Somali Culture
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The culture of
Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
is an amalgamation of traditions in that were developed independently since the
Proto-Somali Proto-Somalis were the ancient people and ancestors of Somalis The Somalis ( so, Soomaalida 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖, ar, صوماليون) are an ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa who share a common ancestry, culture and hi ...
era. The hypernym of the term ''Somali'' from a geopolitical sense is ''
Horner Horner is an English and German surname that derives from the Middle English word for the occupation ''horner'', meaning horn-worker or horn-maker, or even horn-blower. People *Alison Horner (born 1966), British businesswoman * Arthur Horner (dis ...
'' and from an ethnic sense, it is '' Cushite''.


Overview

The cultural diffusion of Somali commercial enterprise can be detected in its exotic
cuisine A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. Regional food preparation techniques, customs, and ingredients combine to ...
, which contains Southeast Asian influences. Due to the Somali people's for and facility with poetry, Somalia has often been referred to as a "Nation of Poets" and a "Nation of
Bard In Celtic cultures, a bard is a professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise t ...
s", as, for example, by the
Canadian Canadians (french: Canadiens) are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or cultural. For most Canadians, many (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of ...
novelist
Margaret Laurence Jean Margaret Laurence (née Wemyss; July 18, 1926 – January 5, 1987) was a Canadian novelist and short story writer, and is one of the major figures in Canadian literature. She was also a founder of the Writers' Trust of Canada, a non-pr ...
. Somalis have a story-telling tradition. According to Canadian novelist and scholar
Margaret Laurence Jean Margaret Laurence (née Wemyss; July 18, 1926 – January 5, 1987) was a Canadian novelist and short story writer, and is one of the major figures in Canadian literature. She was also a founder of the Writers' Trust of Canada, a non-pr ...
, who originally coined the term "Nation of Poets" to describe the Somali Peninsular, the
Eidagale The Eidagale (Ciidagale), ar, ‎عيدَغَلي, (which translates to "army joiner"), Full Name: Da'ud ibn Al-Qādhī Ismā'īl ibn ash-Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad, is a major Somali clan and is a sub-division of the Garhajis clan of the Isaa ...
clan were viewed as "the recognized experts in the composition of poetry" by their fellow Somali contemporaries:
Among the tribes, the Eidagalla are the recognized experts in the composition of poetry. One individual poet of the Eidagalla may be no better than a good poet of another tribe, but the Eidagalla appear to have more poets than any other tribe. "if you had a hundred Eidagalla men here," Hersi Jama once told me, "And asked which of them could sing his own gabei ninety-five would be able to sing. The others would still be learning."
Somalis have a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somali folklore. Most Somali songs are
pentatonic A pentatonic scale is a musical scale (music), scale with five Musical note, notes per octave, in contrast to the heptatonic scale, which has seven notes per octave (such as the major scale and minor scale). Pentatonic scales were developed ...
; that is, they only use five pitches per
octave In music, an octave ( la, octavus: eighth) or perfect octave (sometimes called the diapason) is the interval between one musical pitch and another with double its frequency. The octave relationship is a natural phenomenon that has been refer ...
in contrast to a
heptatonic A heptatonic scale is a musical scale that has seven pitches, or tones, per octave. Examples include the major scale or minor scale; e.g., in C major: C D E F G A B C—and in the relative minor, A minor, natural minor: A B C D E F G A; the m ...
(seven note) scale such as the
major scale The major scale (or Ionian mode) is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales. Like many musical scales, it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first at double i ...
. Somali art is the artistic culture of the Somali people, both historic and contemporary. These include artistic traditions in
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and por ...
,
music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspect ...
,
architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...
,
wood carving Wood carving is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation ...
and other genres. Somali art is characterized by its aniconism, partly as a result of the vestigial influence of the pre-Islamic
mythology Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...
of the Somalis coupled with their ubiquitous
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
beliefs. The country's shape gives a united country the nickname ''toddobo'' (seven).


Pan-Somalism

Somali nationalism ( Somali: ''Soomaalinimo'') is centered on the notion that the
Somali people The Somalis ( so, Soomaalida 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒆𐒖, ar, صوماليون) are an ethnic group native to the Horn of Africa who share a common ancestry, culture and history. The Lowland East Cushitic Somali language is the shared ...
share a common language, religion, culture and ethnicity, and as such constitute a nation unto themselves. The ideology's earliest manifestations in the medieval era are traced to the
Adalites The Adal Sultanate, or the Adal Empire or the ʿAdal or the Bar Saʿad dīn (alt. spelling ''Adel Sultanate, ''Adal ''Sultanate'') () was a medieval Sunni Muslim Empire which was located in the Horn of Africa. It was founded by Sabr ad-Din II ...
whilst in the contemporary era its often traced back to SYL or in present-day
Somaliland Somaliland,; ar, صوماليلاند ', ' officially the Republic of Somaliland,, ar, جمهورية صوماليلاند, link=no ''Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd'' is a ''de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still conside ...
, the first Somali nationalist political organization to be formed was the
Somali National League Somali may refer to: Horn of Africa * Somalis, an inhabitant or ethnicity associated with Greater Somali Region ** Proto-Somali, the ancestors of modern Somalis ** Somali culture ** Somali cuisine ** Somali language, a Cushitic language ** Somali, ...
(SNL), established in 1935 in the former
British Somaliland British Somaliland, officially the Somaliland Protectorate ( so, Dhulka Maxmiyada Soomaalida ee Biritishka), was a British Empire, British protectorate in present-day Somaliland. During its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Soma ...
protectorate. In the country's northeastern, central and southern regions, the similarly oriented Somali Youth Club (SYC) was founded in 1943 in
Italian Somaliland Italian Somalia ( it, Somalia Italiana; ar, الصومال الإيطالي, Al-Sumal Al-Italiy; so, Dhulka Talyaaniga ee Soomaalida), was a protectorate and later colony of the Kingdom of Italy in present-day Somalia. Ruled in the 19th centur ...
, just prior to the trusteeship period. The SYC was later renamed the Somali Youth League (SYL) in 1947. It became the most influential political party in the early years of post-independence
Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
.


