The viscosity of a
fluid
In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that continuously deforms (''flows'') under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear ...
is a measure of its
resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example,
syrup
In cooking, a syrup (less commonly sirup; from ar, شراب; , beverage, wine and la, sirupus) is a condiment that is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars ...
has a higher viscosity than
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
.
Viscosity quantifies the internal
frictional force
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:
*Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of ...
between adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a viscous fluid is forced through a tube, it flows more quickly near the tube's axis than near its walls. Experiments show that some
stress
Stress may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition
* Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
(such as a
pressure
Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country and e ...
difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow. This is because a force is required to overcome the friction between the layers of the fluid which are in relative motion. For a tube with a constant rate of flow, the strength of the compensating force is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.
In general, viscosity depends on a fluid's state, such as its temperature, pressure, and rate of deformation. However, the dependence on some of these properties is negligible in certain cases. For example, the viscosity of a
Newtonian fluid
A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from its flow are at every point linearly correlated to the local strain rate — the rate of change of its deformation over time. Stresses are proportional to the rate of chang ...
does not vary significantly with the rate of deformation. Zero viscosity (no resistance to
shear stress
Shear stress, often denoted by (Greek: tau), is the component of stress coplanar with a material cross section. It arises from the shear force, the component of force vector parallel to the material cross section. ''Normal stress'', on the ot ...
) is observed only at
very low temperatures in
superfluids
Superfluidity is the characteristic property of a fluid with zero viscosity which therefore flows without any loss of kinetic energy. When stirred, a superfluid forms vortices
In fluid dynamics, a vortex ( : vortices or vortexes) is a reg ...
; otherwise, the
second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on universal experience concerning heat and Energy transformation, energy interconversions. One simple statement of the law is that heat always moves from hotter objects to colder objects ( ...
requires all fluids to have positive viscosity. A fluid that has zero viscosity is called ''ideal'' or ''inviscid''.
Etymology
The word "viscosity" is derived from the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
' ("
mistletoe
Mistletoe is the common name for obligate hemiparasitic plants in the order Santalales. They are attached to their host tree or shrub by a structure called the haustorium, through which they extract water and nutrients from the host plant.
...
"). ''Viscum'' also referred to a viscous
glue
Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
The use of adhesives offers certain advant ...
derived from mistletoe berries.
Definition
Dynamic viscosity
![Laminar shear](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Laminar_shear.svg)
In
materials science and
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
, one is often interested in understanding the forces or
stresses involved in the
deformation
Deformation can refer to:
* Deformation (engineering), changes in an object's shape or form due to the application of a force or forces.
** Deformation (physics), such changes considered and analyzed as displacements of continuum bodies.
* Defor ...
of a material. For instance, if the material were a simple spring, the answer would be given by
Hooke's law
In physics, Hooke's law is an empirical law which states that the force () needed to extend or compress a spring (device), spring by some distance () Proportionality (mathematics)#Direct_proportionality, scales linearly with respect to that ...
, which says that the force experienced by a spring is proportional to the distance displaced from equilibrium. Stresses which can be attributed to the deformation of a material from some rest state are called
elastic
Elastic is a word often used to describe or identify certain types of elastomer, elastic used in garments or stretchable fabrics.
Elastic may also refer to:
Alternative name
* Rubber band, ring-shaped band of rubber used to hold objects togeth ...
stresses. In other materials, stresses are present which can be attributed to the
rate of change of the deformation over time. These are called viscous stresses. For instance, in a fluid such as water the stresses which arise from shearing the fluid do not depend on the ''distance'' the fluid has been sheared; rather, they depend on how ''quickly'' the shearing occurs.
Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar
Couette flow
In fluid dynamics, Couette flow is the flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two surfaces, one of which is moving tangentially relative to the other. The relative motion of the surfaces imposes a shear stress on the fluid and induces flow ...
.
In the Couette flow, a fluid is trapped between two infinitely large plates, one fixed and one in parallel motion at constant speed
(see illustration to the right). If the speed of the top plate is low enough (to avoid turbulence), then in steady state the fluid particles move parallel to it, and their speed varies from
at the bottom to
at the top. Each layer of fluid moves faster than the one just below it, and friction between them gives rise to a
force
In physics, a force is an influence that can change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (e.g. moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a p ...
resisting their relative motion. In particular, the fluid applies on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite force on the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed.
In many fluids, the flow velocity is observed to vary linearly from zero at the bottom to
at the top. Moreover, the magnitude of the force,
, acting on the top plate is found to be proportional to the speed
and the area
of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation
:
:
The proportionality factor is the ''dynamic viscosity'' of the fluid, often simply referred to as the ''viscosity''. It is denoted by the
Greek letter mu (). The dynamic viscosity has the
dimensions
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordina ...
, therefore resulting in the
SI units
The International System of Units, known by the international abbreviation SI in all languages and sometimes Pleonasm#Acronyms and initialisms, pleonastically as the SI system, is the modern form of the metric system and the world's most wid ...
and the
derived units:
:
pressure
Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country and e ...
multiplied by
time
Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to ...
.
The aforementioned ratio
is called the ''rate of shear deformation'' or ''
shear velocity
Shear velocity, also called friction velocity, is a form by which a shear stress may be re-written in units of velocity. It is useful as a method in fluid mechanics to compare true velocities, such as the velocity of a flow in a stream, to a veloci ...
'', and is the
derivative
In mathematics, the derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. F ...
of the fluid speed in the direction
perpendicular
In elementary geometry, two geometric objects are perpendicular if they intersect at a right angle (90 degrees or π/2 radians). The condition of perpendicularity may be represented graphically using the ''perpendicular symbol'', ⟂. It can ...
to the normal vector of the plates (see illustrations to the right). If the velocity does not vary linearly with
, then the appropriate generalization is:
:
where
, and
is the local shear velocity. This expression is referred to as Newton's law of viscosity. In shearing flows with planar symmetry, it is what ''defines''
. It is a special case of the general definition of viscosity (see below), which can be expressed in coordinate-free form.
