Zhuge Liang against
Meng Huo
Meng Huo was a local leader in the Nanzhong region in the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was popularly depicted as a local leader representing the gentries of the Nanzhong region, but some historians doubt his h ...
. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.
Ming dynasty
In 1364,
Zhu Yuanzhang conquered
Huguang. Rather than building a bureaucratic system of his own in Huguang, Zhu chose to keep the native chieftaincy system implemented by the Yuan dynasty. He reappointed many ''tusi'' to the same posts as they had during the Yuan dynasty. After reunifying China under the Ming dynasty and becoming the Hongwu Emperor, he brought this practice to the entire southern border zone of the empire.
In 1381, Hongwu sent a force against the last remnant of the forces of the Yuan dynasty, led by the
Prince of Liang Liang Wang may refer to:
Chinese royalty
In Chinese history, Liang Wang (Prince/King of Liang) may refer to:
Warring States period
*Monarchs of Wei (state), also known as Liang after 334 BC
**King Hui of Wei (died 319 BC), also known as King Hui ...
Basalawarmi, who committed suicide. This left Duan Gong, a successor of Duan Xingzhi, as the last representative of the remaining Yuan forces. He refused to surrender and attempted to have the former realm of the Dali Kingdom recognized as a tributary state. When he was defeated in battle, the surviving Duan brothers were taken captive and escorted to the capital. There they were given an insignificant office in the interior. From then on, "permanent chieftains were replaced by transferable officials," formally appointed by the Ming court.
Local leaders were obliged to provide troops, suppress local rebellions, and pay tribute to
Beijing annually, biennially, or triennially according to their distance. The post was hereditary as opposed to the
examination system in
China proper, but succession, promotion, and demotion were all controlled by the Ming administration which required each ''tusi'' to use a seal and an official charter. To establish legitimate successions, ''tusi'' were ordered to list their sons and nephews in AD 1436, to redo the list in quadruplicate in 1441, and to renew the list triennially in 1441 and again in 1485. The Ming dynasty also took over regencies of children younger than 15 in 1489.
''Tusi'' chiefs could sometimes be female according to local customs and had full authority over their own tribesmen, but were kept under supervision by the Ming
Ministry of Personnel or the
Ministry of War. Areas of ''tusi'' administration tended to explode into violence or turmoil intermittently and would invariably provoke Ming military intervention. However, these incidents are generally attributed to provocations by Chinese settlers or corrupt officials and not the fault of the tribes themselves.
The native chieftain system was a mutual-beneficial cooperation between the central government and native chieftains. For a quite long time after the foundation of Ming, the rulers knew that the central government could only use limited amount of resources. Having a large number of armies stationed in southern borderland, an area with harsh natural environment and large number of Non-Han people, was too costly for Ming rulers. Thus, they decided to transfer part of ruling power to those local political rulers in exchange for their defense of the border zone.
Civil and military tusis
The Ming ''tusi'' were categorized into civil and military ranks.
[Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, Donald S.Sutton (2006). ''Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China''. (Berkeley: University of California Press,2006), pp. 136.] The civilian tusi were given the titles of ''Tu Zhifu'' ("native prefecture"), ''Tu Zhizhou'' ("native department") and ''Tu Zhixian'' ("native county") according to the size and population of their domains. Nominally, they had the same rank as their counterparts in the regular administration system
The central government gave more autonomy to those military tusi who controlled areas with fewer Han Chinese people and had underdeveloped infrastructure. They pledged loyalty to the Ming emperor but had almost unfettered power within their domains.
All the native chieftains were nominally subordinate to Pacification Commissioners (''Xuanfushi'', ''Xuanweishi'', ''Anfushi''). The Pacification Commissioners were also native chieftains who received their title from the Ming court. As a way of checking their power, Pacification Commissioners were put under the supervision of the Ministry of War.
Throughout its 276 year history, the Ming dynasty bestowed a total of 1608 ''tusi'' titles, 960 of which were military-rank and 648 were civilian-rank, the majority of which were in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. In Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan, the Ming court sometimes gave both ''tusi'' titles and religious titles to leaders. As a result, those ''tusi'' had double identities. They played both the role of political leaders and religious leaders within their domains. For example, during the reign of the
Yongle Emperor, the leader of the Jinchuan monastery assisted the Ming army in a battle against the Mongols. The leader was later given the title ''Yanhua Chanshi'' (), or "Evolved Chan Master", and the power to rule 15 villages as his domain as a reward.
