Xingjiang Institute Of Ecology And Geography

Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwest of the country at the crossroads of Central Asia and East Asia. Being the largest province-level division of China by area and the 8th-largest country subdivision in the world, Xinjiang spans over and has about 25 million inhabitants. Xinjiang borders the countries of Mongolia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. The rugged Karakoram, Kunlun and Tian Shan mountain ranges occupy much of Xinjiang's borders, as well as its western and southern regions. The Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract regions, both administered by China, are claimed by India. Xinjiang also borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. The most well-known route of the historic Silk Road ran through the territory from the east to its northwestern border.

Xinjiang is divided into the Dzungarian Basin in the north and the Tarim Basin in the south by a mountain range and only about 9.7% of Xinjiang's land area is fit for human habitation. It is home to a number of ethnic groups, including the Turkic Uyghur, Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, the Han, Tibetans, Hui, Chinese Tajiks (Pamiris), Mongols, Russians and Sibe. There are more than a dozen autonomous prefectures and counties for minorities in Xinjiang. Older English-language reference works often refer to the area as Chinese Turkestan, East Turkestan and East Turkistan.

With a documented history of at least 2,500 years, a succession of people and empires have vied for control over all or parts of this territory. The territory came under the rule of the Qing dynasty in the 18th century, which was later replaced by the Republic of China. Since 1949 and the Chinese Civil War, it has been part of the People's Republic of China. In 1954, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) was established to strengthen border defense against the Soviet Union and promote the local economy by settling soldiers into the region. In 1955, Xinjiang was administratively changed from a province into an autonomous region. In recent decades, abundant oil and mineral reserves have been found in Xinjiang and it is currently China's largest natural gas-producing region.

From the 1990s to the 2010s, the East Turkestan independence movement, separatist conflict and the influence of radical Islam have resulted in unrest in the region with occasional terrorist attacks and clashes between separatist and government forces. These conflicts prompted the Chinese government to commit a series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic and religious minorities in the province including, according to some, genocide.