Use of the
Greek letter mu (
) for the dynamic viscosity (sometimes also called the ''absolute viscosity'') is common among
mechanical
Mechanical may refer to:
Machine
* Machine (mechanical), a system of mechanisms that shape the actuator input to achieve a specific application of output forces and movement
* Mechanical calculator, a device used to perform the basic operations of ...
and
chemical engineer
In the field of engineering, a chemical engineer is a professional, equipped with the knowledge of chemical engineering, who works principally in the chemical industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of products and deals with the ...
s, as well as mathematicians and physicists. However, the
Greek letter eta (
) is also used by chemists, physicists, and the
IUPAC
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology. It is ...
. The viscosity
is sometimes also called the ''shear viscosity''. However, at least one author discourages the use of this terminology, noting that
can appear in non-shearing flows in addition to shearing flows.
Kinematic viscosity
In fluid dynamics, it is sometimes more appropriate to work in terms of ''kinematic viscosity'' (sometimes also called the ''momentum diffusivity''), defined as the ratio of the dynamic viscosity () over the
density
Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is the substance's mass per unit of volume. The symbol most often used for density is ''ρ'' (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter ''D'' can also be used. Mathematical ...
of the fluid (). It is usually denoted by the
Greek letter nu ():
:
and has the
dimensions
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordina ...
, therefore resulting in the
SI units
The International System of Units, known by the international abbreviation SI in all languages and sometimes Pleonasm#Acronyms and initialisms, pleonastically as the SI system, is the modern form of the metric system and the world's most wid ...
and the
derived units:
:
specific energy
Specific energy or massic energy is energy per unit mass. It is also sometimes called gravimetric energy density, which is not to be confused with energy density, which is defined as energy per unit volume. It is used to quantify, for example, sto ...
multiplied by
time
Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to ...
.
General definition
In very general terms, the viscous stresses in a fluid are defined as those resulting from the relative velocity of different fluid particles. As such, the viscous stresses must depend on spatial gradients of the flow velocity. If the velocity gradients are small, then to a first approximation the viscous stresses depend only on the first derivatives of the velocity. (For Newtonian fluids, this is also a linear dependence.) In Cartesian coordinates, the general relationship can then be written as
:
where
is a viscosity tensor that maps the
velocity gradient
Velocity is the directional speed of an object in motion as an indication of its rate of change in position as observed from a particular frame of reference and as measured by a particular standard of time (e.g. northbound). Velocity is a ...
tensor
onto the viscous stress tensor
. Since the indices in this expression can vary from 1 to 3, there are 81 "viscosity coefficients"
in total. However, assuming that the viscosity rank-4 tensor is
isotropic
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived . Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix ' or ', hence ''anisotropy''. ''Anisotropy'' is also used to describe ...
reduces these 81 coefficients to three independent parameters
,
,
:
:
and furthermore, it is assumed that no viscous forces may arise when the fluid is undergoing simple rigid-body rotation, thus
, leaving only two independent parameters. The most usual decomposition is in terms of the standard (scalar) viscosity
and the
bulk viscosity Volume viscosity (also called bulk viscosity, or dilatational viscosity) is a material property relevant for characterizing fluid flow. Common symbols are \zeta, \mu', \mu_\mathrm, \kappa or \xi. It has dimensions (mass / (length × time)), and the ...
such that
and
. In vector notation this appears as:
:
where
is the unit tensor, and the dagger
denotes the
transpose
In linear algebra, the transpose of a matrix is an operator which flips a matrix over its diagonal;
that is, it switches the row and column indices of the matrix by producing another matrix, often denoted by (among other notations).
The tr ...
. This equation can be thought of as a generalized form of Newton's law of viscosity.
The bulk viscosity (also called volume viscosity) expresses a type of internal friction that resists the shearless compression or expansion of a fluid. Knowledge of
is frequently not necessary in fluid dynamics problems. For example, an incompressible fluid satisfies
and so the term containing
drops out. Moreover,
is often assumed to be negligible for gases since it is
in a
monatomic
In physics and chemistry, "monatomic" is a combination of the words "mono" and "atomic", and means "single atom". It is usually applied to gases: a monatomic gas is a gas in which atoms are not bound to each other. Examples at standard conditions ...
ideal gas
An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that are not subject to interparticle interactions. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law, a simplified equation of state, and is a ...
. One situation in which
can be important is the calculation of energy loss in
sound
In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the ''reception'' of such waves and their ''perception'' by the ...
and
shock wave
In physics, a shock wave (also spelled shockwave), or shock, is a type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than the local speed of sound in the medium. Like an ordinary wave, a shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a med ...
s, described by
Stokes' law of sound attenuation, since these phenomena involve rapid expansions and compressions.
The defining equations for viscosity are not fundamental laws of nature, so their usefulness, as well as methods for measuring or calculating the viscosity, must be established using separate means. A potential issue is that viscosity depends, in principle, on the full microscopic state of the fluid, which encompasses the positions and momenta of every particle in the system. Such highly detailed information is typically not available in realistic systems. However, under certain conditions most of this information can be shown to be negligible. In particular, for Newtonian fluids near equilibrium and far from boundaries (bulk state), the viscosity depends only space- and time-dependent macroscopic fields (such as temperature and density) defining local equilibrium.
Nevertheless, viscosity may still carry a non-negligible dependence on several system properties, such as temperature, pressure, and the amplitude and frequency of any external forcing. Therefore, precision measurements of viscosity are only defined
with respect to a specific fluid state. To standardize comparisons among experiments and theoretical models, viscosity data is sometimes extrapolated to ideal limiting cases, such as the ''zero shear'' limit, or (for gases) the ''zero density'' limit.
Momentum transport
Transport theory provides an alternative interpretation of viscosity in terms of momentum transport: viscosity is the material property which characterizes momentum transport within a fluid, just as
thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by k, \lambda, or \kappa.
Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal ...
characterizes
heat
In thermodynamics, heat is defined as the form of energy crossing the boundary of a thermodynamic system by virtue of a temperature difference across the boundary. A thermodynamic system does not ''contain'' heat. Nevertheless, the term is al ...
transport, and (mass)
diffusivity
Diffusivity is a rate of diffusion, a measure of the rate at which particles or heat or fluids can spread.
It is measured differently for different mediums.
Diffusivity may refer to:
*Thermal diffusivity, diffusivity of heat
*Diffusivity of mass: ...
characterizes mass transport. This perspective is implicit in Newton's law of viscosity,
, because the shear stress
has units equivalent to a momentum
flux
Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications to physics. For transport ph ...