[邹, 立波 (2010). "从土司封号看嘉绒藏族土司与宗教的关系". ''西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)''. 31 (02): 11–15, p. 11.]
Power and privileges of Tusi
After a chieftain was recognized by the central government as a ''tusi'', he would receive a patent of appointment, a bronze official seal, a belt decorated with gold, and a formal attire as uniform.
[Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 62. ] The title of ''tusi'' was hereditary and passed down to an heir.
The entire clan of a ''tusi'' enjoyed privileges within the domain. In Ming China, the clan of a ''tusi'' was called ''Guanzu'' ("official clan"). Members of the official clan had higher social ranks than commoners and slaves. Only members of official clan, Han Chinese, and descendants of former officials were allowed to receive education and take examinations.
Each ''tusi'' could build and live in a ''
yamen''. A ''yamen'' was the headquarter of local officials that contained infrastructures, such as the courtroom, sacrificial altar, ancestral hall, granary, offices, and the living quarters of official’s family.
The structure of government and way of adjudication varied in each domain because of the diversity of ''tusis cultural backgrounds. Normally, there were no statute law in the domain. The will of the tusi was the law. A ''tusi'' had court and jail in his ''yamen'' and could imprison or punish his subjects as long as he thought it was necessary. For instance, Li Depu, the native official of Anping subprefecture in Guangxi province, brutally punished a serf for wearing white stockings because according to his dress rule only official clans were allowed to do so. Commoners ruled by tusi often called them ''Tu Huangdi'' ("local emperor"). This analogy between ''tusi'' and emperors in some way reflected the almost unfettered judicial power of a ''tusi'' in his domain.
''Tusi'' were given the power of collecting tax in their domain. For seasonal religious rituals or sacrifices, ''tusi'' had rights to collect rice and copper coins from each local household. As the head of clan, each ''tusi'' had right to disposal the property of his clan.
Apart from bodyguards, ''tusi'' were allowed to maintain a private military, the size of which depended on their domain's resources, to better defend the borderland and suppress rebellion.
Responsibilities of native chieftains in Ming time
The ''tusi'' were considered vassals of the Ming emperor. They enjoyed autonomy or semi-autonomy in their domains, but were expected to maintain order and defend the border zones for the Ming dynasty. When the Ming court wanted to start any campaign near their domains, the chieftains were required to lead their private armies and assist the Ming army in the battle. Those soldiers supplied by ''tusi'' were called ''Tu Bing'' ("native soldier"). In the campaign against Annam, the Ming court recruited a large number of native soldiers from the southern provinces.
Also, ''tusi'' were required to pay tributes to the Ming court. The periodic tribute goods sent by native chieftains contained various goods:
1. animals, such as horses and elephants
2. products made from rare wild animals, such as elephant tusks and rhinoceros’ horns
3. medicinal herbs
4. incense
5. silver utensils
6. minerals, such as tin
Income of ''tusi''
''Tusi'' received no regular salary or stipend from the government but they were allowed to collect tax from their subjects. These taxes could be paid with crops, textiles and money. Some ''tusi'' required their subjects to pay them copper coin and chickens as gifts at some specific events of their clan. For example, in Anping of Guangxi province, each household was required to donate 400 copper coins during weddings and funerals of members of the ''tusis family.
[Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 97. ]
''Tusi'' could get paid by the government for their assistance in the battles, but this did not happen regularly.
Conflicts
In 1388 the
Ming–Mong Mao War was fought between the general
Mu Ying
Mu Ying (1345–1392) was a Chinese military general and politician during the Ming dynasty, and an adopted son of its founder, the Hongwu Emperor.
When the Ming dynasty emerged, the Hongwu Emperor's military officers who served under him were gi ...
and the semi-independent ''tusi'' of
Mong Mao, Si Lunfa, located in what is now
Tengchong in southwestern Yunnan.
