''Yoga Makaranda'' (

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...

: योग मकरन्द), meaning "''Essence of Yoga''", is a 1934 book on

hatha yoga Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga which uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel the vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ ''haṭha'' literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some haṭha ...

by the influential pioneer of

yoga as exercise Yoga as exercise is a physical activity consisting mainly of postures, often connected by flowing sequences, sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises, and frequently ending with relaxation lying down or meditation. Yoga in this form has ...

, Tirumalai Krishnamacharya. Most of the text is a description of 42

asana An asana is a body posture, originally and still a general term for a sitting meditation pose,Verse 46, chapter II, "Patanjali Yoga sutras" by Swami Prabhavananda, published by the Sri Ramakrishna Math p. 111 and later extended in hatha yoga ...

s accompanied by 95 photographs of Krishnamacharya and his students executing the poses. There is a brief account of practices other than asanas, which form just one of the eight limbs of classical yoga, that Krishnamacharya "did not instruct his students to practice". The yoga scholar Mark Singleton notes that the book is almost legendary among

Pattabhi Jois K. Pattabhi Jois (26 July 1915 – 18 May 2009) was an Indian yoga guru who developed and popularized the flowing style of yoga as exercise known as Ashtanga vinyasa yoga. In 1948, Jois established the Ashtanga Yoga Research Institute in Mys ...

's students, though "very few have actually seen it". Singleton notes, too, that the book was "experimental". The yoga scholar Norman Sjoman criticises the book's "padded academic

bibliography Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes ''bibliography ...

" full of irrelevant works, and the perfunctory and ill-informed coverage of yoga practices other than asanas, while another yoga scholar, Elliott Goldberg, comments that the photographs serve to demystify the asanas of their spiritual content, and that Krishnamacharya was falsely claiming an ancient origin for his dynamic vinyasa system of yoga.

Context

Maharaja Sir Sri Krishnaraja Wodiyar 1906 by 1906 K Keshavayya

Hatha yoga Haṭha yoga is a branch of yoga which uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel the vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ ''haṭha'' literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some haṭha ...

, the medieval practice which used

s (yoga postures) and other practices such as

shatkarma The shatkarmas (Sanskrit: षटकर्म ''ṣaṭkarma'', literally ''six actions''), also known as shatkriyas,moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...

, spiritual liberation, was despised and in decline by the start of the 20th century. Western gymnastics such as Niels Bukh's ''Primary Gymnastics'' became popular in India, partly as a result of

Hindu nationalism Hindu nationalism has been collectively referred to as the expression of social and political thought, based on the native spiritual and cultural traditions of the Indian subcontinent. "Hindu nationalism" or the correct term ''Hindū rāṣṭ ...

which sought to show Indian men as strong. At the same time,

yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

in various forms was being popularised in the West by advocates such as

Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intr ...

(without asanas),

Yogananda Paramahansa Yogananda (born Mukunda Lal Ghosh; January 5, 1893March 7, 1952) was an Indian Hindu monk, yogi and guru who introduced millions to the teachings of meditation and Kriya Yoga through his organization Self-Realization Fellowsh ...

, and Yogendra. The yoga teacher T.K.V. Desikachar, one of Krishnamacharya's sons, explained that his father had intended to write a series of books on yoga, of which this was to have been the first, but the death of his sponsor the

Maharaja of Mysore The maharaja of Mysore was the king and principal ruler of the southern Indian Kingdom of Mysore and briefly of Mysore State in the Indian Dominion roughly between the mid- to late-1300s and 1950. In title, the role has been known by differen ...

, Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV, in 1940 caused the series to be abandoned. He stated that his father had decided to cover practices (

shatkarma The shatkarmas (Sanskrit: षटकर्म ''ṣaṭkarma'', literally ''six actions''), also known as shatkriyas,neti and

dhauti Dhauti is one of the Shatkarmas (or Shatkriyas), which form the yogic system of body cleansing techniques. It is intended mainly to the cleaning of the digestive tract in its full length but it affects also the respiratory tract, external ears and ...

"which he himself did not recommend". He noted that the asanas in the book are described in " vinyasa krama", which was the way Krishnamacharya taught yoga to children in the

Mysore palace The Mysore Palace, also known as Amba Vilas Palace, is a historical palace and a royal residence (house). It is located in Mysore, Karnataka. It used to be the official residence of the Wadiyar dynasty and the seat of the Kingdom of Mysore. Th ...