, i.e., momentum per unit time per unit area. Thus,
can be interpreted as specifying the flow of momentum in the
direction from one fluid layer to the next. Per Newton's law of viscosity, this momentum flow occurs across a velocity gradient, and the magnitude of the corresponding momentum flux is determined by the viscosity.
The analogy with heat and mass transfer can be made explicit. Just as heat flows from high temperature to low temperature and mass flows from high density to low density, momentum flows from high velocity to low velocity. These behaviors are all described by compact expressions, called
constitutive relations
In physics and engineering, a constitutive equation or constitutive relation is a relation between two physical quantities (especially kinetic quantities as related to kinematic quantities) that is specific to a material or substance, and app ...
, whose one-dimensional forms are given here:
:
where
is the density,
and
are the mass and heat fluxes, and
and
are the mass diffusivity and thermal conductivity. The fact that mass, momentum, and energy (heat) transport are among the most relevant processes in continuum mechanics is not a coincidence: these are among the few physical quantities that are conserved at the microscopic level in interparticle collisions. Thus, rather than being dictated by the fast and complex microscopic interaction timescale, their dynamics occurs on macroscopic timescales, as described by the various equations of transport theory and hydrodynamics.
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
![Viscous regimes chart](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Viscous_regimes_chart.png)
Newton's law of viscosity is not a fundamental law of nature, but rather a
constitutive equation
In physics and engineering, a constitutive equation or constitutive relation is a relation between two physical quantities (especially kinetic quantities as related to kinematic quantities) that is specific to a material or substance, and approx ...
(like
Hooke's law
In physics, Hooke's law is an empirical law which states that the force () needed to extend or compress a spring (device), spring by some distance () Proportionality (mathematics)#Direct_proportionality, scales linearly with respect to that ...
,
Fick's law
Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion and were derived by Adolf Fick in 1855. They can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, . Fick's first law can be used to derive his second law which in turn is identical to the diffusion eq ...
, and
Ohm's law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equat ...
) which serves to define the viscosity
. Its form is motivated by experiments which show that for a wide range of fluids,
is independent of strain rate. Such fluids are called
Newtonian.
Gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or ...
es,
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
, and many common liquids can be considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. However, there are many
non-Newtonian fluid
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., constant viscosity independent of stress. In non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity can change when under force to either more liquid or more solid. Ketchup, for exa ...
s that significantly deviate from this behavior. For example:
*
Shear-thickening (dilatant) liquids, whose viscosity increases with the rate of shear strain.
*
Shear-thinning liquids, whose viscosity decreases with the rate of shear strain.
*
Thixotropic
Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that are thick or viscous under static conditions will flow (become thinner, less viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, shear-stressed, or otherwise stressed (ti ...
liquids, that become less viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
*
Rheopectic
In continuum mechanics, rheopecty or rheopexy is the rare property of some non-Newtonian fluids to show a time-dependent increase in viscosity ( time-dependent viscosity); the longer the fluid undergoes shearing force, the higher its viscosity. ...
liquids, that become more viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
*
Bingham plastic
A Bingham plastic is a viscoplastic material that behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high stress. It is named after Eugene C. Bingham who proposed its mathematical form.
It is used as a common mathematical mo ...
s that behave as a solid at low stresses but flow as a viscous fluid at high stresses.
Trouton's ratio is the ratio of
extensional viscosity
Extensional viscosity (also known as elongational viscosity) is a viscosity coefficient when applied stress is extensional stress. It is often used for characterizing polymer solutions.
Extensional viscosity can be measured using rheometers tha ...
to
shear viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity quantifies the inter ...
. For a Newtonian fluid, the Trouton ratio is 3. Shear-thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as thixotropic.
Even for a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity usually depends on its composition and temperature. For gases and other
compressible fluid
Compressible flow (or gas dynamics) is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with flows having significant changes in fluid density. While all flows are compressible, flows are usually treated as being incompressible when the Mach number (the r ...
s, it depends on temperature and varies very slowly with pressure. The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors. A
magnetorheological fluid, for example, becomes thicker when subjected to a
magnetic field
A magnetic field is a vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. A moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to its own velocity and to ...
, possibly to the point of behaving like a solid.
In solids
The viscous forces that arise during fluid flow are distinct from the
elastic
Elastic is a word often used to describe or identify certain types of elastomer, elastic used in garments or stretchable fabrics.
Elastic may also refer to:
Alternative name
* Rubber band, ring-shaped band of rubber used to hold objects togeth ...
forces that occur in a solid in response to shear, compression, or extension stresses. While in the latter the stress is proportional to the ''amount'' of shear deformation, in a fluid it is proportional to the ''rate'' of deformation over time. For this reason,
Maxwell used the term ''fugitive elasticity'' for fluid viscosity.
However, many liquids (including water) will briefly react like elastic solids when subjected to sudden stress. Conversely, many "solids" (even
granite
Granite () is a coarse-grained (phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies undergro ...
) will flow like liquids, albeit very slowly, even under arbitrarily small stress. Such materials are best described as
viscoelastic
In materials science and continuum mechanics, viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation. Viscous materials, like water, resist shear flow and strain linearly wi ...
—that is, possessing both elasticity (reaction to deformation) and viscosity (reaction to rate of deformation).
Viscoelastic solids may exhibit both shear viscosity and bulk viscosity. The
extensional viscosity
Extensional viscosity (also known as elongational viscosity) is a viscosity coefficient when applied stress is extensional stress. It is often used for characterizing polymer solutions.
Extensional viscosity can be measured using rheometers tha ...
is a
linear combination of the shear and bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers.
In
geology
Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Ear ...
, earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three
orders of magnitude
An order of magnitude is an approximation of the logarithm of a value relative to some contextually understood reference value, usually 10, interpreted as the base of the logarithm and the representative of values of magnitude one. Logarithmic dis ...
greater than their elastic deformation are sometimes called
rheid
In geology, a rheid is a substance whose temperature is below its melting point and whose deformation by viscous flow during the time of observation is at least three orders of magnitude (1,000×) greater than the elastic deformation under the ...
s.
Measurement
Viscosity is measured with various types of
viscometer
A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used. Thus, a rheometer can be considered as a spe ...
s and
rheometer
A rheometer is a laboratory device used to measure the way in which a dense fluid (a liquid, suspension or slurry) flows in response to applied forces. It is used for those fluids which cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and t ...
s. A rheometer is used for fluids that cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. Close temperature control of the fluid is essential to obtain accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 °C.