In 1397 the Ming intervened in a Mong Mao succession dispute, known as the
Ming–Mong Mao Intervention.
In the late 1300s,
Đại Việt attacked the tusis on the
Guangxi
Guangxi (; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Kwanghsi; ; za, Gvangjsih, italics=yes), officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GZAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the People's Republic ...
border. This in conjunction with the overthrow of the
Trần dynasty by the
Hồ dynasty led to the
Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam
The Fourth Era of Northern Domination was a period of Vietnamese history, from 1407 to 1427, during which Vietnam was ruled by the Chinese Ming dynasty as the province of Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ). Ming rule was established in Vietnam following its c ...
.
In 1438 the
Mong Mao rebelled again and their leader Si Renfa attacked local tusi along the Yunnan border. Si Renfa was defeated in 1442 and captured by the
Ava king, who turned him over to Ming custody, where he died in 1446.
In 1621 the
Yi people instigated the
She-An Rebellion
The She-An Rebellion (), also called the Yongning Rebellion, was a Yi uprising that occurred in Sichuan and Guizhou in late fall of 1621. As a consequence of the taxes imposed by the Ming dynasty, the aboriginal chieftains She Chongming and An B ...
in Sichuan and Guizhou, which lasted until 1629 and took an astronomical toll on Ming resources before it was quelled.
''Gaitu Guiliu''
''Gaitu guiliu'' (改土歸流) was a policy of abolishing the rule of local ''tusi'' (土司) and replace (''gai'' 改) them by a "mainstream" (''liu'' 流) direct administration. ''Gaitu guiliu'' was heavily enforced during the Ming and Qing periods.
During the Ming dynasty, there were 179 ''tusi'' and 255 ''tuguan'' (, "native civilian commanders") in Yunnan and titles were generally retained with the exception of punishment for severe crimes.
The ''tusi'' were greatly reduced during the Ming-Qing era. By the time of the
Yongzheng Emperor, there were only around 41 left in Yunnan, including
Cheli,
Gengma
Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County () is located in Lincang City, in the west of Yunnan province, China.
History
In 1988, the county was affected by two strong earthquakes. It killed a total of 939 people and caused major destruction.
Administ ...
,
Longchuan, Ganya (modern
Yingjiang),
Nandian,
Menglian
Menglian Dai, Lahu and Va Autonomous County () is an autonomous county in the southwest of Yunnan Province, China, bordering Ximeng County to the north, Lancang County to the north, northeast, and east, and Burma's Shan State to the south and wes ...
,
Zhefang
Zhefang () is a town in Mangshi, Yunnan, China. As of the 2017 census it had a population of 49,000 and an area of . The town is bordered to the north by Xishan Township, to the east by Santaishan Town and Mengga Town, to the south by Manghai Town ...
,
Zhanda,
Lujiang
Lujiang County () is a county of Anhui Province, East China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Hefei, the capital of Anhui. It is the southernmost county-level division
The administrative divisions of China ...
,
Mangshi, Mengmao (
Ruili), Nalou,
Kuirong,
Shierguan,
Menghua
Weishan Yi and Hui Autonomous County (; Xiao'erjing: ) is an autonomous county in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, in the west-central part of Yunnan Province, China. It was known as Menghua () until the 1950s.
Geography
It is situated in the ...
,
Jingdong,
Mengding,
Yongning,
Fuzhou
Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute t ...
,
Wandian,
Zhenkang, and
Beishengzhou.
Under Ming administration, the jurisdictional authority of tusi began to be replaced with state territorial authority. The ''tusi'' acted as stop gaps until enough Chinese settlers arrived for a "tipping point" to be reached, and they were then converted into official prefectures and counties to be fully annexed into the central bureaucratic system of the Ming dynasty. This process was known as ''gaitu guiliu'' (), or "turning native rule into regular administration". The most notable example of this was the consolidation of southwestern ''tusi'' chiefdoms into the province of
Guizhou in 1413.
In sum, ''gaitu guiliu'' was the process of replacing ''tusi'' with state-appointed officials, the transition from jurisdictional sovereignty to territorial sovereignty, and the start of formal empire rather than informal.