. Other practices which he strongly endorsed like

pranayama Pranayama is the yogic practice of focusing on breath. In Sanskrit, '' prana'' means "vital life force", and ''yama'' means to gain control. In yoga, breath is associated with ''prana'', thus, pranayama is a means to elevate the '' prana'' ''s ...

and

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...

were to be topics of later books and were therefore not covered. Krishnamacharya's disciple and biographer

A. G. Mohan A. G. Mohan (born 1945) is an Indian yoga teacher, author, and co-founder of Svastha Yoga & Ayurveda. Mohan was a longtime disciple of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888-1989), the "father of modern yoga". Mohan co-founded with T.K.V. Desikachar ...

states that the book was written "in three nights" according to Krishnamacharya's wife, at the behest of the Maharaja. Mohan notes without comment that the book covers yoga practices other than asanas that Krishnamacharya "did not instruct his students to practice".

Book

Publication and translation

''Yoga Makaranda'' was published in the

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

language by the

Madurai Madurai ( , also , ) is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District. As of the 2011 census, it was the third largest Urban agglomeration i ...

C.M.V. Press in 1934. A

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, na ...

edition appeared in 1938. An English translation by Lakshmi and Nandini Ranganathan was published in India in 2006, and released by them as a free download. A different English translation by Krishnamacharya's grandson Kausthub Desikachar and son T.K.V. Desikachar was published in paperback in 2011 and online in 2013.

The book is introduced with a discussion of why yoga should be practised, the

chakra Chakras (, ; sa , text=चक्र , translit=cakra , translit-std=IAST , lit=wheel, circle; pi, cakka) are various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, or the esoteric or ...

s (elements of the

subtle body A subtle body is a "quasi material" aspect of the human body, being neither solely physical nor solely spiritual, according to various esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. This contrasts with the mind–body dualism that has dominated ...

on which yoga is said to operate), pratyahara, dharana and dhyana (elements of Patanjalis's yoga), and who "has the authority to practise Yoga", which in Krishnamacharya's view is "everyone". It discusses the elements of yoga, starting with yamas and

niyamas The Niyamas ( sa, नियम, translit=Niyama) are positive duties or observances. In Indian traditions, particularly Yoga, niyamas and their complement, Yamas, are recommended activities and habits for healthy living, spiritual enlightenment ...

, warning that "sleep, laziness and disease" are obstacles to becoming "an adept yogi". The book then describes where to practise yoga, recommending "a place with plenty of water, a fertile place, a place where there is a bank of a

holy river Sacred waters are sacred natural sites characterized by tangible topographical land formations such as rivers, lakes, springs, reservoirs, and oceans, as opposed to holy water which is water elevated with the sacramental blessing of a cler ...

, where there are no crowds, a clean solitary place — such places are superior." It gives a description of the purifications (which it calls shatkriyas) and seals (

mudra A mudra (; sa, मुद्रा, , "seal", "mark", or "gesture"; ,) is a symbolic or ritual gesture or pose in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers. As wel ...

s). The bulk of the book is taken up with a description of 42 asanas.

Approach

Each asana is described with some paragraphs of instructions, and illustrated with one or more photographs. The student is instructed how to stand, and which limbs should be straight. For many poses, the claimed medical benefits are then described, without adduced evidence. The term vinyasa is used with the meaning of "stage in the execution of an asana". For example,

Sarvangasana Sarvangasana ( sa, सर्वाङ्गासन, translit=sarvāṅgāsana), Shoulder stand, or more fully Salamba Sarvangasana (Supported Shoulder stand), is an inverted asana in modern yoga as exercise; similar poses were used in medieval ...

is introduced with the words "This has 12 vinyasas tages The 8th vinyasa is the asana sthiti he actual pose"

Illustrations

There are four photographs of Krishnamacharya's ''Yogasala'' showing the hall and students. The chapter on asanas is illustrated with 95 monochrome photographs, each of an individual performing the named pose. Many are of Krishnamacharya himself; others are of his students, including T. R. S. Sharma as a boy, or of Keshavamurthy, stated by Elliott Goldberg to be his favourite student, who performs difficult poses such as Durvasasana (standing with one leg behind the neck). Some poses, such as Krishnamacharya demonstrating

Mayurasana Mayūrāsana ( sa, मयूरासन) or Peacock pose is a hand-balancing asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise with the body held horizontal over the hands. It is one of the oldest non-seated asanas. Etymology and origins The ...

, are on a tiger skin.