Names

{{Infobox Chinese
, pic = Xinjiang (Chinese characters).svg
, piccap = "Xīnjiāng" in Chinese characters
, picupright = 0.5
, c = {{linktext, lang=zh, 新疆
, l = "New Frontier"
, p = Xīnjiāng
, w = Hsin¹-chiang¹
, mi = {{IPAc-cmn, x, in, 1, ., j, iang, 1
, bpmf = ㄒㄧㄣ   ㄐㄧㄤ
, gr = Shinjiang
, mps = Shinjihang
, tp = Sinjiang
, myr = Syīnjyāng
, showflag = p
, xej = سٍكِيْا
, zh-dungan = Щинҗён
, psp = Sinkiang
, j = San1goeng1
, y = Sān'gēung
, ci = {{IPAc-yue, s, an, 1, ., g, oeng, 1
, poj = Sin-kiong
, buc = Sĭng-giŏng
, teo = Sing-kiang
, h = Sîn-kiông
, altname = Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
, psp2 = Sinkiang Uyghur Autonomous Region
, s2 = {{nowrap, {{linktext, 新疆维吾尔自治区
, t2 = {{nowrap, {{linktext, 新疆維吾爾自治區
, p2 = {{nowrap, Xīnjiāng Wéiwú'ěr Zìzhìqū
, bpmf2 = ㄒㄧㄣ   ㄐㄧㄤ
ㄨㄟˊ   ㄨˊ   ㄦˇ
ㄗˋ   ㄓˋ   ㄑㄩ
, w2 = Hsin¹-chiang¹ Wei²-wu²-êrh³ Tzŭ⁴-chih⁴-chʻü¹
, mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn, x, in, 1, ., j, iang, 1, -, wei, 2, ., wu, 2, ., er, 3, -, zi, 4, ., zhi, 4, ., qu, 1
, gr2 = Shinjiang Weiwueel Tzyhjyhchiu
, mps2 = Shinjiang Wheihuel Tzyhgukhickhu
, myr2 = Syīnjyāng Wéiwúěr Dz̀jr̀chyū
, tp2 = Sinjiang Wéiwú'ěr Zìhjhìhcyu
, wuu2 = {{nowrap, sin cian vi ng el zy zy chiu
, poj2 = Sin-kiong Ûi-ngô͘-ní Chū-tī-khu
, teo2 = Sing-kiang Jûi-û-jéu Tsĕu-tī-khu
, buc2 = Sĭng-giŏng Mì-ngù-ī Cê̤ṳ-dê-kṳ̆
, h2 = Sîn-kiông Vì-ngâ-ngì Tshṳ-tshṳ-khî
, xej2 = سٍكِيْا وِءُعَر ذِجِٿُوُ
, zh-dungan2 = Щинҗён Уйгур Зыҗычү
, mon = Шиньжян Уйгурын өөртөө засах орон
, mong = {{MongolUnicode, ᠰᠢᠨᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ
ᠤᠶᠢᠭᠤᠷ
ᠤᠨ
ᠥᠪᠡᠷᠲᠡᠭᠡᠨ
ᠵᠠᠰᠠᠬᠤ
ᠣᠷᠤᠨ
, monr = Sinjiyaŋ Uyiɣur-un öbertegen jasaqu orun
(Classical)
{{longitem, Shin'jyan Uiguryn öörtöö zasakh oron (Khalkha)
, uig = {{big, شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى
, uly = {{nowrap, Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayoni
, uyy = {{nowrap, Xinjang Uyƣur Aptonom Rayoni
, sgs = {{nowrap, Xinjang Uyĝur Aptonom Rayoni
, usy = Шинҗаң Уйғур Аптоном Райони
, lang1 = Kazakh
, lang1_content = {{nowrap, {{lang, kk-Arab, شينجياڭ ۇيعۇر اۆتونوميالى رايونى
{{longitem, {{lang, kk-Latn, Shyńjań Uıǵyr aýtonomııalyq aýdany
, lang2 = Kyrgyz
, lang2_content = {{nowrap, {{lang, ky-Arab, شئنجاڭ ۇيعۇر اپتونوم رايونۇ
{{longitem, {{lang, ky, Шинжаң-Уйгур автоном району {{longitem, {{lang, ky-Latn, Şincañ-Uyğur avtonom rayonu
, lang3 = Oirat
, lang3_content = {{MongolUnicode, ᠱᡅᠨᡓᡅᡕᠠᡊ
ᡇᡕᡅᡎᡇᠷ
ᡅᠨ
ᡄᡋᡄᠷᡄᡃᠨ
ᠴᠠᠰᠠᡍᡇ
ᡆᠷᡇᠨ, style=max-height:5em; word-wrap:normal
Šinǰiyang Uyiγur-in ebereen zasaqu orun
, order = st
, s =
, t =
, mnc = {{ManchuSibeUnicode, ᡳᠴᡝ
ᠵᡝᠴᡝᠨ
ᡠᡳᡤᡠᡵ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᠩᡤᠠ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ
, mnc_v = Ice Jecen Uigur beye dasangga golo
, lang4 = Xibe
, lang4_content = {{MongolUnicode, ᠰᡞᠨᡪᠶᠠᡢ
ᡠᡞᡤᡠᠷ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᡢᡤᠠ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ, style=max-height:4em; word-wrap:normal
Sinjyang Uigur beye dasangga golo

The general region of Xinjiang has been known by many different names in earlier times, in indigenous languages as well as other languages. These names include Altishahr, the historical Uyghur name for the southern half of the region referring to "the six cities" of the Tarim Basin, as well as Khotan, Khotay, Chinese Tartary, High Tartary, East Chagatay (it was the eastern part of the Chagatai Khanate), Moghulistan ("land of the Mongols"), Kashgaria, Little Bokhara, Serindia (due to Indian cultural influence){{sfnp, Tyler, 2004,
3
} and, in Chinese, " Western Regions".{{sfnp, Hill, 2009, pp=xviii, 60

In Chinese, under the Han dynasty, Xinjiang was known as ''Xiyu'' ({{lang, zh, 西域), meaning "Western Regions". Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE the Han Empire established the Protectorate of the Western Regions or Xiyu Protectorate ({{lang, zh-hant, 西域都護府) in an effort to secure the profitable routes of the Silk Road. The Western Regions during the Tang era were known as ''Qixi'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 磧西). Qi refers to the Gobi Desert while Xi refers to the west. The Tang Empire had established the '' Protectorate General to Pacify the West'' or ''Anxi Protectorate'' ({{lang, zh-hant, 安西都護府) in 640 to control the region.