For some fluids, the viscosity is constant over a wide range of shear rates (
Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from its flow are at every point linearly correlated to the local strain rate — the rate of change of its deformation over time. Stresses are proportional to the rate of chang ...
). The fluids without a constant viscosity (
non-Newtonian fluid
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., constant viscosity independent of stress. In non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity can change when under force to either more liquid or more solid. Ketchup, for exa ...
s) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate.
One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.
In
coating
A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually referred to as the Substrate (materials science), substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, or both. Coatings may be applied as liquid ...
industries, viscosity may be measured with a cup in which the
efflux time
A Zahn cup is a viscosity measurement device widely used in the paint industry. It is commonly a stainless steel cup with a tiny hole drilled in the centre of the bottom of the cup. There is also a long handle attached to the sides. There are five ...
is measured. There are several sorts of cup—such as the
Zahn cup
A Zahn cup is a viscosity measurement device widely used in the paint industry. It is commonly a stainless steel cup with a tiny hole drilled in the centre of the bottom of the cup. There is also a long handle attached to the sides. There are five ...
and the
Ford viscosity cup
The Ford viscosity cup is a simple gravity device that permits the timed flow of a known volume of liquid passing through an orifice located at the bottom. Under ideal conditions, this rate of flow would be proportional to the kinematic viscosity ...
—with the usage of each type varying mainly according to the industry.
Also used in coatings, a ''Stormer viscometer'' employs load-based rotation to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers.
Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. Resonant, or vibrational viscometers work by creating shear waves within the liquid. In this method, the sensor is submerged in the fluid and is made to resonate at a specific frequency. As the surface of the sensor shears through the liquid, energy is lost due to its viscosity. This dissipated energy is then measured and converted into a viscosity reading. A higher viscosity causes a greater loss of energy.
''Extensional viscosity'' can be measured with various
rheometer
A rheometer is a laboratory device used to measure the way in which a dense fluid (a liquid, suspension or slurry) flows in response to applied forces. It is used for those fluids which cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and t ...
s that apply
extensional stress
In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity. It is a quantity that describes the magnitude of forces that cause deformation. Stress is defined as ''force per unit area''. When an object is pulled apart by a force it will cause elonga ...
.
Volume viscosity Volume viscosity (also called bulk viscosity, or dilatational viscosity) is a material property relevant for characterizing fluid flow. Common symbols are \zeta, \mu', \mu_\mathrm, \kappa or \xi. It has dimensions (mass / (length × time)), and the ...
can be measured with an
acoustic rheometer
An acoustic rheometer employs a piezo-electric crystal that can easily launch a successive wave of extensions and contractions into the fluid. It applies an oscillating extensional stress to the system. System response can be interpreted in terms ...
.
Apparent viscosity
In fluid mechanics, apparent viscosity (sometimes denoted ) is the shear stress applied to a fluid divided by the shear rate:
:\eta = \frac
For a Newtonian fluid, the apparent viscosity is constant, and equal to the Newtonian viscosity of ...
is a calculation derived from tests performed on
drilling fluid
In geotechnical engineering, drilling fluid, also called drilling mud, is used to aid the drilling of boreholes into the earth. Often used while drilling oil and natural gas wells and on exploration drilling rigs, drilling fluids are also us ...
used in oil or gas well development. These calculations and tests help engineers develop and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required.
Nanoviscosity (viscosity sensed by nanoprobes) can be measured by
fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a statistical analysis, via time correlation, of stationary fluctuations of the fluorescence intensity. Its theoretical underpinning originated from L. Onsager's regression hypothesis. The analysis p ...
.
Units
The
SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the
newton
Newton most commonly refers to:
* Isaac Newton (1642–1726/1727), English scientist
* Newton (unit), SI unit of force named after Isaac Newton
Newton may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* ''Newton'' (film), a 2017 Indian film
* Newton ( ...
-second per square meter (N·s/m
2), also frequently expressed in the equivalent forms
pascal
Pascal, Pascal's or PASCAL may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Pascal (given name), including a list of people with the name
* Pascal (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name
** Blaise Pascal, Fren ...
-
second
The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds ...
(Pa·s),
kilogram
The kilogram (also kilogramme) is the unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit symbol kg. It is a widely used measure in science, engineering and commerce worldwide, and is often simply called a kilo colloquially ...
per meter per second (kg·m
−1·s
−1) and
poiseuille
The poiseuille (symbol Pl) has been proposed as a derived SI unit of dynamic viscosity, named after the French physicist Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille (1797–1869).
In practice the unit has never been widely accepted and most international s ...
(Pl). The
CGS unit is the
poise (P, or g·cm
−1·s
−1 = 0.1 Pa·s), named after
Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille
Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille (; 22 April 1797 – 26 December 1869) was a French physicist and physiologist.
Poiseuille was born in Paris, France, and he died there on 26 December 1869.
Fluid flow
From 1815 to 1816 he studied at the École Po ...
. It is commonly expressed, particularly in
ASTM
ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is an international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, an ...
standards, as ''centipoise'' (cP). The centipoise is convenient because the viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cP, and one centipoise is equal to the SI millipascal second (mPa·s).
The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is square meter per second (m
2/s), whereas the CGS unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St, or cm
2·s
−1 = 0.0001 m
2·s
−1), named after Sir
George Gabriel Stokes
Sir George Gabriel Stokes, 1st Baronet, (; 13 August 1819 – 1 February 1903) was an Irish migration to Great Britain, Irish English physicist and mathematician. Born in County Sligo, Ireland, Stokes spent all of his career at the University ...
. In U.S. usage, ''stoke'' is sometimes used as the singular form. The
submultiple
In mathematics, a multiple is the product of any quantity and an integer. In other words, for the quantities ''a'' and ''b'', it can be said that ''b'' is a multiple of ''a'' if ''b'' = ''na'' for some integer ''n'', which is called the multiplie ...
''centistokes'' (cSt) is often used instead, 1 cSt = 1 mm
2·s
−1 = 10
−6 m
2·s
−1. The kinematic viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cSt.
The most frequently used systems of
US customary, or Imperial, units are the
British Gravitational (BG) and
English Engineering (EE). In the BG system, dynamic viscosity has units of
''pound''-seconds per square
foot
The foot ( : feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made ...
