fire. In the ''Romance'', Meng Huo was described riding a red horse, wearing a golden inlaid headdress, a belt with a clasp in the image of a lion’s face, boots with pointed toes that were green, and a pair of swords chased with pine amber at his waist. Later he rode into battle on a red ox, wearing rhinoceros armour while wielding shield and sword. He enlisted the aid of his fellow kings Wutugu, who commanded an army of 30,000 invincible rattan armour troops, and Mulu, who rode a white elephant and deployed wild beasts in battle. Although his allies were defeated by Zhuge Liang's anachronistic gunpowder weapons and killed, Meng Huo was repeatedly captured and released until he surrendered and became a local administrator.

Yong Kai

Yong Kai was a powerful chieftain in

Yizhou Commandery Yi Prefecture or Yizhou may refer to: * Yizhou (Southwest China) (), a historical province of China covering Southwest China * Yi Prefecture (Shandong) (), active between the 7th and 18th centuries * Yi Prefecture (Guangxi) (), active between the 7 ...

. In 215, Yong Kai killed the Administrator Zheng Ang and defected to

. Sun Quan named Yong Kai Administrator of

Yongchang Commandery __NOTOC__ Yongchang is the transliteration of various Chinese names: 永昌 ''Yǒngchāng'' Locations in China *Yongchang County, a county in Jinchang, Gansu *Baoshan, Yunnan, a city in Yunnan, formerly known as Yongchang Subdistricts * Yongch ...

but actually distrusted him and ordered his officers to keep him out of that territory. In 223, Yong Kai captured the Administrator Zhang Yi and sent him to Sun Quan. In 225, Yong Kai was killed by another chieftain, Gao Ding.

Shanyue

The

"Mountain Yue" were a group of

Austro-Asiatic The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...

people related to the Vietnamese who lived in the mountain regions of modern

Jiangsu Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, Postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an Eastern China, eastern coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is o ...

Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...

Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...

Jiangxi Jiangxi (; ; formerly romanized as Kiangsi or Chianghsi) is a landlocked province in the east of the People's Republic of China. Its major cities include Nanchang and Jiujiang. Spanning from the banks of the Yangtze river in the north int ...

and

. In 203, they rebelled against

's rule and were defeated by the generals Lü Fan, Cheng Pu, and Taishi Ci. In 217, Sun Quan appointed

supreme commander of an army to suppress martial activities by the Shanyue in Guiji (modern Shaoxing). Captured Shanyue tribesmen were recruited into the army. In 234, Zhuge Ke was made governor of Danyang. Under his governorship, the region was cleansed of the Shanyue through systematic destruction of their settlements. Captured tribesmen were used as front line fodder in the army. The remaining population was resettled in lowlands and many became tenant farmers for Chinese landowners.

Vietnamese

During the early phase of the Three Kingdoms era, there was a unrest across the Jiaozhi circuit (modern-day

Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...

Guangxi Guangxi (; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the People's Republic ...

and northern Vietnam) led by the

Wuhu Wuhu () is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Anhui province, China. Sitting on the southeast bank of the Yangtze River, Wuhu borders Xuancheng to the southeast, Chizhou and Tongling to the southwest, Hefei city to the northwest, Ma'anshan ...

chief Liang Long and his rebellion attracted the Lac Viet and all other ethnic groups in Southern Han China, but was suppressed in 184. After a century and a half of close imperial supervision and repression, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed a period of autonomy from 187 to 226. In 177 Shi Xie became the prefect of Jiaozhi ( Jiaozhou (modern

and

)), is primarily remembered today in

as Sĩ Nhiếp, the father of education and a great patron of

. He relocated Jiaozhi’s capital back to

Luy Lâu Luy Lâu (Vietnamese) or Leilou (<

Middle Chinese

, the river market town

Zhao Tuo Zhao Tuo () or Triệu Đà (Chữ Hán: 趙佗); was a Qin dynasty Chinese general and first emperor of Nanyue. He participated in the conquest of the Baiyue peoples of Guangdong, Guangxi and Northern Vietnam. After the fall of the Qin, he es ...

had founded in 179 BC, which soon became celebrated for its trading prosperity. Shi Xie stayed out of the northern wars for the most part and later willingly submitted to

Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <

Eastern Han Chinese

: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...