Notable Pan-Somalists

*
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan Sayid Mohamed Abdullahi Hassan ( so, Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan; 1856–1920) was a Somali religious and military leader of the Dervish movement, which led a two-decade long confrontation with various colonial empires including the British, ...
fought colonialists with the
Dervish Dervish, Darvesh, or Darwīsh (from fa, درویش, ''Darvīsh'') in Islam can refer broadly to members of a Sufi fraternity A fraternity (from Latin language, Latin ''wiktionary:frater, frater'': "brother (Christian), brother"; whence, ...
es during the
Scramble for Africa The Scramble for Africa, also called the Partition of Africa, or Conquest of Africa, was the invasion, annexation, division, and colonisation of Africa, colonization of most of Africa by seven Western Europe, Western European powers during a ...
. * Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman (1841–1907) - Sultan of the
Habr Yunis The Habar Yoonis ( ar, هبر يونس , Full Name: '' Said ibn Al-Qādhī Ismā'īl ibn ash-Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad bin Muḥammad bin al-Ḥusayn al-Hāshimīy'' ) alternatively spelled as Habr Yunis is a major clan part of the sub-clan ...
and one of the founders of the Somali Dervish movement *
Haji Sudi Ahmed Warsama, more commonly known as Haji Sudi ( so, Xaaji Suudi Shabeel) was one of the leaders behind the Somali Dervish movement. He was also the movement's right-hand man and chief lieutenant till its demise in 1920. He is described as the ...
- One of the founding members of the Dervish movement and Second in command after Mohamed Abdullah Hassan. *
Mohamoud Ali Shire Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire, MBE ( so, Maxamuud Cali Shire, ar, محمود علي شري) was a Somali elder of the Warsangali clan. He bore the title Sultan * (also referred to as Senior Akil) of the Warsangali. He was centered at Las Khorey. Re ...
– 26th Sultan of the Warsangali Sultanate (1897–1960). *
Hawo Tako Hawo Tako (died 1948) was a prominent Somali activist. Biography Hawo Tako belonged to the Abaskuul, Jidwaaq Absame clan which settles the Middle Juba region of Somalia as well as the Fafan valleys in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. A member ...
(d.1948) – Early 20th century Somali female nationalist whose sacrifice became a symbol for Pan-Somalism. * Bashir Yussuf (b. 1905–1945) – Somali nationalist and religious leader. * Abdullahi Issa (b. 1922–1988) – First Prime Minister of Somalia. *
Aden Abdullah Osman Daar Aden Abdulle Osman Daar ( so, Aadan Cabdulle Cismaan Dacar, ar, آدم عبد الله عثمان دعر) (December 9, 1908 – June 8, 2007), popularly known as Aden Adde, was a Somali politician who served as the first president of the S ...
(7 January 1960 – 10 June 1967) – First President of Somalia. *
Abdirashid Ali Shermarke Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke ( so, Cabdirashiid Cali Sharmaarke, ar, عبد الرشيد علي شارماركي) (8 June 1919 – 15 October 1969), also known as Abdirashid Shermarke, was Prime Minister of Somali Republic from 12 July 1960, to 14 J ...
(10 June 1967 – 15 October 1969) – Second President of Somalia. * Hirsi Bulhan Farah – Former Minister in the civilian government of the 1960s, political prisoner and Pan-Somalist. * Siad Barre (b. 1919 – 2 January 1995) – Third President of Somalia. *
Jama Korshel Jama Ali Korshel ( so, Jaamac Cali Qoorsheel, ar, جامع علي قورشيل) was a Somali army Major General and former Head of the Somali Police Force. He was the Vice President of the Supreme Revolutionary Council. Biography Korshel was b ...
– Somali National Army General, former Head of Somali Police, and commander in the Supreme Revolutionary Council. *
Daud Abdulle Hirsi General Daud Abdulle Hirsi ( so, Daa'uud Cabdulle Xirsi, ar, داود عبد الله حرسي; 1925–1965) was a Somali police and military officer, who went on to become first Commander of the Somali Armed Forces.Bildhaan, p. 64. Biography ...
(1925–1965) – Prominent Somali General considered the Father of the Somali Military. *
Mahmoud Harbi Mahamoud Harbi Farah ( ar, محمود الحربي, so, Maxamuud Xarbi Faarax) (1921 – 29 September 1960) was a Djiboutian politician of Somali ethnicity. A pan-Somalist, he was the Vice President of the Government Council of French Somal ...
– active Pan-Somalist that came close to uniting Djibouti with
Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
in the 1970s. *
Salaad Gabeyre Kediye Salaad Gabeyre Kediye ( so, Salaad Gabeyre Kediye, 1933 – 3 July 1972), also known as Salah Gaveire Kedie, was a Somali senior military official and a revolutionary who was executed by the Siad Barre regime. Biography Kediye was born in Harard ...
Major General Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
in the Somali military and a revolutionary. *
Abdirizak Haji Hussein Abdirizak Haji Hussein ( so, Cabdirisaaq Xaaji Xuseen; ar, عبد الرزاق حاجي حسين‎; 24 December 192431 January 2014) was a Somali diplomat and politician. He was the Prime Minister of Somali Republic from 14 June 1964 to 15 Ju ...
– Former Prime Minister of Somalia (1964–1967) and Somali Youth League leader. *
Sheikh Mukhtar Mohamed Hussein Sheikh Mukhtar Mohamed Hussein ( so, Sheekh Mukhtaar Maxamed Xuseen, ar, الشيخ محمد حسين مختار‎; December 9, 1912 – June 12, 2012) was the Speaker of the Parliament of Somalia, and briefly an Acting President of Som ...
, speaker of parliament, from 1965 to 1969 and interim President of Somalia before the coup d'état in 1969. * Abdullahi Ahmed Irro – General in the Somali National Army; established the National Academy for Strategy. *
Michael Mariano Michael Mariano ( so, Maykal Maryaano) (1914-1987) was a Somali politician and businessman best remembered for leading a delegation to Headquarters of the United Nations, UN Headquarters in New York City and advocating for the return of the Somali ...
legendary politician and diplomat, SYL member and advocate for occupied Somalis *
Ali Matan Hashi Ali Matan Hashi (1927–1978; so, Cali Mataan Xashi, ar, علي متان حاشي), also known as Ali Matan, was a Somali senior military official and politician. He was the first Somali pilot, and a prominent member of the Supreme Revolutiona ...
Brigadier General Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed ...
and politician; first Somali Air Force pilot, the father of Somali Air Force and a prominent member of the Supreme Revolutionary Council. *
Abdirahman Jama Barre Abdirahman Jama Barre ( so, Cabdiraxmaan Jaamac Barre, ar, عبد الرحمن جامع بري) (1937 – 15 August 2017) was a Somali politician. He twice served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Somali Democratic Republic, and later as ...
– Former Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Finance of Somalia. *
Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf ( so, Xaaji Bashiir Ismaaciil Yuusuf, ar, حاجي بشير اسماعيل يوسف) (b. 1912 in Hobyo, Somalia – d. 1984 in Cairo, Egypt), commonly referred to as Haji Bashir,SAMIULLAH, MUHAMMAD. DEVELOPMENT OF CREATI ...
– First President of the Somali National Assembly and prominent Somali Youth League member. *
Osman Haji Mohamed Osman Haji Mohamed ( so, Cismaan Xaaji Maxamed, ar, عثمان حاجي محمد) (b. 1920 – d. July 28, 1975), also known as Osman Baketti, was a Somali politician. He was a prominent figure in the government of the Trust Territory of Somalia ...
– Prominent Somali Youth League member and parliamentarian. * Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed – President of Somalia, Colonel in Somali National Army, and commander during WSLF campaign. * Omar Osman Rabeh – Pan-Somalist that has written many works on Somali nationalism. * Mohamed Ainanshe Guleid, Major General in the
Somali National Army The Somali National Army ( Somali: ''Xooga Dalka Soomaaliyeed,'' lit. ''"Somali Ground Forces"'') is the ground forces component of the Somali Armed Forces, and is the largest out of the three service branches that make up the majority of the A ...
and Vice president of the
Somali Democratic Republic The Somali Democratic Republic ( so, Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiya Soomaaliyeed; ar, الجمهورية الديمقراطية الصومالية, ; it, Repubblica Democratica Somala) was the name that the socialist military government gave to Som ...
*
Mohamed Farah Aidid Mohamed Farrah Hassan Aidid ( so, Maxamed Faarax Xasan Caydiid; ar, محمد فرح حسن عيديد; 15 December 1934 – 1 August 1996) was a Somali general and diplomat. Educated in both Rome and Moscow, he served as a chief in the Italian ...
– Prominent Somali military commander and political leader. A former general and diplomat, he was the chairman of the United Somali Congress (USC) and later led the Somali National Alliance (SNA). In 1992, Aidid attacked American troops in the nation. He was one of the main targets of the Unified Task Force. Eventually forcing United States forces to withdraw from Somalia in 1995.