(lb·s/ft
2), and in the EE system it has units of
''pound-force''-seconds per square foot (lbf·s/ft
2). The pound and pound-force are equivalent; the two systems differ only in how force and mass are defined. In the BG system the pound is a basic unit from which the unit of mass (the
slug
Slug, or land slug, is a common name for any apparently shell-less terrestrial gastropod mollusc. The word ''slug'' is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell, a very reduced shell, or only a smal ...
) is defined by
Newton's Second Law
Newton's laws of motion are three basic laws of classical mechanics that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws can be paraphrased as follows:
# A body remains at rest, or in motion ...
, whereas in the EE system the units of force and mass (the pound-force and
pound-mass
The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in British imperial and United States customary systems of measurement. Various definitions have been used; the most common today is the international avoirdupois pound, which is legally define ...
respectively) are defined independently through the Second Law using the
proportionality constant ''gc''.
Kinematic viscosity has units of square feet per second (ft
2/s) in both the BG and EE systems.
Nonstandard units include the
reyn
In fluid dynamics, the reyn is a British unit of dynamic viscosity,
named in honour of Osbourne Reynolds, for whom the Reynolds number is also named.Juvinal, Robert C. & Marshek, Kurt M.; ''Fundamentals of machine component design''. 2nd ed., 1991 ...
, a British unit of dynamic viscosity. In the automotive industry the
viscosity index
The viscosity index (VI) is an arbitrary, unit-less measure of a fluid's change in viscosity relative to temperature change. It is mostly used to characterize the viscosity-temperature behavior of lubricating oils. The lower the VI, the more the v ...
is used to describe the change of viscosity with temperature.
The
reciprocal
Reciprocal may refer to:
In mathematics
* Multiplicative inverse, in mathematics, the number 1/''x'', which multiplied by ''x'' gives the product 1, also known as a ''reciprocal''
* Reciprocal polynomial, a polynomial obtained from another pol ...
of viscosity is ''fluidity'', usually symbolized by
or
, depending on the convention used, measured in ''reciprocal poise'' (P
−1, or
cm·
s·
g−1), sometimes called the ''rhe''. Fluidity is seldom used in
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
practice.
At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring kinematic viscosity by means of the
Saybolt viscometer, and expressing kinematic viscosity in units of
Saybolt universal second Saybolt universal viscosity (SUV), and the related Saybolt FUROL viscosity (SFV), are specific standardised tests producing measures of kinematic viscosity. ''FUROL'' is an acronym for ''fuel and road oil''. Saybolt universal viscosity is specified ...
s (SUS).
Other abbreviations such as SSU (''Saybolt seconds universal'') or SUV (''Saybolt universal viscosity'') are sometimes used. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be converted from SUS according to the arithmetic and the reference table provided in
ASTM
ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is an international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, an ...
D 2161.
Molecular origins
Momentum transport in gases is mediated by discrete molecular collisions, and in liquids by attractive forces that bind molecules close together. Because of this, the dynamic viscosities of liquids are typically much larger than those of gases. In addition, viscosity tends to increase with temperature in gases and decrease with temperature in liquids.
Above the liquid-gas
critical point, the liquid and gas phases are replaced by a single
supercritical phase. In this regime, the mechanisms of momentum transport interpolate between liquid-like and gas-like behavior.
For example, along a supercritical
isobar (constant-pressure surface), the kinematic viscosity decreases at low temperature and increases at high temperature, with a minimum in between. A rough estimate for the value
at the minimum is
:
where
is the
Planck constant
The Planck constant, or Planck's constant, is a fundamental physical constant of foundational importance in quantum mechanics. The constant gives the relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency, and by the mass-energy equivale ...
,
is the
electron mass
The electron mass (symbol: ''m''e) is the mass of a stationary electron, also known as the invariant mass of the electron. It is one of the fundamental constants of physics. It has a value of about or about , which has an energy-equivalent of a ...
, and
is the molecular mass.
In general, however, the viscosity of a system depends in detail on how the molecules constituting the system interact, and there are no simple but correct formulas for it. The simplest exact expressions are the
Green–Kubo relations
The Green–Kubo relations ( Melville S. Green 1954, Ryogo Kubo 1957) give the exact mathematical expression for transport coefficients \gamma in terms of integrals of time correlation functions:
:\gamma = \int_0^\infty \left\langle \dot(t) \dot( ...
for the linear shear viscosity or the ''transient time correlation function'' expressions derived by Evans and Morriss in 1988. Although these expressions are each exact, calculating the viscosity of a dense fluid using these relations currently requires the use of
molecular dynamics
Molecular dynamics (MD) is a computer simulation method for analyzing the physical movements of atoms and molecules. The atoms and molecules are allowed to interact for a fixed period of time, giving a view of the dynamic "evolution" of the ...
computer simulations. Somewhat more progress can be made for a dilute gas, as elementary assumptions about how gas molecules move and interact lead to a basic understanding of the molecular origins of viscosity. More sophisticated treatments can be constructed by systematically coarse-graining the
equations of motion
In physics, equations of motion are equations that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a function of time.''Encyclopaedia of Physics'' (second Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC Publishers, 1991, ISBN (Ver ...
of the gas molecules. An example of such a treatment is
Chapman–Enskog theory
Chapman–Enskog theory provides a framework in which equations of hydrodynamics for a gas can be derived from the Boltzmann equation. The technique justifies the otherwise phenomenological constitutive relations appearing in hydrodynamical descri ...
, which derives expressions for the viscosity of a dilute gas from the
Boltzmann equation
The Boltzmann equation or Boltzmann transport equation (BTE) describes the statistical behaviour of a thermodynamic system not in a state of equilibrium, devised by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872.Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R. G. Lerne ...
.
Pure gases
:
Viscosity in gases arises principally from the
molecular diffusion
Molecular diffusion, often simply called diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size (mass) of ...
that transports momentum between layers of flow. An elementary calculation for a dilute gas at temperature
and density
gives
:
where
is the
Boltzmann constant
The Boltzmann constant ( or ) is the proportionality factor that relates the average relative kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the thermodynamic temperature of the gas. It occurs in the definitions of the kelvin and the gas constant, ...