During the Qing dynasty, the northern part of Xinjiang, Dzungaria was known as Zhunbu ({{lang, zh-hant, 準部, "Dzungar region") and the Southern Tarim Basin was known as ''Huijiang'' ({{lang, zh, 回疆, "Muslim Frontier"). Both regions merged after Qing dynasty suppressed the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas in 1759 and became the region of "Xiyu Xinjiang" ({{zh, t = 西域新疆, l = Western Regions' New Frontier), later simplified as "Xinjiang" / "Sinkiang" ({{zh, t = 新疆, Manchu: ᡳᠴᡝ
ᠵᡝᠴᡝᠨ, Romanization: ''ice jecen''). The official name was given during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor in 1878. According to Chinese statesman Zuo Zongtang's report to the Guangxu Emperor, Xinjiang means an "old land newly returned" ({{lang, zh-Hant, 故土新歸) or the "new old land".{{refn, group=n, The imperial-era Chinese word gui {{linktext, lang=zh-Hant, 歸 is not descriptive, but normative: It is a term which seeks to justify new conquests by presenting them as a naturally appropriate "return." It does not indicate that the territory already had been conquered earlier.{{sfnp, Weinstein, 2013, p=4, ps=.{{full citation needed, date=May 2020 It can also be translated as “new frontier” or “new territory.” In fact, the term "Xinjiang" was used in many other places conquered, but never were ruled by Chinese empires directly until the gradual '' Gaitu Guiliu'' administrative reform, including regions in Southern China. For instance, present-day Jinchuan County in Sichuan was then known as "Jinchuan Xinjiang", Zhaotong in Yunnan was named directly as "Xinjiang", Qiandongnan region, Anshun and Zhenning were named as "Liangyou Xinjiang" etc.

In 1955, Xinjiang Province was renamed "Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region". The name that was originally proposed was simply "Xinjiang Autonomous Region" because that was the name for the imperial territory. This proposal was not well-received by Uyghurs in the Communist Party, who found the name colonialist in nature since it meant “new territory." Saifuddin Azizi, the first chairman of Xinjiang, registered his strong objections to the proposed name with Mao Zedong, arguing that "autonomy is not given to mountains and rivers. It is given to particular nationalities." Some Uyghur Communists proposed the name "Tian Shan Uyghur Autonomous Region" instead. The Han Communists in the central government denied the name Xinjiang was colonialist and that the central government could be colonialists both because they were communists and because China was a victim of colonialism. But due to the Uyghur complaints, the administrative region would be named "Xinjiang ''Uygur'' Autonomous Region".{{sfnp, Bovingdon, 2010, p=199{{cite podcast , url= https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/episode-39-ethnicity-tibet-and-xinjiang-in-the-prc/id1337064684?i=1000446900247, title= Episode 39: Ethnicity, Tibet, and Xinjiang in the PRC, website=podcasts.apple.com, publisher=Beyond Huaxia: A College History of China and Japan, host=Justin M. Jacobs, date=14 August 2019, time=60:00–62:18, access-date=19 March 2022

Uyghur nationalists refer to Xinjiang as "Uyghurstan".

Description

Xinjiang consists of two main geographically, historically and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names, Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, before Qing China unified them into one political entity called Xinjiang Province in 1884. At the time of the Qing conquest in 1759, Dzungaria was inhabited by steppe dwelling, nomadic Tibetan Buddhist Dzungar people, while the Tarim Basin was inhabited by sedentary, oasis dwelling, Turkic-speaking Muslim farmers, now known as the Uyghur people. They were governed separately until 1884. The native Uyghur name for the Tarim Basin is Altishahr.

The Qing dynasty was well aware of the differences between the former Buddhist Mongol area to the north of the Tian Shan and the Turkic Muslim area south of the Tian Shan and ruled them in separate administrative units at first.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
69
} However, Qing people began to think of both areas as part of one distinct region called Xinjiang.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
70
} The very concept of Xinjiang as one distinct geographic identity was created by the Qing. It was originally not the native inhabitants who viewed it that way, but rather the Chinese who held that point of view.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
67
} During the Qing rule, no sense of "regional identity" was held by ordinary Xinjiang people; rather, Xinjiang's distinct identity was given to the region by the Qing, since it had distinct geography, history and culture, while at the same time it was created by the Chinese, multicultural, settled by Han and Hui and separated from Central Asia for over a century and a half.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
77
}

In the late 19th century, it was still being proposed by some people that two separate regions be created out of Xinjiang, the area north of the Tianshan and the area south of the Tianshan, while it was being argued over whether to turn Xinjiang into a province.{{sfnp, Liu, Faure, 1996,
78
}

Xinjiang is a large, sparsely populated area, spanning over 1.6 million km² (comparable in size to Iran), which takes up about one sixth of the country's territory. Xinjiang borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and India's Leh district in Ladakh to the south, Qinghai and Gansu provinces to the east, Mongolia ( Bayan-Ölgii, Govi-Altai and Khovd Provinces) to the east, Russia's Altai Republic to the north and Kazakhstan (Almaty and East Kazakhstan Regions), Kyrgyzstan ( Issyk-Kul, Naryn and Osh Regions), Tajikistan's Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region, Afghanistan's Badakhshan Province and Pakistan's Gilgit-Baltistan to the west.