Religion

With very few exceptions, Somalis are entirely Muslims, the majority belonging to the
Sunni Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagr ...
branch of Islam and the
Shafi‘i The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
school of Islamic jurisprudence.Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, ''Culture and Customs of Somalia'', (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.1 There are two theories about when Somalis began adopting Islam. One states that Islam probably arrived in Somalia in the 7th-century when followers of Muhammad came over to escape persecution from the
Quraysh tribe The Quraysh ( ar, قُرَيْشٌ) were a grouping of Arab clans that historically inhabited and controlled the city of Mecca and its Kaaba. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born into the Hashim clan of the tribe. Despite this, many of the Qu ...
in Mecca. An alternate theory states that Islam was brought to the coastal settlements of Somalia between the 7th and the 10th century by seafaring Arab and Persian merchants. The Sunni-Shia split within Islam occurred before Islam spread among Somalis, and Sunnis constitute the overwhelming majority of contemporary Somalis. Somali Sufi religious orders (''tariqa'') – the
Qadiriyya The Qadiriyya (), also transliterated Qādirīyah, ''Qadri'', ''Qadriya'', ''Kadri'', ''Elkadri'', ''Elkadry'', ''Aladray'', ''Alkadrie'', ''Adray'', ''Kadray'', ''Kadiri'', ''Qadiri'', ''Quadri'' or ''Qadri'' are members of the Sunni Qadiri ta ...
, the Ahmadiya and the
Salihiyya Salihiyya ( so, Saalixiya; Urwayniya, ar, الصالحية) is a ''tariqa'' (order) of Sufi Islam prevalent in Somalia and the adjacent Somali region of Ethiopia. It was founded in the Sudan by Sayyid Muhammad Salih (1854-1919). The order is c ...
– in the form of Muslim brotherhoods have played a major role in Somali Islam and the modern era history of Somalia. Of the three orders, the less strict Qaadiriya ''tariqa'' is the oldest, and it is the sect to which most Somalis belonged. The Qaadiriya order is named after Shaikh Muhiuddin Abdul Qadir Gilani of Baghdad. I. M. Lewis states that Qaadiriya has a high reputation for maintaining a higher standard of Islamic instruction than its rivals. Ahmadiyah and its sub-sect Salihiyyah preached a puritanical form of Islam, and have rejected the popular Sufi practice of ''tawassul'' (visiting the tombs of saints to ask mediation). B. G. Martin states that these two orders shared some of the views of the
Wahhabis Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, and ...
of Arabia. The religious differences between Qaadiriya and Salihiyya were controversial, as Salihis continued to oppose the Qadiris' practice of ''tawassul'', and claimed the act to be invalid and improper religious activity. The Ahmadiya has the smallest number of adherents of the three orders. Qur'anic schools (also known as ''dugsi'') remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction in Somalia. It is delivered in Arabic. They provide Islamic education for children. According to the
UNICEF UNICEF (), originally called the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund in full, now officially United Nations Children's Fund, is an agency of the United Nations responsible for providing Humanitarianism, humanitarian and Devel ...
, the ''dugsi'' system where the content is based on
Quran The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...
, teaches the greatest number of students and enjoys high parental support, is oftentimes the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas. A study from 1993 found, among other things, that "unlike in primary schools where gender disparity is enormous, around 40 per cent of Qur'anic school pupils are girls; but the teaching staff have minimum or no qualification necessary to ensure intellectual development of children." To address these concerns, the Somali government on its own part subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is now regulated. The Somali community has produced important Muslim figures over the centuries, many of whom have significantly shaped the course of Islamic learning and practice in the
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), ...
and the
Muslim world The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. I ...
.