. According to Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese."

became the predominant religion the Lac people. During Shi Xie's reign, the Lac people's customs had been slightly altered and sinicized by Xie. The south’s trade and treasure attracted imperial power. After Shi Xie’s death in 226, the Wu court at

reasserted direct Chinese control over Jiaozhi. An army of three thousand set out from Nanhai Commandery and sailed up the Red River. The Wu general summoned Xie’s son, Shi Hui, with his five brothers and sons, and beheaded them all. Having conquered Jiaozhi, Wu forces also stormed Jiuzhen, killing or capturing ten thousand people, along with surviving members of Shi Xie’s family In 231, the Wu court had to send another general to Jiuzhen to “exterminate and pacify the barbarous Yuè” there. In 248, the people of Jiaozhi and

Jiuzhen Jiuzhen (Vietnamese: Cửu Chân, Chinese: 九真) was a Chinese commandery within Jiaozhou. It is located in present-day Thanh Hóa Province, Vietnam. Michel Ferlus (2012) and Frédéric Pain (2020) propose that 九真 Old Chinese Old Chin ...

commanderies rebelled. A Lạc Việt woman named Lady Triệu in Jiuzhen led a rebellion, followed by a hundred Lac chieftains led fifty thousand families in her revolt. Eastern Wu sent Lu Yin to deal with the rebels. He defeated her and put her to death. In 255–56, the Vietnamese monk Đạo Thanh coauthored one of the first translations of the

Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...

sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...

entitled The Saddharmapandarika (V. Pháp Hoa Tam Muội), or Lotus of Good Faith. In 263,

Viet The Vietnamese people ( vi, người Việt, lit=Viet people) or Kinh people ( vi, người Kinh) are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to modern-day Northern Vietnam and Southern China (Jing Islands, Dongxing, Guangxi). The native lan ...

"barbarians" people in Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen under Lã Hưng one again revolted against the Wu dynasty. The rebels handed the region over to Wu’s rival, the northern Chinese kingdom of Jin. In 268 and 269, they held off large Wu armies and fleets, which eventually retook Jiaozhi’s ports and main towns in 271. Fighting continued in the countryside until 280, when Jin destroyed Wu, reunifying China.

Wuhuan

The Wuhuan, a people similar to the Xianbei, were a loose confederation of nomads that had been subservient to larger and stronger neighboring powers for most of their existence. In 168 the Wuhuan established some degree of independence under their own leaders. The largest of these groups were led by Nanlou in Shanggu,

in Liaoxi, Supuyan in the Dependent State of Liaodong, and Wuyan in Youbeiping. In 187 Qiuliju joined the rebellion of Zhang Chun. Following the defeat of Zhang Chun in 188, Qiuliju attacked Gongsun Zan but was defeated. In 190 he surrendered to Liu Yu and died in 193. Qiuliju's son

Louban The Battle of White Wolf Mountain was a battle fought in 207 in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. The battle took place in northern China, beyond the frontiers of the ruling Eastern Han dynasty. It was fought between the warlord Cao Cao ...

was too young to succeed him so his cousin Tadun became acting guardian. In 195 Tadun, Nanlou and Supuyan supported

against Gongsun Zan. In 207 Tadun was defeated by

at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain and died in battle. After their defeat many of the Wuhuan surrendered to Cao Cao and served as part of Cao Cao's cavalry forces. Louban and Supuyan fled to

, who killed them. Cao Cao divided the Wuhuan into three groups situated in Dai Commandery. The chieftains Nengchendi and Pufulu continued to cause trouble until 218 when Cao Zhang destroyed the last remnants of their power for good.

Wuqi

The Wuqi "Five Gorges" barbarians were a mountain people who lived in Wuling Commandery. In 221,

bribed their leader

Shamoke Shamoke (died 222) was a tribal chieftain who lived in Wuling Commandery (武陵郡; around present-day Changde, Hunan) in the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He allied with the Shu Han state during the Battle of Xiaot ...

into supporting his war against

, however the invasion failed and Shamoke was killed in a counterattack by

the following year.

Xianbei

The Xianbei killed the Northern

chanyu Youliu in 87 and rose to power in the wake of the

Northern Chanyu The Northern Chanyu (, reigned 89–91) was an unnamed and obscure chanyu or ruler of the Xiongnu who lived in the 1st century CE. In February 91, he was defeated by Geng Kui during the Battle of the Altai Mountains, on an expedition sent ...