End
In Guangxi, the
Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
Yongzheng Emperor took on a campaign to reform native
Zhuang following which 87 out of 128 ''tusis'' were replaced by officials.
At the start of the 20th century, there were eight ''tusis'' remained, all within present-day
Daxin County. In 1928,
Xincheng, the last tusi in Guangxi was converted to a county, ending the ''gaitu guiliu'' reforms.
On 23 January 1953, the
P.R. China (PRC) established the
Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region and ended the last Tusi system in
Sipsongpanna.
Native Chieftain titles
The native chieftain system also fit in the Nine Ranks system (''Jiu Pin''; "九品").The Nine Ranks system is a system of gradations used by regimes from post-Han to Qing.
[Charles O,Hucker. ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1985),p. 4-5. ] Under this system, all the officials in the bureaucracy were put into nine major categories: upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, middle-upper, middle-middle, middle-lower, lower-upper, lower-middle, and lower-lower.
Each category was given a rank numbered from 1 to 9. The rank 1 is the highest rank and the rank 9 is the lowest. Each rank was divided into two grades: upper () and lower ().
The central government gave different titles to native chieftains and these titles had different ranks in the Nine Ranks system:
List of ''tusi''
Chongqing province ''tusi''
*
Chiefdom of Shizhu (), ruled
Shizhu
Shizhu Tujia Autonomous County (), or Shizhu County for short, is located in southeastern Chongqing, China. It is south of the Yangtze River, and borders the Chongqing divisions of Pengshui County to the south, Fengdu County to the southwest, ...
, ended in 1761 when the final tusi became a local magistrate
Guangxi province ''tusi''
*
Chiefdom of Yongshun
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Yizhou District, abolished in 1928 and merged into Yizhou District
*Anping
*Xincheng
*Wancheng
Guizhou province ''tusi''
*
Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled Bozhou (present day
Zunyi), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1600
*
Chiefdom of Shuidong (), ruled Shuidong (present day
Sinan County), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1630
*
Chiefdom of Shuixi
Mu'ege ( Nasu: ; ) was a Nasu Yi chiefdom in modern Guizhou that existed from 300 to 1698. Since 1279, Mu'ege was conquered by the Yuan dynasty and became Chiefdom of Shuixi () under the Chinese ''tusi'' system.
Shuixi was one of the most po ...
(), ruled Shuixi (present day
Dafang County), abolished in 1698
*
Chiefdom of Sinan
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Sinan, abolished in 1414
*
Chiefdom of Sizhou
Chiefdom of Sizhou (), ruled by the Tian clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Tian Zongxian () during the Sui dynasty. After he conquered the Qianzhong area (present-day eastern Guizhou Province), Tian Zongxian was recognized a ...
(), ruled Sizhou (present day
Cengong County
Cengong County (), which was called (思州) in ancient times, is a county of eastern Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture
Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture ...
), abolished in 1414
Sichuan province ''tusi''
*
Chiefdom of Canbolang
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Litang County
*
Chiefdom of Dongbohanhu (), ruled
Jinchuan County
*
Chiefdom of Leipo (), ruled
Leibo County
Leibo County is a mountainous county of southern Sichuan province, People's Republic of China, along the border with Yunnan. It is under the administration of the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, and has a population of 223,000, 91% of whom ar ...
*
Chiefdom of Manyi
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Pingshan County
*
Chiefdom of Mo'erkan
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and
Markam County
Markam County, (; ) is a county under the jurisdiction of the Chamdo in the Tibet Autonomous Region, bordering the provinces of Sichuan to the east and Yunnan to the south. It is the easternmost county-level division of the Tibet A.R.
Climate
...
*
Chiefdom of Muchuan
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Pingshan County
*
Chiefdom of Nixi
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Pingshan County
*
Chiefdom of Pingyi
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Pingshan County and
Suijiang County
Suijiang County () is a county in the northeast of Yunnan province, China, bordering Sichuan province across the Jinsha River to the north and west. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhaotong.
Administrative divisions ...
*
Chiefdom of Yidu
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Pingshan County
Yunnan province ''tusi''
*
Chiang Hung, ruled Sipsong Panna (present day
Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture)
*
Mong Mao
*
Kokang
*
Chiefdom of Heqing
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Heqing County, descendants of
Gao Shengtai
Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan.