Religiosity

Although
Pew Research Center The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan American think tank (referring to itself as a "fact tank") based in Washington, D.C. It provides information on social issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States and the w ...
has not conducted a survey in Somalia, its Somali-majority northwestern neighbour Djibouti reported a creed breakdown of Muslims which was reported as 77% adhering to Sunnism, 8% as
non-denominational Muslim Non-denominational Muslims () are Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiable Islamic schools and branches. Non-denominational Muslims are found primarily in Central Asi ...
, 2% as
Shia Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his S ...
, thirteen percent refusing to answer, and a further report inclusive of
Somali Region The Somali Region ( so, Deegaanka Soomaalida, am, ሱማሌ ክልል, Sumalē Kilil, ar, المنطقة الصومالية), also known as Soomaali Galbeed (''Western Somalia'') and officially the Somali Regional State, is a regional state ...
stipulating 2% adherence to a minority sect (e.g.
Ibadism The Ibadi movement or Ibadism ( ar, الإباضية, al-Ibāḍiyyah) is a school of Islam. The followers of Ibadism are known as the Ibadis. Ibadism emerged around 60 years after the Islamic prophet Muhammad's death in 632 AD as a moderate sc ...
,
Quranism Quranism ( ar, القرآنية, translit=al-Qurʾāniyya'';'' also known as Quran-only Islam) Brown, ''Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought'', 1996: p.38-42 is a movement within Islam. It holds the belief that traditional religious cl ...
etc.). Somali Sunnis primarily belong to
Shafi`i The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
school of Islamic jurisprudence, or are adherents to the Salafi creed.
Sufism Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, r ...
, the mystical dimension of Islam, is also well-established, with many local ''jama'a'' ('' zawiya'') or congregations of the various '' tariiqa'' or Sufi orders. The
constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of Legal entity, entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When ...
of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the religion of the Somali Republic, and Islamic
Sharia Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...
as the basic source for national legislation. Islam entered the region very early on, as a group of persecuted Muslims had, at Prophet Muhummad's urging, sought refuge across the
Red Sea The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; T ...
in the
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), ...
. Islam may thus have been introduced into Somalia well before the faith even took root in its place of origin. Although Somali women were initially excluded from the many male-dominated religious orders, the all-female institution
Abay Siti Abay Siti ( Eng: ''Lady Sister''; ar, سيدة الأخت) is a Somali female institution dating back to early 19th century urban Somalia. The institution incorporated Somali tradition and Islam and was established as a result of women being e ...
was formed in the late 19th century, incorporating Somali tradition and Islam. In addition, the Somali community has produced numerous important Islamic figures over the centuries, many of whom have significantly shaped the course of Muslim learning and practice in the Horn of Africa, the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate ...
, and well beyond. Among these Islamic scholars is the 14th century Somali
theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
and
jurist A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyses and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal qualification in law and often a legal practitioner. In the Uni ...
Uthman bin Ali Zayla'i of
Zeila Zeila ( so, Saylac, ar, زيلع, Zayla), also known as Zaila or Zayla, is a historical port town in the western Awdal region of Somaliland. In the Middle Ages, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela identified Zeila (or Hawilah) with the Bibli ...
, who wrote the single most authoritative text on the
Hanafi The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named aft ...
school of Islam, consisting of four volumes known as the ''Tabayin al-Haqa’iq li Sharh Kanz al-Daqa’iq''.