,
the molecular mass, and
a numerical constant on the order of
. The quantity
, the
mean free path
In physics, mean free path is the average distance over which a moving particle (such as an atom, a molecule, or a photon) travels before substantially changing its direction or energy (or, in a specific context, other properties), typically as a ...
, measures the average distance a molecule travels between collisions. Even without ''a priori'' knowledge of
, this expression has nontrivial implications. In particular, since
is typically inversely proportional to density and increases with temperature,
itself should increase with temperature and be independent of density at fixed temperature. In fact, both of these predictions persist in more sophisticated treatments, and accurately describe experimental observations. By contrast, liquid viscosity typically decreases with temperature.
For rigid elastic spheres of diameter
,
can be computed, giving
:
In this case
is independent of temperature, so
. For more complicated molecular models, however,
depends on temperature in a non-trivial way, and simple kinetic arguments as used here are inadequate. More fundamentally, the notion of a mean free path becomes imprecise for particles that interact over a finite range, which limits the usefulness of the concept for describing real-world gases.
Chapman–Enskog theory
A technique developed by
Sydney Chapman and
David Enskog 250px
David Enskog (22 April 1884, Västra Ämtervik, Sunne – 1 June 1947, Stockholm) was a Swedish mathematical physicist. Enskog helped develop the kinetic theory of gases by extending the Maxwell–Boltzmann equations.
Biography
Af ...
in the early 1900s allows a more refined calculation of
. It is based on the
Boltzmann equation
The Boltzmann equation or Boltzmann transport equation (BTE) describes the statistical behaviour of a thermodynamic system not in a state of equilibrium, devised by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872.Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R. G. Lerne ...
, which provides a statistical description of a dilute gas in terms of intermolecular interactions. The technique allows accurate calculation of
for molecular models that are more realistic than rigid elastic spheres, such as those incorporating intermolecular attractions. Doing so is necessary to reproduce the correct temperature dependence of
, which experiments show increases more rapidly than the
trend predicted for rigid elastic spheres. Indeed, the Chapman–Enskog analysis shows that the predicted temperature dependence can be tuned by varying the parameters in various molecular models. A simple example is the Sutherland model, which describes rigid elastic spheres with ''weak'' mutual attraction. In such a case, the attractive force can be treated
perturbatively, which leads to a simple expression for
:
:
where
is independent of temperature, being determined only by the parameters of the intermolecular attraction. To connect with experiment, it is convenient to rewrite as
:
where
is the viscosity at temperature
. If
is known from experiments at
and at least one other temperature, then
can be calculated. Expressions for
obtained in this way are qualitatively accurate for a number of simple gases. Slightly more sophisticated models, such as the
Lennard-Jones potential
The Lennard-Jones potential (also termed the LJ potential or 12-6 potential) is an intermolecular pair potential. Out of all the intermolecular potentials, the Lennard-Jones potential is probably the one that has been the most extensively studied ...
, may provide better agreement with experiments, but only at the cost of a more opaque dependence on temperature. In some systems, the assumption of
spherical symmetry
In geometry, circular symmetry is a type of continuous symmetry for a planar object that can be rotated by any arbitrary angle and map onto itself.
Rotational circular symmetry is isomorphic with the circle group in the complex plane, or the ...
must be abandoned as well, as is the case for vapors with highly
polar molecules
In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole moment, with a negatively charged end and a positively charged end.
Polar molecules must contain one or more polar ...
like
H2O. In these cases, the Chapman–Enskog analysis is significantly more complicated.
Bulk viscosity
In the kinetic-molecular picture, a non-zero bulk viscosity arises in gases whenever there are non-negligible relaxational timescales governing the exchange of energy between the translational energy of molecules and their internal energy, e.g.
rotational
Rotation, or spin, is the circular movement of an object around a '' central axis''. A two-dimensional rotating object has only one possible central axis and can rotate in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. A three-dimensional ...
and
vibration
Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The word comes from Latin ''vibrationem'' ("shaking, brandishing"). The oscillations may be periodic function, periodic, such as the motion of a pendulum ...
al. As such, the bulk viscosity is
for a monatomic ideal gas, in which the internal energy of molecules in negligible, but is nonzero for a gas like
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is transpar ...
, whose molecules possess both rotational and vibrational energy.
Pure liquids
In contrast with gases, there is no simple yet accurate picture for the molecular origins of viscosity in liquids.
At the simplest level of description, the relative motion of adjacent layers in a liquid is opposed primarily by attractive molecular forces
acting across the layer boundary. In this picture, one (correctly) expects viscosity to decrease with increasing temperature. This is because
increasing temperature increases the random thermal motion of the molecules, which makes it easier for them to overcome their attractive interactions.
Building on this visualization, a simple theory can be constructed in analogy with the discrete structure of a solid: groups of molecules in a liquid
are visualized as forming "cages" which surround and enclose single molecules. These cages can be occupied or unoccupied, and
stronger molecular attraction corresponds to stronger cages.
Due to random thermal motion, a molecule "hops" between cages at a rate which varies inversely with the strength of molecular attractions. In
equilibrium these "hops" are not biased in any direction.
On the other hand, in order for two adjacent layers to move relative to each other, the "hops" must be biased in the direction
of the relative motion. The force required to sustain this directed motion can be estimated for a given shear rate, leading to
where
is the
Avogadro constant
The Avogadro constant, commonly denoted or , is the proportionality factor that relates the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms or ions) in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. It is an SI defining con ...
,
is the
Planck constant
The Planck constant, or Planck's constant, is a fundamental physical constant of foundational importance in quantum mechanics. The constant gives the relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency, and by the mass-energy equivale ...
,
is the volume of a
mole
Mole (or Molé) may refer to:
Animals
* Mole (animal) or "true mole", mammals in the family Talpidae, found in Eurasia and North America
* Golden moles, southern African mammals in the family Chrysochloridae, similar to but unrelated to Talpida ...
of liquid, and
is the
normal boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding envir ...
. This result has the same form as the well-known empirical relation
where
and
are constants fit from data. On the other hand, several authors express caution with respect to this model.
Errors as large as 30% can be encountered using equation (), compared with fitting equation () to experimental data. More fundamentally, the physical assumptions underlying equation () have been criticized. It has also been argued that the exponential dependence in equation () does not necessarily describe experimental observations more accurately than simpler, non-exponential expressions.