Life
In 1080, Duan Lianyi, ...
, became a local magistrate in 1683
*
Chiefdom of Ganya
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Yingjiang County
Yingjiang County (; th, เมืองหล้า) is a county in Dehong Prefecture, Yunnan province, China, bordering Burma's Kachin State to the west.
Geography
Yingjiang county has a border of with Kachin State, Myanmar in the west. Th ...
, abolished in 1949
*
Chiefdom of Gengma (), ruled
Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County
Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County () is located in Lincang City, in the west of Yunnan province, China.
History
In 1988, the county was affected by 1988 Lancang–Gengma earthquakes, two strong earthquakes. It killed a total of 939 people and c ...
, abolished in 1950
*
Chiefdom of Lijiang (), ruled
Lijiang
*
Chiefdom of Luomeng (), ruled
Shilin Yi Autonomous County
*
Meng Xon
Meng may refer to:
* Meng (surname) (孟), a Chinese surname
* Master of Engineering (MEng or M.Eng.), an academic or professional master's degree in the field of engineering
* , "M with hook", letter used in the International Phonetic Alphabet
* ...
(), or
Chiefdom of Mangshi
The Chiefdom of Mangshi, officially Mangshi ''Yuyi Zhangguansi'' and Mangshi ''Anfusi'' was a Dai autonomous Tusi chiefdom in the west of Yunnan, China from 1443 to 1955. In 1443, the Ming dynasty established Mangshi ''Yuyi Zhangguansi'' () beca ...
(), ruled
Mangshi
*
Chiefdom of Mengban
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Mangshi
*
Chiefdom of Menghai
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Menghai County
*
Chiefdom of Menghan
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Jinghong
Jinghong (; khb, ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦᩁᩩ᩵ᨦ; th, เชียงรุ่ง, , ; lo, ຊຽງຮຸ່ງ; also formerly romanised as ''Chiang Hung'', ''Chengrung'', ''Cheng Hung'', Jeng Hung, ''Jinghung'', ''Keng Hung'', ''Kiang Hung'' and ' ...
*
Chiefdom of Mengjiaodong
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Cangyuan Va Autonomous County
*
Chiefdom of Yao'an
Chiefdom of Yao'an (), ruled by the Gao clan, was a Bai autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom during Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasty. The chiefdom located at the convergence of Yunnan and Sichuan.
The Gao clan were descendants of Gao Shengtai, whom was th ...
(), ruled
Yao'an County
Yao'an County (; Chuxiong Yi script: , IPA: ) is under the administration of the Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture, in the west-central part of Yunnan province, China. A prominent Chinese philosopher Li Zhi used to a prefect of Yao'an county and h ...
, descendants of
Gao Shengtai
Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan.
Life
In 1080, Duan Lianyi, ...
*
Chiefdom of Yongning
Chiefdom of Yongning () was a Mosuo autonomous Tusi chiefdom during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The chiefdom was located at present-day Ninglang Yi Autonomous County at the convergence of Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet.
According to legend, the anc ...
(), ruled Yongning (present day
Ninglang Yi Autonomous County)
*
Chiefdom of Yongsheng (), ruled
Yongsheng County, descendants of
Gao Shengtai
Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan.
Life
In 1080, Duan Lianyi, ...
*
Chiefdom of Zhefang
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Mangshi
Tibetan ''tusi''
*
Chiefdom of Chuchen
Chiefdom of Chuchen (), also known as Rabden or the Chiefdom of Greater Jinchuan (), was an autonomous Gyalrong Tusi chiefdom that ruled Greater Jinchuan (present day Jinchuan County, Sichuan) during the Qing dynasty. The rulers of Chuchen used th ...
, or Chiefdom of Greater Jinchuan (), ruled present day
Jinchuan County, annexed by Qing China in
Jinchuan campaigns
*
Chiefdom of Tsanlha
Chiefdom of Tsanlha (; ), also known as Chiefdom of Lesser Jinchuan (), was an autonomous Gyalrong people, Gyalrong Tusi, chiefdom that ruled Lesser Jinchuan (present day Xiaojin County, Sichuan) during Qing dynasty. The rulers of Tsanlha used the ...