Important Islamic figures

*
Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti, ( ar, عبدالرحمن بن اسماعيل الجبرتي) also known as Daarood, Dawud or Da'ud (), is the semi-legendary common ancestor of the Somali Darod clan. According to local tradition, Abdirahman d ...
– 10th century Islamic leader in
Somaliland Somaliland,; ar, صوماليلاند ', ' officially the Republic of Somaliland,, ar, جمهورية صوماليلاند, link=no ''Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd'' is a ''de facto'' sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, still conside ...
. *
Sheikh Isaaq Bin Ahmed Al Hashimi Sheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed bin Muhammad bin al-Hussein al-Hashimi, more commonly known as Sheikh Ishaaq or Sheikh Isaaq (, ) was the semi-legendary Arab forefather of the Somali Isaaq clan-family in the Horn of Africa, whose traditional territory ...
– 12th century Islamic leader in Somaliland *
Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn ( ar, يوسف بن أحمد الكونين) (b. 10th century), popularly known as Aw Barkhadle ("Blessed Father")Abdullahi, p.13 or Yusuf Al Kownayn, was a Muslim scholar and traveler. Based on reference to Yusuf Al Ka ...
– 13th century scholar, philosopher and saint. Associated with the development of
Wadaad writing ''Wadaad'' writing, also known as ''Wadaad'' Arabic ( so, Far Wadaad), is the traditional Somali adaptation of written Arabic language, Arabic, as well as the Arabic script as historically used to transcribe the Somali language.Lewis, p.139-140 O ...
. * Abadir Umar ar-Rida – 13th century Sheikh and
patron saint A patron saint, patroness saint, patron hallow or heavenly protector is a saint who in Catholicism, Anglicanism, or Eastern Orthodoxy is regarded as the heavenly advocate of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, family, or perso ...
of
Harar Harar ( amh, ሐረር; Harari: ሀረር; om, Adare Biyyo; so, Herer; ar, هرر) known historically by the indigenous as Gey (Harari: ጌይ ''Gēy'', ) is a walled city in eastern Ethiopia. It is also known in Arabic as the City of Saint ...
. * Uthman bin Ali Zayla'i – 14th century Somali
theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
and
jurist A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyses and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal qualification in law and often a legal practitioner. In the Uni ...
who wrote the single most authoritative text on the
Hanafi The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named aft ...
school of Islam, consisting of four volumes known as the ''Tabayin al-Haqa’iq li Sharh Kanz al-Daqa’iq''. * Sa'id of Mogadishu – 14th century Somali scholar and traveler. His reputation as a scholar earned him audiences with the
Emir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cerem ...
s of
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
and
Medina Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the Holiest sites in Islam, second-holiest city in Islam, ...
. He travelled across the
Muslim world The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. I ...
and visited
Bengal Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
and
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. *
Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi ( so, Axmed Ibraahim al-Qaasi or Axmed Gurey, Harari: አሕመድ ኢብራሂም አል-ጋዚ, ar, أحمد بن إبراهيم الغازي ; 1506 – 21 February 1543) was an imam and general of the Adal Sultan ...
(c. 1507 – 21 February 1543) – 16th century
Imam Imam (; ar, إمام '; plural: ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Islamic worship services, lead prayers, ser ...
and military leader that led the Conquest of Abyssinia. *
Nur ibn Mujahid Nur ibn Mujahid ibn ‘Ali ibn ‘Abdullah al Dhuhi Suha ( Harari: ኑር ኢብን ሙጃሂድ, so, Nuur ibn Mujaahid, ar, نور بن مجاهد; died 1567) was a Muslim Emir of Harar who ruled Sultanate of Harar. He was the primary reason f ...
– 16th century Somali Emir and patron saint of Harar. * Ali al-Jabarti (d. 1492) – 16th century Somali scholar and politician in the Mamluk Empire. * Hassan al-Jabarti (d. 1774) – Somali
mathematician A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change. History On ...
,
theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
,
astronomer An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, natural satellite, moons, comets and galaxy, g ...
and
philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...
; considered one of the great scholars of the 18th century. * Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (1753–1825) – Somali scholar living in
Cairo Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
that recorded the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt. *
Abd al Aziz al-Amawi ‘Abd al-‘Azīz al-Amawī ( ar, عبد العزيز الأموي; 1838–1896) was a Somali scholar following the Shāfi‘ī school of jurisprudence and the Ash'arite school of theology, and was a Sufi shaykh of the Qādiryya Sufi order, of w ...
(1832–1896) – 19th century influential Somali
diplomat A diplomat (from grc, δίπλωμα; romanized ''diploma'') is a person appointed by a state or an intergovernmental institution such as the United Nations or the European Union to conduct diplomacy with one or more other states or internati ...
, historian, poet,
jurist A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyses and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal qualification in law and often a legal practitioner. In the Uni ...
and scholar living in the
Sultanate of Zanzibar The Sultanate of Zanzibar ( sw, Usultani wa Zanzibar, ar, سلطنة زنجبار , translit=Sulṭanat Zanjībār), also known as the Zanzibar Sultanate, was a state controlled by the Sultan of Zanzibar, in place between 1856 and 1964. The Sul ...
. * Shaykh Abd Al-Rahman bin Ahmad al-Zayla'i (1820–1882) – Somali scholar who played a crucial role in the spread of the
Qadiriyyah The Qadiriyya (), also transliterated Qādirīyah, ''Qadri'', ''Qadriya'', ''Kadri'', ''Elkadri'', ''Elkadry'', ''Aladray'', ''Alkadrie'', ''Adray'', ''Kadray'', ''Kadiri'', ''Qadiri'', ''Quadri'' or ''Qadri'' are members of the Sunni Qadiri ta ...
movement in
Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
and
East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historical ...
. *
Sheikh Madar Madar Ahmed Shirwac, better known as Sheikh Madar ( so, Sheekh Madar) was a 19th-century Somali political/religious leader, a social reformer, merchant and a jurist that was instrumental in the modern foundation of Hargeisa. He hailed from the Yu ...
(1825-1918) - Influential 19th & 20th century Qadiriyya leader and founder of the
Hargeisa Hargeisa (; so, Hargeysa, ar, هرجيسا) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Somaliland. It is located in the Maroodi Jeex region of the Horn of Africa. It succeeded Burco as the capital of the British Somaliland Protector ...
tariqa *
Shaykh Sufi Abd Al-Rahman bin Abdullah al Shashi ( ar, عبد الرحمن بن عبد الله الشاشي) (b. 1829 - 1904), popularly known as Sheikh Sufi, was a 19th-century Somali scholar, poet, reformist and astrologist. Life Sheikh Sufi was born in M ...
(1829–1904) – 19th century Somali scholar, poet,
reformist Reformism is a political doctrine advocating the reform of an existing system or institution instead of its abolition and replacement. Within the socialist movement, reformism is the view that gradual changes through existing institutions can eve ...
and
astrologer Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Dif ...
. *
Sheikh Uways Al-Barawi Sheikh Uways Al-Barawi ( ar, أُوَيس البَراوي; 1847–1909) was a Somali scholar credited with reviving Islam in 19th century East Africa. Biography Early life Sheikh Uways was born in Barawa during the Geledi Sultanate period on th ...
(1847–1909) – Somali scholar credited reviving Islam in 19th century East Africa and with followers in
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
and
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
. *
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan Sayid Mohamed Abdullahi Hassan ( so, Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan; 1856–1920) was a Somali religious and military leader of the Dervish movement, which led a two-decade long confrontation with various colonial empires including the British, ...
(1856-1920) – emir of the Dervishes *
Abdallah al-Qutbi Abdallah ibn Mu'allim Yusuf al-Qutbi ( ar, عبد الله يوسف قطبي ) (c. 1879 – 1952) was a Somali polemicist, theologian and philosopher who lived in Qulunqul (Kolonkol), Somalia. Biography Sheikh Al-Qutbi is best known for his ' ...
(1879–1952) – Somali
polemic Polemic () is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position. The practice of such argumentation is called ''polemics'', which are seen in arguments on controversial topics ...
ist
theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
and
philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...
; best known for his five-part ''Al-Majmu'at al-mubaraka'' ("The Blessed Collection"), published in Cairo. * Sheikh Muhammad al-Sumali (1910-2005) – Somali scholar and teacher in the
Masjid Al-Haram , native_name_lang = ar , religious_affiliation = Islam , image = Al-Haram mosque - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg , image_upright = 1.25 , caption = Aerial view of the Great Mosque of Mecca , map ...
in
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
. He influenced many of the prominent Islamic scholars of today.