's defeat by the Han at the

Battle of the Altai Mountains The Battle of Altai Mountains (), was a major expedition launched against the Northern Xiongnu by the Han Dynasty in June AD 89. The battle was a success for the Han under Dou Xian (d. AD 92).'' Book of Later Han'', vols. 04, 19, 23, 88, 89, ...

in 89. The loose Xianbei confederacy lacked the organization of the Xiongnu but was highly aggressive until the death of their khan Tanshihuai in 182. Tanshihuai's son Helian lacked his father's abilities and was killed in a raid on Beidi in 186. Helian's brother Kuitou succeeded him, but when Helian's son Qianman came of age, he challenged his uncle to succession, destroying the last vestiges of unity among the Xianbei. By 190, the Xianbei had split into three groups with Kuitou ruling in

Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Its border includes most of the length of China's border with the country of Mongolia. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a ...

Kebineng Kebineng (died 235) was a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He rose to power during the late Eastern Han dynasty after the warlord Cao Cao defeated the Wuhuan tribes in northern Chi ...

(軻比能) in northern

Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...

, and Suli (素利) and Mijia in northern Liaodong. In 205, Kuitou's brothers

Budugen Budugen (died 233) was a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He retained his independence by pledging allegiance to the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period and sending t ...

and Fuluohan succeeded him. After Cao Cao defeated the Wuhuan at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207, Budugen and Fuluohan paid tribute to him. In 218, Fuluohan met with the Wuhuan chieftain Nengchendi to form an alliance, but Nengchendi double crossed him and called in another Xianbei khan, Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan. Budugen went to the court of

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

in 224 to ask for assistance against Kebineng, but he eventually betrayed them and allied with Kebineng in 233. Kebineng killed Budugen soon afterwards. Kebineng was from a minor Xianbei tribe. He rose to power west of Dai Commandery by taking in a number of Chinese refugees, who helped him drill his soldiers and make weapons. After the defeat of the Wuhuan in 207, he also sent tribute to Cao Cao, and even provided assistance against the rebel Tian Yin. In 218 he allied himself to the Wuhuan rebel Nengchendi but they were heavily defeated and forced back across the frontier by Cao Zhang. In 220 he acknowledged

as emperor of Cao Wei. Eventually he turned on the Wei for frustrating his advances on another Xianbei khan, Sui. Kebineng conducted raids on Cao Wei before he was killed in 235, after which his confederacy disintegrated. Many of the Xianbei tribes migrated south and settled on the borders of the Wei-Jin dynasties. In 258 Tuoba Liwei's people settled in Yanmen Commandery. The Yuwen tribe settled between the Luan River and

Liucheng Liucheng County (; Standard Zhuang: ) is under the administration of Liuzhou, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. It covers a land area of and had a permanent population of 353,796 . Located north of Liuzhou's city proper, it borders the pre ...

. The Murong and Duan tribes became vassals of the Sima clan. An offshoot of the Murong tribe moved west into northern

Qinghai Qinghai (; alternately romanized as Tsinghai, Ch'inghai), also known as Kokonor, is a landlocked province in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. It is the fourth largest province of China by area and has the third smallest po ...

and mixed with the native

Qiang people The Qiang people ( Qiangic: ''Rrmea''; ) are an ethnic group in China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised by the People's Republic of China, with a population of approximately 310,000 in 2000. They live mainly in a ...

, becoming Tuyuhun. The Xianbei went on to found five of the short lived

Former Yan The Former Yan (; 337–370) was a dynastic state ruled by the Xianbei during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Jin dynasty-created title "Prince of Yan," but subsequently, in 352, ...

(337–370), Later Yan (384–409),

Western Qin The Western Qin (; 385–400, 409–431) was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms. All rulers of the Western Qin declared themselves "''Chinese nobility#wang, wang''", translatable as either ...

(385–431), Southern Liang (397–414), and

Southern Yan The Southern Yan (; 398–410) was a Xianbei-led dynastic state during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Its territory roughly coincided with modern Shandong. Its founder Murong De was a son of Murong Huang and brother of Murong Jun and Muron ...

(398–410), as well as one of the

Northern and Southern dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...

