vazier

A vizier (;
ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a helper but afterwards became the representative and successor of the ''dapir'' (official scribe or secretary) of the Sassanian kings.

In modern usage, the term has been used for government ministers in much of the Middle East and beyond.

Several alternative spellings are used in English, such as ''vizir'', ''wazir'', and ''vezir''.

Etymology

Vizier is suggested to be an Iranian word, from the Pahlavi root of ''vičir'', which originally had the meaning of a ''decree'', ''mandate'', and ''command'', but later as its use in Dinkard also suggests, came to mean ''judge'' or ''magistrate''. Arthur Jeffery considers the word to be a "good Iranian" word, as has a well-established root in Avestan language. The Pahlavi ''vičir'', is in fact from the Avestan ''vīčira'', which means ''deciding''. This Avestan root is behind the Modern Persian form of the word which is ''večer'' which means ''judge''.

Another possibility is that the etymology of the word is derived from the Arabic ''wazara'' ("to bear a burden"), from the Semitic root ''W-Z-R''. The word is mentioned in the Quran, where Aaron is described as the ''wazir'' (helper) of Moses, as well as the word ''wizr'' (burden) which is also derived from the same root.Goyṭayn, Šelomo D.. Studies in Islamic history and institutions. P.171. Compare , and . It was later adopted as a title, in the form of ''wazīr āl Muḥammad'' ("Helper of the Family of Muhammad") by the proto-Shi'a leaders al-Mukhtar and Abu Salama. Under the Abbasid caliphs, the term acquired the meaning of "representative" or "deputy".

Historical ministerial titles

The office of vizier arose under the first Abbasid caliphs, and spread across the Muslim world.

The vizier stood between sovereign and subjects, representing the former in all matters touching the latter."vizier"
''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 2010, Retrieved on 2010-06-17. The 11th-century legal theorist al-Mawardi defined two types of viziers: ''wazīr al-tanfīdh'' ("vizier of execution"), who had limited powers and served to implement the caliph's policies, and the far more powerful ''wazīr al-tafwīd'' ("vizier with delegated powers"), with authority over civil and military affairs, and enjoyed the same powers as the caliph, except in the matter of the succession or the appointment of officials. Al-Mawardi stressed that the latter, as an effective viceroy, had to be a Muslim well versed in the ''Shari'a'', whereas the former could also be a non-Muslim or even a slave, although women continued to be expressly barred from the office.

Historically, the term has been used to describe two very different ways: either for a unique position, the prime minister at the head of the monarch's government (the term Grand Vizier always refers to such a post), or as a shared 'cabinet rank', rather like a British secretary of state. If one such vizier is the prime minister, he may hold the title of Grand Vizier or another title.