Languages

The
Somali language Somali (Latin script: ; Wadaad writing, Wadaad: ; Osmanya: 𐒖𐒍 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘 ) is an Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic languages, Cushitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by Somalis in ...
is the official language of Somalia. It is a member of the
Cushitic The Cushitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken primarily in the Horn of Africa, with minorities speaking Cushitic languages to the north in Egypt and the Sudan, and to the south in Kenya and Tanzania. As o ...
branch of the
Afro-Asiatic The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic su ...
language family, and its nearest relatives are the Afar and saho languages. Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages, with academic studies of it dating from before 1900. Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benaadir and
Maay Mai-Mai, commonly spelled Maay Maay (also known as ''Af-Maay'', ''Af-Maymay'', or simply ''Maay''; the ''Mai-Mai'' spelling is rarely used but it is most often spoken), is a dialect of the Somali language of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiat ...
. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benaadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the Benadir coast from
Adale Adale ( so, Cadale; it, Adalei or Itala), also known as Cadaley, is a coastal town in the southern Middle Shabelle (Shabeellaha Dhexe) region of Somalia. History Adale was mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by an anonym ...
to south of
Merca Merca ( so, Marka, Maay: ''Marky'', ar, مركة) is a historic port city in the southern Lower Shebelle province of Somalia. It is located approximately to the southwest of the nation's capital Mogadishu. Merca is the traditional home territory ...
, including
Mogadishu Mogadishu (, also ; so, Muqdisho or ; ar, مقديشو ; it, Mogadiscio ), locally known as Xamar or Hamar, is the capital and List of cities in Somalia by population, most populous city of Somalia. The city has served as an important port ...
, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional
phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-west o ...
s which do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (
Rahanweyn The Rahanweyn ( Maay: ''Reewin or Roowing'', Northern Somali: ''Raxanweyn'', ar, رحنوين), also known as the Digil and Mirifle () are a Somali clan. It is one of the major Somali clans in the Horn of Africa, with a large territory and dense ...
) clans in the southern areas of Somalia. Since Somali had long lost its ancient script, a number of
writing system A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable form ...
s have been used over the years for transcribing the language. Of these, the
Somali alphabet A number of writing systems have been used to transcribe the Somali language. Of these, the Somali Latin alphabet is the most widely used. It has been the official writing script in Somalia since the Supreme Revolutionary Council formally intro ...
is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972. The script was developed by a number of leading scholars of Somali, including
Musa Haji Ismail Galal Musa Haji Ismail Galal ( so, Muuse Xaaji Ismaaciil Galaal, ar, موسى الحاج اسماعيل جلال) (1917–1980) was a Somali writer, scholar, linguist, historian and polymath. He is notable for the creation of the Somali Latin scr ...
,
B. W. Andrzejewski Bogumił Witalis "Goosh" Andrzejewski (1922–1994) was a Polish-born, British-naturalised linguist whose research focused on the Somali language. Lists of Andrzejewski's works can be found in , , , and . General references * * * * * * ...
and
Shire Jama Ahmed ; 1936-1999) was a Somali linguist and a scholar. He is notable for his contribution to the creation of the modern Latin script for transcribing the Somali language. Early years Shire was born in the Dusamareeb region of Somalia to a Marehan famil ...
specifically for transcribing the
Somali language Somali (Latin script: ; Wadaad writing, Wadaad: ; Osmanya: 𐒖𐒍 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘 ) is an Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic languages, Cushitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by Somalis in ...
, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except ''p'', ''v'' and ''z''. Besides Ahmed's Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established
Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
and
Wadaad's writing ''Wadaad'' writing, also known as ''Wadaad'' Arabic ( so, Far Wadaad), is the traditional Somali adaptation of written Arabic, as well as the Arabic script as historically used to transcribe the Somali language.Lewis, p.139-140 Originally, it r ...
. Indigenous writing systems developed in the twentieth century include the
Osmanya The Osmanya script ( so, Farta Cismaanya 𐒍𐒖𐒇𐒂𐒖 𐒋𐒘𐒈𐒑𐒛𐒒𐒕𐒖), also known as Far Soomaali (𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒘𐒝𐒈𐒑𐒛𐒘, "Somali writing") and, in Arabic, as ''al-kitābah al-ʿuthmānīyah'' (الكتا ...
, Borama and Kaddare scripts, which were invented by
Osman Yusuf Kenadid Osman Yusuf Kenadid ( so, Cusmaan Yuusuf Keenadiid; ar, عثمان يوسف كيناديد; 1889 – 14 August 1972) was a Somali poet, writer, teacher and ruler. Born in Ceel Huur in 1889, he went on to create the Osmanya alphabet for writin ...
,
Sheikh Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur Sheikh Abdurahman Sh. Nur ( so, Sheekh Cabdiraxmaan Sheekh Nuur, ar, شيخ عبد الرحمن شيخ نور) was a Somali Sheikh (religious leader), qādi (judge) of the government at that time and the inventor of the Borama script for the ...
and
Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare ( so, Xuseen Sheekh Axmed Kaddare, ar, حسين الشيخ أحمد كاداري; March 2 1934 – February 2015) was a Somali inventor, linguist, and researcher in Somali traditions and folklore. Kaddare contribute ...
, respectively. In addition to Somali,
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
is an official national language of Somalia.According to article 7 o
The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic
: ''The official languages of the Somali Republic shall be Somali (Maay and Maxaatiri) and Arabic. The second languages of the Transitional Federal Government shall be English and Italian.''
Many Somalis speak it due to centuries-old ties with the
Arab World The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...
, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...
is also widely used and taught.
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
used to be a major language, but its influence significantly diminished following independence. It is now most frequently heard among older generations who were in contact with the Italians at that time or later as migrants into Italy. Other minority languages include Bravanese, a variant of the
Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...
Swahili language Swahili, also known by its local name , is the native language of the Swahili people, who are found primarily in Tanzania, Kenya and Mozambique (along the East African coast and adjacent litoral islands). It is a Bantu language, though Swahili ...
that is spoken along the coast by the
Bravanese people The Bravanese people, also known as the Barawani, are a minority ethnic group inhabiting the city of Barawe of Somalia. Origins As their name suggests, the Bravanese hail from ''Brava'' (Barawa), a port town on the southeastern coast of Somalia. ...
.