The east-west chain of the Tian Shan separate Dzungaria in the north from the Tarim Basin in the south. Dzungaria is a dry steppe and the Tarim Basin contains the massive Taklamakan Desert, surrounded by oases. In the east is the Turpan Depression. In the west, the Tian Shan split, forming the Ili River valley.
{{clear left

History

Early history

{{History of Xinjiang
{{Main, History of Xinjiang
{{Further, Western Regions, Kingdom of Khotan, Shule Kingdom, Shanshan, Saka, Tocharians, Sogdia

The earliest inhabitants of the region encompassing modern day Xinjiang were genetically of Ancient North Eurasian and Northeast Asian origin, with later geneflow from during the Bronze Age linked to the expansion of early Indo-Europeans. These population dynamics gave rise to a heterogeneous demographic makeup. Iron Age samples from Xinjiang show intensified levels of admixture between Steppe pastoralists and northeast Asians, with northern and eastern Xinjiang showing more affinities with northeast Asians, and southern Xinjiang showing more affinity with central Asians.

Between 2009 and 2015, the remains of 92 individuals in the Xiaohe Cemetery were analyzed for Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA markers. Genetic analyses of the mummies showed that the paternal lineages of the Xiaohe people were of European{{cite book , last1=Betts , first1=Allison , title=The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads , date=2019 , publisher=Archaeopress , location=Summertown, Oxford , isbn=978-1789694079 , page=50 , url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Cultures_of_Ancient_Xinjiang_Western/rxUSEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=&pg=PA50 "The first settlers had European paternal lineages, and maternal lineages of European and Siberian origin." .."a pattern that continued in to Xiaohe Phase II, in layers 3, 2 and 1, where the genes show greater mixing still (Li, et al. 2015). The origin of the mitochondrial lineages is more widespread, with the presence of west Eurasian, east Eurasian and Indian lineages." .."This may account for the marked genetic change over time in the Xiaohe population (Li 2010, Li, et al. 2010, Li et al. 2015)." The later Xiaohe people carried diverse east Eurasian maternal lineages, including a dominance of C4 and C5, generally linked to southern Siberia." origin, while the maternal lineages of the early population were diverse, featuring both East Eurasian and West Eurasian lineages, as well as a small number of Indian lineages. Over time, the west Eurasian maternal lineages were gradually replaced by east Eurasian maternal lineages. This implies a pattern of outmarriage to women from Siberian communities, which, over many hundreds of years, led to the loss of the original diversity of mtDNA lineages observed in the earlier Xiaohe population.{{cite book , last1=Schurr , first1=Theodore , title=Globalization , date=2015 , publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology , location=Philadelphia , isbn=978-1934536780 , url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Globalization/DD94BgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA91&printsec=frontcover "In this regard, genetic data have recently been discovered from individuals interred in the Xiaohe cemetery from the Tarim Basin. Interestingly, they were shown to have both East Eurasian and West Eurasian mtDNA lineages, but only West Eurasian NRY lineages (Li et al 2010)."{{cite journal , author1=Chunxiang Li , author2=Hongjie Li , author3=Yinqiu Cui , author4=Chengzhi Xie , author5=Dawei Cai , author6=Wenying Li , author7=Victor H Mair , author8=Zhi Xu , author9=Quanchao Zhang , author10=Idelis Abuduresule , author11=Li Jin , author12=Hong Zhu , author13=Hui Zhou , title=Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age , journal=BMC Biology , volume=8 , issue=15 , pages=15, year=2010, pmid=20163704 , pmc=2838831 , doi=10.1186/1741-7007-8-15

The Tarim population was therefore always notably diverse, reflecting a complex history of admixture between people of Ancient North Eurasian, South Asian and Northeast Asian descent. The Tarim mummies have been found in various locations in the Western Tarim Basin such as Loulan, the Xiaohe Tomb complex and Qäwrighul. These mummies have been previously suggested to have been Tocharian or Indo-European speakers, but recent evidence suggest that the earliest mummies belonged to a distinct population unrelated to Indo-European pastoralists and spoke an unknown language, probably a language isolate.

Although many of the Tarim mummies were classified as Caucasoid by anthropologists, Tarim Basin sites also contain both "Caucasoid" and "Mongoloid" remains, indicating contact between newly arrived western nomads and agricultural communities in the east. Mummies have been found in various locations in the Western Tarim Basin such as Loulan, the Xiaohe Tomb complex and Qäwrighul. The earliest of the mummies have been previously suggested to have been Tocharian or Indo-European speakers, but recent evidence suggest that the earliest mummies belonged to a distinct population unrelated to Indo-European pastoralists and spoke an unknown language, probably a language isolate.

Nomadic tribes such as the Yuezhi, Saka and Wusun

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