In Islamic states

*The title was first used in the early Abbasid Caliphate, cf. Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate).
*In Muslim Persia, the prime minister under the political authority of the Shahanshah was commonly styled ''Vazīr-e Azam'' ('Supreme -, i.e. Grand Vizier'; alternative titles include '' Atabeg-e Azam'' and ''Sardār-e Azam''), and various Ministers held cabinet rank as ''vazir'', including a ''Vazir-i-Daftar'' (minister for finance) and a ''Vazir-i-Lashkar'' (war portfolio).
* In al-Andalus, the Umayyad Caliphs of Córdoba appointed a varying number of viziers, as heads of departments in the bureaucracy, ministers with specific tasks, and royal councillors; at one point, in 1008, there were as many as 29 viziers at the same time. Unlike the Islamic east, the senior office of the Umayyad state was that of the chamberlain (''hajib''). Under the Taifa kingdoms the title proliferated and became a generic court title. During the later Umayyads, viziers were also appointed outside the capital as provincial governors or commanders, a practice which continued until the fall of the Emirate of Granada in the 15th century. The Spanish word ''alguacil'' (governor, official with civil or criminal duties) derives from this.
* In Muslim Egypt, the most populous Arab country:
**Vizier under the Fatimid Caliphs.
**Again since the effective end of Ottoman rule, remarkably since 1857 (i.e. before the last Wali (governor), Isma`il Pasha, was raised Khedive (circa Viceroy, on 8 June 1867), exchanged for the western prime ministers on 28 August 1878 (before the formally independent sultanate was proclaimed).
*During the days of the Ottoman Empire, the Grand Vizier was the—often de facto ruling—prime minister, second only to the Sultan and was the leader of the Divan, the Imperial Council. "Vizier" was also the title of some Ottoman provincial governors, such as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where usage of the title often indicated a greater degree of autonomy for the province involved and the greater prestige of the title holder (this was, for example, a major issue in the Bosnian uprising of 1831). Also, many of the viziers originated from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, as well as other countries and from various ethnicities.
*In the Sherifian kingdom of Morocco (historically a sultanate till the incumbent assumed the higher royal style of ''Malik'' on 14 August 1957, shortly after the end of the simultaneous French and Spanish protectorates; the additional Islamic title '' Amir al-Mu´minin'' "Commander of the Faithful" stayed in use), a ''Sadr al-A'zam'' (Grand Vizier) was in office until 22 November 1955, replaced since 7 December 1955 a (part-political) Prime Minister; Vizier was the style of a minister of state (other titles for various portfolios).
*In the Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz (later merged into present-day Saudi Arabia), the sole Vizier was (10 June 19163 October 1924) the future second king Ali ibn Hussein al-Hashimi, under his father Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi (the first to assume the title Malik, i.e. King, instead of Grand Sharif), maintained after the assumption of the Caliphal style (only 11 March 19243 October 1924)
*In the 'regency' of Tunisia, under the Husainid Dynasty, various ministers of the Bey, including:
**''Wazir al-Akbar'' (or ''El Ouzir El Kébir''): 'great minister', i.e. grand vizier, chief minister or prime minister.
**''Wazir al-'Amala'' (or ''El Ouzir El Amala''): Minister for the Interior.
**''Wazir al-Bahr'' (or ''El Ouzir El Bahr''): Minister 'of the Sea', i.e. for the Navy/ Marine.
**''Wazir al-Harb'' (or ''El Ouzir El Harb''): Minister for the Army or Minister for War.
**''Wazir al-Istishara'' (or ''El Ouzir El Istichara''): Minister-Counsellor.
**''Wazir al-Qalam'': Minister of the Pen.
**''Wazir ud-Daula'' (or ''El Ouzir El Dawla''): Minister of State.
**''Wazir us-Shura'' (or ''El Ouzir Ech Choura''): Privy Counsellor.
*In Oman the Hami/Sultan's chief minister was styled ''Wazir'' till 1966, but in 1925–1932 there was also or instead a chairman of the council of Ministers; since 1970 the style is prime minister.
*In the Bengal Sultanate, many local officials had the title of Wazir/Uzir
*Viziers to the Sultans of Zanzibar (a branch of the Omani dynasty); since 1890 filled by British, also known as first ministers, (1 July 191323 February 1961) the British Resident (Minister)s, an extremely direct form of indirect rule (before and after chief- or prime ministers, generally native).
*Grand Viziers to the Sultan of Sokoto – however, this is disputed. The title "Waziri" is apparently a derivative of this word, and is a highly regarded chieftaincy title in most of northern Nigeria. Indeed, most of the emirs in northern Nigeria have a "Waziri", who is usually a high-ranking adviser to the emir.
*In pre- and colonial (notably British) India many rulers, even some Hindu princes, had a vizier as chief minister – compare Diwan, Nawab wasir, Pradhan, etc.
*In the (former) sultanate of the Maldives (Divehi language), the prime minister was styled ''Bodu Vizier'', and various Ministers held cabinet rank as ''vazierin'' (plural), including ''Hakura'a'' (portfolio of Public Works), ''Shahbandar'' (Navy portfolio, also admiral in chief), ''Vela'ana'a'' (Foreign Affairs).
* In Afghanistan, under the Durrani dynasty, the chief minister was styled ''Vazīr-e Azam'' or ''Wazir-i-azam'' (1801–1880); the ''Vazīr-e Darbār'' or ''Wazir al-durbar'' was the ('House') Minister of the Royal Court.
* List of Ghaznavid Viziers
* In the Mataram Kingdom and subsequent sultanates, a ''wazir'' was a chief minister to the sultan.

Modern post-monarchy use

''Wazīr'' is the standard Arabic word for a government minister. Prime ministers are usually termed as ''Ra'īs al-Wuzara'' (literally, president of the ministers) or ''al-Wazīr al-'Awwal'' (prime minister). The latter term is generally found in the Maghreb, while the former is typical of usage in the Mashriq (broadly defined, including Egypt, Sudan, Levant, Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula). Thus, for example, the Prime Minister of Egypt is in Arabic a ''wazīr''.

In Brunei the vizier is known as ''Pengiran Bendahara''.

In Iran the ministers of government are called ''Vazir'' in Persian (e.g. foreign/health ''Vazir''), and prime minister of state before the removal of the post, was called as ''Nokhost Vazir''.

In Pakistan, the prime minister (de facto ruling politician, formally under the president) is called ''Vazīr-e Azam'' (Persian for Grand vizier), other Ministers are styled ''vazir''s.

In India, ''Vazīr'' is the official translation of minister in the Urdu

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