Clan and family structure

The
clan A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, meaning ...
groupings of the Somali people are important
social unit The term "level of analysis" is used in the social sciences to point to the location, size, or scale of a research target. "Level of analysis" is distinct from the term " unit of observation" in that the former refers to a more or less integrated ...
s, and clan membership plays a central part in Somali culture and
politics Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...
. Clans are
patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...
and are divided into sub-clans and sub-sub-clans, resulting in extended families.Nagendra Kr Singh, ''International encyclopaedia of Islamic dynasties'', (Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.: 2002), p.50. Major Somali clans : *
Darod The Darod ( so, Daarood, ar, دارود) is a Somali clan. The forefather of this clan was Sheikh Abdirahman bin Isma'il al-Jabarti, more commonly known as ''Darood''. The clan primarily settles the apex of the Horn of Africa and its peripherie ...
* Dir *
Hawiye The Hawiye ( so, Hawiye, ar, بنو هوية, it, Hauija) is the largest Somali clan family. Members of this clan traditionally inhabit central and southern Somalia, Somaliland, Ethiopia ( Somali, Harar, Oromia and Afar regions) and the Nor ...
*
Isaaq The Isaaq (also Isaq, Ishaak, Isaac) ( so, Reer Sheekh Isxaaq, ar, بني إسحاق, Banī Isḥāq) is a Somali clan. It is one of the major Somali clans in the Horn of Africa, with a large and densely populated traditional territory. Per ...
*
Rahanweyn The Rahanweyn ( Maay: ''Reewin or Roowing'', Northern Somali: ''Raxanweyn'', ar, رحنوين), also known as the Digil and Mirifle () are a Somali clan. It is one of the major Somali clans in the Horn of Africa, with a large territory and dense ...
(Digil and Mirifle) Minority Clans : • BarwaaniJareerweyne ''For more about clan structure visit the
Demographics of Somalia The demographics of Somalis encompass the demographic features of Somalia's inhabitants, including ethnicity, language, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Soma ...
''


Attire


Men

When not dressed in Westernized clothing such as
jeans Jeans are a type of pants or trousers made from denim or dungaree cloth. Often the term "jeans" refers to a particular style of trousers, called "blue jeans", with copper-riveted pockets which were invented by Jacob W. Davis in 1871 and paten ...
and
t-shirt A T-shirt (also spelled tee shirt), or tee, is a style of fabric shirt named after the T shape of its body and sleeves. Traditionally, it has short sleeves and a round neckline, known as a ''crew neck'', which lacks a collar. T-shirts are general ...
s, Somali men traditionally wear the ''macawis'' (ma'awiis), which is a
sarong A sarong or sarung () is a large tube or length of fabric, often wrapped around the waist, worn in Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, Northern Africa, East Africa, West Africa, and on many Pacific islands. The fabric often has woven plaid o ...
-like garment worn around the waist and a large cloth wrapped around the upper part of their body. On their heads, they often wrap a colorful
turban A turban (from Persian دولبند‌, ''dulband''; via Middle French ''turbant'') is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by people of various cultures. Communities with promine ...
or wear the ''koofiyad'', an embroidered
taqiyah In Shi'ism, ''Taqiya'' or ''Taqiyya'' ( ar, تقیة ', literally "prudence, fear")R. STROTHMANN, MOKTAR DJEBLI. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "TAKIYYA", vol. 10, p. 134. Quote: "TAKIYYA "prudence, fear" ..denotes dispensing with th ...
. Due to Somalia's proximity to and close ties with the Muslim world, many Somali men also wear the
Thawb Thawb ( ar, ثَوْب "garment"), also spelled thobe or tobe and known by various other names in different regions, is an ankle-length robe, usually with long sleeves. It is commonly worn in the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, North Afri ...
(''khamiis'' in Somali), a long white garment common among Muslims.Michigan State University. Northeast African Studies Committee, ''Northeast African Studies'', Volume 8, (African Studies Center, Michigan State University: 2001), p.66. Traditionally Somali attire for men consisted of two sheets (often plain white), one draped over the shoulder and the other tied around the waist. The sheet sometimes had embroidery, patterns or laced borders. This attire is no longer common though it can be found in some rural communities.