(), or Chiefdom of Lesser Jinchuan (), ruled present day
Xiaojin County, annexed by Qing China in
Jinchuan campaigns
*
Chiefdom of Bathang
Chiefdom of Bathang (), or Chiefdom of Batang (), was an autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Bathang (present day Batang County of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) during the Qing dynasty period.
Bathang belonged to the Chiefdom of Lijiang ...
(, ), ruled
Batang County
Batang County (; ) is a County (People's Republic of China), county located in western Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan, Sichuan Province, People's Republic of China. Government address: Xiaqiong Town, Batang County, Ganzi, Sichuan 6 ...
,
revolted against Qing China in 1905 and was annexed in the next year
*
Chiefdom of Lithang
Chiefdom of Lithang (), or Chiefdom of Litang (), was an autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Litang (present day Litang County of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) during the Qing dynasty period. Lithang, Bathang, Chakla and Derge were call ...
(, ), ruled
Litang County,
revolted against Qing China in 1905 and was annexed in the next year
*
Chiefdom of Béri
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
() or Chiefdom of Baili (), ruled Béri (present day part of
Garzê County)
*
Kingdom of Chakla
Kingdom of Chakla (; ) or Chala was a kingdom in the Tibetan region of Kham.
Chakla along with Bathang, Lithang, and Derge were called the "Four Great Native Chiefdom in Kham" (康区四大土司) by Chinese.
The kingdom was located in the epony ...
() or Chiefdom of Mingzheng (), ruled Dartsedo (present day
Kangding)
*
Kingdom of Derge (; ), ruled
Dêgê County
Dêgê County (; ) is a county in southern China, which was formerly one of the Kham region's five independent kingdoms - the Kingdom of Derge - but is now administered as a county in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in far northwestern Sichu ...
*
Chiefdom of Muli
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(; ), ruled present day
Muli Tibetan Autonomous County
*
Kingdom of Powo
The Kingdom of Powo or sPo bo () was a kingdom located in present-day Bomê County, Tibet. The ruler of Powo used the title Kanam Gyelpo (''kaH gnam rgyal po'') or Kanam Depa (''kaH gnam sde pa'').
It was said that the monarchs of Powo were desc ...
(; ), ruled present day
Bomê County, annexed by
Tibet in 1928. Descendants of
Drigum Tsenpo.
*
Chiefdom of Zhuoni
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(; ), ruled
Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Duogandan (), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and
Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (, , retranscribed into Tibetan as ), also transliterated as Yüxü or Yulshul, is an autonomous prefecture
Autonomous prefectures () are one type of autonomous administrative divisions of China, existing ...
*
Chiefdom of Duogancangtang
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Duogan (), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Duoganchuan
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Duogansi
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Duoganlongda (), ruled
Chamdo
Chamdo, officially Qamdo () and also known in Chinese as Changdu, is a prefecture-level city in the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Its seat is the town of Chengguan in Karuo District. Chamdo is Tibet's third largest city ...
and
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Kingdom of Lingtsang
Lingtsang (; ) was formerly one of the Kham region's five independent kingdoms of Tibet. The realm of Lingstang was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1950 following the Battle of Chamdo.
Geography
The Kingdom of Lingtsang wa ...
(; ), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Changhexi (), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Longda
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
*
Chiefdom of Nangqên
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(; ), ruled
Nangqên County
*
Chiefdom of Dasima
A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...
(), ruled
Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
See also
*
Chiefdom
*
Tributary system of China
*
Mandala (political model)
*
Chao Pha
*
Mueang
References
Bibliography
*
*
*Leo Kwok-yueh, Shin(2006)'', The making of the Chinese state: ethnicity and expansion on the Ming borderlands，''Cambridge University Press
*Took Jennifer(2005), ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy under Tusi System of Late Imperial China'',BRILL
*Hucker, Charles O(1985), ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' Stanford University Press
{{Qing dynasty topics
Ethnic groups in China
Ethnic groups in Vietnam
History of Yunnan
History of Guizhou
History of Guangxi
History of Sichuan
History of Vietnam