Nomenclature

Krishnamacharya names the asanas, in

, by the parts of the body and the stretches involved. For example "Adhomukha Uttanasana" means "Face Down Extended Stretch Pose", while "Supta Utthita Dakshinapada Janusirsasana" is "Reclining Extended Right Foot Head to Knee Pose"; a glossary of Sanskrit is provided in the text.

Reception

The yoga scholar Mark Singleton notes that the book "has quasi-legendary status among contemporary /nowiki>Ashtanga_Vinyasa_Yoga.html" ;"title="Ashtanga_Vinyasa_Yoga.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga">/nowiki>Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga">Ashtanga_Vinyasa_Yoga.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga">/nowiki>Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga/nowiki> students of

[though] very few have actually seen it". He quotes the original introduction by V. Subhramananya Iyer, which called the book "a result of the many tests conducted under the special orders of the Maharaja of Mysore", in other words that the book "was intended to be, and in practice was, ''experimental'' (his italics)". Singleton observes that the book called for the asanas to be held for long periods (3 to 15 minutes), arguing that the rapid sequences inherited by his pupil Pattabhi Jois were a special case, even then. The yoga scholar Norman Sjoman is critical of the book's perfunctory treatment of both academic requirements and yogic practices other than asanas. He comments that Krishnamacharya's list of sources "reveals his relation to tradition", but is "a padded academic bibliography with works referred to that have nothing to do with the tradition he is teaching in". The list includes for instance the well-known hatha yoga texts, the '' Hatha Yoga Pradipika'', the '' Gheranda Samhita'' and the ''

Sritattvanidhi The ''Sritattvanidhi'' (, "The Illustrious Treasure of Realities") is a treatise written in the 19th century in Karnataka on the iconography and iconometry of divine figures in South India. One of its sections includes instructions for, and ill ...

'' as well as the Yoga Upanishads. Sjoman gives as an example the recommendations for ''

vajroli mudra ''Vajroli mudra'' (Sanskrit: वज्रोली मुद्रा ''vajrolī mudrā''), the Vajroli Seal, is a practice in Hatha yoga which requires the yogin to preserve his semen, either by learning not to release it, or if released by dra ...

'' which call for "a glass rod to be inserted into the

urethra The urethra (from Greek οὐρήθρα – ''ourḗthrā'') is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of urine from the body of both females and males. In human females and other primates, the urethra c ...

f the penisan inch at a time. His recommendations show that he has most certainly not experimented with this himself in the manner he recommends." The yoga scholar Elliott Goldberg comments that the photographs of Krishnamacharya's schoolboy pupils in the poses "don't truly capture yogins using their body as a tool for spiritual development either. In fact, the photos demystify whatever spirituality may obtain to the exercises." He adds that the group photographs are "showy ... eye-catching tricks", with boys in familiar asanas but arranged in a pyramid. The vinyasa system of yoga, too, was in Goldberg's view "spectacularly different" from anything practised in India at the time; he is dismissive of Krishnamacharya's "spurious claim for the ancient origin of Vinyasa yoga", citing Singleton's analysis in ''

Yoga Body ''Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice'' is a 2010 book on yoga as exercise by the yoga scholar Mark Singleton. It is based on his PhD thesis, and argues that the yoga known worldwide is, in large part, a radical break from hatha y ...

'' of its origins in

Surya Namaskar Sun Salutation, also called Surya Namaskar(a) or Salute to the Sun (), is a practice in yoga as exercise incorporating a flow sequence of some twelve gracefully linked asanas. The asana sequence was first recorded as yoga in the early 20th centu ...

, suggesting "self-aggrandizement and self-protection" as the motives. Despite all this, Goldberg states that Krishnamacharya's main interest in yoga was to nourish spirituality (''adhyatmika krama''), quoting his words in ''Yoga Makaranda'': "Once you stop the oscillating nature of mind, you can reach the level of

dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...

, nididhyasanam, and

samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...

Patanjali's_eight-limbed_yoga.html" ;"title="Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)">Patanjali's eight-limbed yoga">Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)">Patanjali's eight-limbed yoga and through that you can see the atma He notes that Krishnamacharya was following the traditional interpretation of Patanjali's ''Yoga Sutras'', that the eight limbs formed a sequence of steps.

References

Primary

These references are supplied to indicate the parts of the ''Yoga Makaranda'' text being discussed.

Secondary

Sources

* * * * {{Yoga as exercise 1934 non-fiction books Modern yoga books