In light of these shortcomings, the development of a less ad hoc model is a matter of practical interest.
Foregoing simplicity in favor of precision, it is possible to write rigorous expressions for viscosity starting from the fundamental equations of motion for molecules. A classic example
of this approach is Irving–Kirkwood theory. On the other hand, such expressions
are given as averages over multiparticle
correlation functions
The cross-correlation matrix of two random vectors is a matrix containing as elements the cross-correlations of all pairs of elements of the random vectors. The cross-correlation matrix is used in various digital signal processing algorithms.
D ...
and are therefore difficult to apply in practice.
In general, empirically derived expressions (based on existing viscosity measurements) appear to be the only consistently reliable means of calculating viscosity in liquids.
Mixtures and blends
Gaseous mixtures
The same molecular-kinetic picture of a single component gas can also be applied to a gaseous mixture. For instance, in the Chapman–Enskog approach the viscosity
of a binary mixture of gases can be written in terms of the individual component viscosities
, their respective volume fractions, and the intermolecular interactions. As for the single-component gas, the dependence of
on the parameters of the intermolecular interactions enters through various collisional integrals which may not be expressible in terms of elementary functions. To obtain usable expressions for
which reasonably match experimental data, the collisional integrals typically must be evaluated using some combination of analytic calculation and empirical fitting. An example of such a procedure is the Sutherland approach for the single-component gas, discussed above.
Blends of liquids
As for pure liquids, the viscosity of a blend of liquids is difficult to predict from molecular principles. One method is to extend the molecular "cage" theory presented above for a pure liquid. This can be done with varying levels of sophistication. One expression resulting from such an analysis is the Lederer–Roegiers equation for a binary mixture:
:
where
is an empirical parameter, and
and
are the respective
mole fractions
In chemistry, the mole fraction or molar fraction (''xi'' or ) is defined as unit of the amount of a constituent (expressed in moles), ''ni'', divided by the total amount of all constituents in a mixture (also expressed in moles), ''n''tot. This e ...
and viscosities of the component liquids.
Since blending is an important process in the lubricating and oil industries, a variety of empirical and propriety equations exist for predicting the viscosity of a blend.
Solutions and suspensions
Aqueous solutions
Depending on the
solute
In chemistry, a solution is a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent. If the attractive forces between the solvent ...
and range of concentration, an aqueous
electrolyte
An electrolyte is a medium containing ions that is electrically conducting through the movement of those ions, but not conducting electrons. This includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. Upon dis ...
solution can have either a larger or smaller viscosity compared with pure water at the same temperature and pressure. For instance, a 20% saline (
sodium chloride
Sodium chloride , commonly known as salt (although sea salt also contains other chemical salts), is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. With molar masses of 22.99 and 35.45 g ...
) solution has viscosity over 1.5 times that of pure water, whereas a 20%
potassium iodide
Potassium iodide is a chemical compound, medication, and dietary supplement. It is a medication used for treating hyperthyroidism, in radiation emergencies, and for protecting the thyroid gland when certain types of radiopharmaceuticals are us ...
solution has viscosity about 0.91 times that of pure water.
An idealized model of dilute electrolytic solutions leads to the following prediction for the viscosity
of a solution:
:
where
is the viscosity of the solvent,
is the concentration, and
is a positive constant which depends on both solvent and solute properties. However, this expression is only valid for very dilute solutions, having
less than 0.1 mol/L. For higher concentrations, additional terms are necessary which account for higher-order molecular correlations:
:
where
and
are fit from data. In particular, a negative value of
is able to account for the decrease in viscosity observed in some solutions. Estimated values of these constants are shown below for sodium chloride and potassium iodide at temperature 25 °C (mol =
mole
Mole (or Molé) may refer to:
Animals
* Mole (animal) or "true mole", mammals in the family Talpidae, found in Eurasia and North America
* Golden moles, southern African mammals in the family Chrysochloridae, similar to but unrelated to Talpida ...
, L =
liter
The litre (international spelling) or liter (American English spelling) (SI symbols L and l, other symbol used: ℓ) is a metric unit of volume. It is equal to 1 cubic decimetre (dm3), 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) or 0.001 cubic metre (m3). ...
).
Suspensions
In a suspension of solid particles (e.g.
micron
The micrometre ( international spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: μm) or micrometer (American spelling), also commonly known as a micron, is a unit of length in the International System of Unit ...
-size spheres suspended in oil), an effective viscosity
can be defined in terms of stress and strain components which are averaged over a volume large compared with the distance between the suspended particles, but small with respect to macroscopic dimensions. Such suspensions generally exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. However, for dilute systems in steady flows, the behavior is Newtonian and expressions for
can be derived directly from the particle dynamics. In a very dilute system, with volume fraction
, interactions between the suspended particles can be ignored. In such a case one can explicitly calculate the flow field around each particle independently, and combine the results to obtain
. For spheres, this results in the Einstein equation:
:
where
is the viscosity of the suspending liquid. The linear dependence on
is a consequence of neglecting interparticle interactions. For dilute systems in general, one expects
to take the form
:
where the coefficient
may depend on the particle shape (e.g. spheres, rods, disks). Experimental determination of the precise value of
is difficult, however: even the prediction
for spheres has not been conclusively validated, with various experiments finding values in the range
. This deficiency has been attributed to difficulty in controlling experimental conditions.
In denser suspensions,
acquires a nonlinear dependence on
, which indicates the importance of interparticle interactions. Various analytical and semi-empirical schemes exist for capturing this regime. At the most basic level, a term quadratic in
is added to
:
:
and the coefficient
is fit from experimental data or approximated from the microscopic theory. However, some authors advise caution in applying such simple formulas since non-Newtonian behavior appears in dense suspensions (
for spheres), or in suspensions of elongated or flexible particles.
There is a distinction between a suspension of solid particles, described above, and an
emulsion
An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable) owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Althoug ...
. The latter is a suspension of tiny droplets, which themselves may exhibit internal circulation. The presence of internal circulation can decrease the observed effective viscosity, and different theoretical or semi-empirical models must be used.
Amorphous materials
![Glassviscosityexamples](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Glassviscosityexamples.png)
In the high and low temperature limits, viscous flow in
amorphous materials
In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid, glassy solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.
Etymology
The term comes from the Greek ''a'' ("wit ...