Northern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei (), Tuoba Wei (), Yuan Wei () and Later Wei (), was founded by the Tuoba (Tabgach) clan of the Xianbei. The first of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties, Northern dynasties ...

(386–535).

Xiongnu

By the time of the Three Kingdoms period the

had already ceased to be a major power. Their last stand as a steppe empire was in 89 when

Dou Xian Dou Xian (; died August 92) was a Chinese general and consort kin of the Eastern Han Dynasty, famous for destroying the Xiongnu nomadic empire. Early life A native of modern-day Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, he was part of the powerful Dou clan whi ...

led an army of 45,000 and decisively defeated them at the

. The Xiongnu Empire was replaced by a loose confederation of disorganized Xianbei tribes, who were nonetheless highly aggressive and proved problematic to their southern neighbors. A southern branch of the Xiongnu split off from their northern neighbors in 50 AD and continued to exist as a Han puppet state in Bing Province. However, in 188 the Xiuchuge clan rebelled against their chanyu, Qiangqu, for sending troops to aid the Han against the rebels Zhang Ju and Zhang Chun. They replaced Qiangqu with his son

, whose hold on power was tenuous, and he was ousted over a marquis of the Xubu clan. When the marquis of Xubu died the next year an elderly king became the nominal head of state without the title of Chanyu and the Southern Xiongnu ceased to exist as a coherent entity. In 216 the Xiongnu of the

Ordos Ordos may refer to: Inner Mongolia *Ordos City, Inner Mongolia, China ** Ordos Ejin Horo Airport * Ordos Loop of the Yellow River, a region of China **Ordos Plateau or "the Ordos", land enclosed by Ordos Loop *Ordos Desert, in Inner Mongolia *Ordos ...

were settled but the region remained outside the jurisdiction of

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <

Middle Chinese

: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

's administration. Yufuluo fled to the Han court but found no support after the death of

in 189. He became a wandering mercenary and died in 194. Yufuluo's brother

attempted to regain his position as chanyu of the Southern Xiongnu but was driven back by the same rebels. He came to serve under

in 202 and was defeated by Cao Cao's officer

, after which he surrendered. The last vestiges of the Xiongnu were split into five divisions and settled in

Taiyuan Commandery Taiyuan Commandery ( zh, 太原郡) was a commandery of China from the Warring States period to Tang dynasty. It was located in modern central Shanxi province. The commandery was established by the Qin state in 248 BC, after Qin general Meng Ao a ...

under the supervision of Yufuluo's son Liu Bao and niece

Liu Qubei Liu Qubei (; pinyin: Liú Qùbēi), (died 272) was a Tiefu Xiongnu chieftain from 260 to 272. He bore the title "Right Virtuous Prince" (; known in the ''Book of Wei'' as the "Left Virtuous Prince"). There is uncertainty about the lineage of Liu ...

. The Xiongnu went on to found three of the short lived

Former Zhao The Han Zhao (; 304–329 AD), or Former Zhao (), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Xiongnu people during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history. In Chinese historiography, it was given two conditional state titles, the Northern ...

(304–329),

Northern Liang The Northern Liang (; 397–439) was a dynastic state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was ruled by the Juqu family of Lushuihu origin (a branch of the Xiongnu). Although Duan Ye of Han ethnicity was initially enthroned as the Northern Liang ...

(397–439), and

Xia Xia (Hsia in Wade–Giles) may refer to: Chinese history * Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC), the first orthodox dynasty in Chinese history * Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms) (407–431), a Xiongnu-led dynasty * Xia (617–621), a state founded by Dou Ji ...

(407–431).

Later Zhao The Later Zhao (; 319–351) was a dynasty of the Sixteen Kingdoms in northern China. It was founded by the Shi family of the Jie ethnicity. The Jie were most likely a Yeniseian people and spoke next to Chinese one of the Yeniseian languages.Vov ...

(319–351) was also founded by one of the 19 Southern Xiongnu tribes, but was of Yuezhi descent.

Campaigns and battles

184–220

220–280

References

Bibliography

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Sources

Sanguozhi The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220– ...

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...

Weilüe The ''Weilüe'' () was a Chinese historical text written by Yu Huan between 239 and 265. Yu Huan was an official in the state of Cao Wei (220–265) during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). Although not a formal historian, Yu Huan has been h ...