(e.g. in
glass
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent, amorphous solid that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of ...
es and melts) has the
Arrhenius form:
:
where is a relevant
activation energy
In chemistry and physics, activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that must be provided for compounds to result in a chemical reaction. The activation energy (''E''a) of a reaction is measured in joules per mole (J/mol), kilojoules pe ...
, given in terms of molecular parameters; is temperature; is the molar
gas constant
The molar gas constant (also known as the gas constant, universal gas constant, or ideal gas constant) is denoted by the symbol or . It is the molar equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, expressed in units of energy per temperature increment per ...
; and is approximately a constant. The activation energy takes a different value depending on whether the high or low temperature limit is being considered: it changes from a high value at low temperatures (in the glassy state) to a low value at high temperatures (in the liquid state).
For intermediate temperatures,
varies nontrivially with temperature and the simple Arrhenius form fails. On the other hand, the two-exponential equation
:
where
,
,
,
are all constants, provides a good fit to experimental data over the entire range of temperatures, while at the same time reducing to the correct Arrhenius form in the low and high temperature limits. This expression can be motivated from various theoretical models of amorphous materials at the atomic level.
A two-exponential equation for the viscosity can be derived within the Dyre shoving model of supercooled liquids, where the Arrhenius energy barrier is identified with the high-frequency
shear modulus
In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by ''G'', or sometimes ''S'' or ''μ'', is a measure of the elastic shear stiffness of a material and is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:
:G \ \stackrel ...
times a characteristic shoving volume. Upon specifying the temperature dependence of the shear modulus via thermal expansion and via the repulsive part of the intermolecular potential, another two-exponential equation is retrieved:
:
where
denotes the high-frequency
shear modulus
In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by ''G'', or sometimes ''S'' or ''μ'', is a measure of the elastic shear stiffness of a material and is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:
:G \ \stackrel ...
of the material evaluated at a temperature equal to the
glass transition
The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semicrystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a viscous or rubb ...
temperature
,
is the so-called shoving volume, i.e. it is the characteristic volume of the group of atoms involved in the shoving event by which an atom/molecule escapes from the cage of nearest-neighbours, typically on the order of the volume occupied by few atoms. Furthermore,
is the
thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and density in response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic ...
coefficient of the material,
is a parameter which measures the steepness of the power-law rise of the ascending flank of the first peak of the
radial distribution function
In statistical mechanics, the radial distribution function, (or pair correlation function) g(r) in a system of particles (atoms, molecules, colloids, etc.), describes how density varies as a function of distance from a reference particle.
If ...
, and is quantitatively related to the repulsive part of the
interatomic potential
Interatomic potentials are mathematical functions to calculate the potential energy of a system of atoms with given positions in space.M. P. Allen and D. J. Tildesley. Computer Simulation of Liquids. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 1989 ...
. Finally,
denotes the
Boltzmann constant
The Boltzmann constant ( or ) is the proportionality factor that relates the average relative kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the thermodynamic temperature of the gas. It occurs in the definitions of the kelvin and the gas constant, ...
.
Eddy viscosity
In the study of
turbulence
In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between ...
in
fluid
In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that continuously deforms (''flows'') under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear ...
s, a common practical strategy is to ignore the small-scale
vortices
In fluid dynamics, a vortex ( : vortices or vortexes) is a region in a fluid in which the flow revolves around an axis line, which may be straight or curved. Vortices form in stirred fluids, and may be observed in smoke rings, whirlpools in th ...
(or
eddies
In fluid dynamics, an eddy is the swirling of a fluid and the reverse current created when the fluid is in a turbulent flow regime. The moving fluid creates a space devoid of downstream-flowing fluid on the downstream side of the object. Fluid beh ...
) in the motion and to calculate a large-scale motion with an ''effective'' viscosity, called the "eddy viscosity", which characterizes the transport and dissipation of
energy
In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat a ...
in the smaller-scale flow (see
large eddy simulation
Large eddy simulation (LES) is a mathematical model for turbulence used in computational fluid dynamics. It was initially proposed in 1963 by Joseph Smagorinsky to simulate atmospheric air currents, and first explored by Deardorff (1970). LES is c ...
). In contrast to the viscosity of the fluid itself, which must be positive by the
second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on universal experience concerning heat and Energy transformation, energy interconversions. One simple statement of the law is that heat always moves from hotter objects to colder objects ( ...
, the eddy viscosity can be negative.
Prediction
Because viscosity depends continuously on temperature and pressure, it cannot be fully characterized by a finite number
of experimental measurements. Predictive formulas become necessary if experimental values are not available
at the temperatures and pressures of interest. This capability is important for thermophysical simulations,
in which the temperature and pressure of a fluid can vary continuously with space and time. A similar situation is encountered
for mixtures of pure fluids, where the viscosity depends continuously on the concentration ratios of the constituent fluids
For the simplest fluids, such as dilute monatomic gases and their mixtures, ''
ab initio
''Ab initio'' ( ) is a Latin term meaning "from the beginning" and is derived from the Latin ''ab'' ("from") + ''initio'', ablative singular of ''initium'' ("beginning").
Etymology
Circa 1600, from Latin, literally "from the beginning", from ab ...
''
quantum mechanical
Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, qua ...
computations can accurately predict viscosity in terms
of fundamental atomic constants, i.e., without reference to existing viscosity measurements. For the special case of dilute helium,
uncertainties in the ''ab initio'' calculated viscosity are two order of magnitudes smaller than uncertainties in experimental values.
For most fluids, such high-accuracy, first-principles computations are not feasible. Rather, theoretical or empirical expressions
must be fit to existing viscosity measurements. If such an expression is fit to high-fidelity data over a large range of temperatures
and pressures, then it is called a "reference correlation" for that fluid. Reference correlations have been published for
many pure fluids; a few examples are
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
,
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is transpar ...
,
ammonia
Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . A stable binary hydride, and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous was ...
,
benzene
Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, ...
, and
xenon
Xenon is a chemical element with the symbol Xe and atomic number 54. It is a dense, colorless, odorless noble gas found in Earth's atmosphere in trace amounts. Although generally unreactive, it can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the ...
. Many of these cover temperature and pressure ranges that encompass gas, liquid, and
supercritical phases.
Thermophysical modeling software often relies on reference correlations for predicting viscosity at user-specified temperature and pressure.
These correlations may be