Women

During regular, day-to-day activities, women usually wear the ''guntiino'', a long stretch of cloth tied over the shoulder and draped around the waist. The guntiino is traditionally made out of plain white fabric sometimes featuring with decorative borders, although nowadays alindi, a textile common in the Horn region and some parts of North Africa, is more frequently used. The garment can be worn in many different styles and with different fabrics. For more formal settings such as weddings or religious celebrations like Eid, women wear the dirac, a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of cotton or polyester fabric. It is worn over a full-length half-slip and a brassiere. Known as the gorgorad, the underskirt is made out of
silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...
and serves as a key part of the overall outfit. The dirac is usually sparkly and very colorful, the most popular styles being those with gilded borders or threads. The fabric is typically acquired from Somali clothing stores in tandem with the ''gorgorad''. In more informal settings, like being at home, Somali women typically wear baati. A baati is a long dress-like wear that is made out of comfortable polyester. Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to as ''shash'', and also often cover their upper body with a
shawl A shawl (from fa, شال ''shāl'',) is a simple item of clothing from Kashmir, loosely worn over the shoulders, upper body and arms, and sometimes also over the head. It is usually a rectangular or square piece of cloth, which is often folde ...
known as ''garbasaar''. A garbasaar can be worn by any woman regardless of their marital status. In general, however, Somali women cover up with hijab when outside their home or in the presence of men outside of the immediate family (cousins, uncles, friends). Additionally, Somali women have a long tradition of wearing gold and silver jewelry, particularly bangles. During weddings, the bride is frequently adorned in gold. Many Somali women by tradition also wear gold necklaces and anklets. The ''xirsi'', an Islamic necklace likewise donned in Ethiopia and Yemen, is frequently worn.


Art

Somali art is the artistic culture of the Somali people, both historic and contemporary. These include artistic traditions in
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and por ...
, music, architecture,
wood carving Wood carving is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculptural ornamentation ...
and other genres. Somali art is characterized by its aniconism, partly as a result of the vestigial influence of the pre-Islamic
mythology Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...
of the Somalis coupled with their ubiquitous
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
beliefs. However, there have been instances in the past of artistic depictions representing living creatures such as the golden birds on the Mogadishan canopies, the
camel A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. C ...
s and
horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million y ...
s on the ancient
rock painting In archaeology, rock art is human-made markings placed on natural surfaces, typically vertical stone surfaces. A high proportion of surviving historic and prehistoric rock art is found in caves or partly enclosed rock shelters; this type also ...
s in northern Somalia, and the plant decorations on religious
tomb A tomb ( grc-gre, τύμβος ''tumbos'') is a :wikt:repository, repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. Placing a corpse into a tomb can be ...
s in southern Somalia, but these are considered rare. Instead, intricate patterns and geometric designs, bold colors and monumental architecture were the norm. Additionally, henna is an important part of Somali culture. It is worn by Somali women on their hands, arms, feet and neck during weddings, Eid,
Ramadan , type = islam , longtype = Religious , image = Ramadan montage.jpg , caption=From top, left to right: A crescent moon over Sarıçam, Turkey, marking the beginning of the Islamic month of Ramadan. Ramadan Quran reading in Bandar Torkaman, Iran. ...
, and other festive occasions. Somali henna designs are similar to other horn of Africans, often featuring flower motifs and triangular shapes. The palm is also frequently decorated with a dot of henna, and the fingertips are dipped in the dye. Henna parties are usually held before the wedding ceremony takes place.


Customs and courtesies

Somalis warmly greet each other with handshakes, but shaking hands with the opposite sex is avoided by many. Common verbal greetings include: * ''
Assalamu alaikum As-salamu alaykum ( ar, ٱلسَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ, , ), also ''Salamun Alaykum'' is a greeting in Arabic that means 'Peace be upon you'. The (, meaning 'peace') has become a religious salutation for Muslims worldwide when greet ...
'' (Peace be upon you) * ''Maalin wanaagsan'' ( good day/morning) * ''Galab wanaagsan'' ( good afternoon) * ''Habeen wanaagsan'' (
good night Good Night or Goodnight may refer to: Film and television * ''Good Night'' (film), a 2008 short film from India * '' The Good Night'', a 2007 film * ''Good Night, and Good Luck'', a 2005 film * ''Good Night'', one of five mini-episodes from th ...
) * ''Iska warran'' and ''Ii waran'' (How are you?) * ''Nabad'' (I'm fine or literally translated it means ''
peace Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. ...
'') Somalis use sweeping hand and arm gestures to dramatize speech. Many ideas are expressed through specific hand gestures. Most of these gestures are performed by women: * A swift twist of the open hand means "nothing" or "no". * Snapping fingers may mean "long ago" or and "so on" * A thumb under the chin indicates "fullness". * It is impolite to point the sole of one's foot or shoe at another person. * It is impolite to use the index finger to call somebody; that gesture is used for calling dogs. During the Siad Barre era, a new greeting intended to combat the prevalence of clannism was introduced called ''jaale'', which in Somali has dual meanings, including the color
yellow Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the R ...
and ''comrade'' or ''friend''.Lewis, Ioan. "Somali Democratic Republic." Marxist Governments. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1981. 640-660


Media


Literature

Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notable examples of
Islamic literature Islamic literature is literature written by Muslim people, influenced by an Islamic cultural perspective, or literature that portrays Islam. It can be written in any language and portray any country or region. It includes many literary forms in ...
ranging from poetry to
Hadith Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approval ...
. With the adoption of the
Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. Largely unaltered with the exception of extensions (such as diacritics), it used to write English and the o ...
in 1972 to transcribe the Somali language, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have gone on to receive worldwide acclaim. Of these modern writers,
Nuruddin Farah Nuruddin Farah ( so, Nuuradiin Faarax, ar, نورالدين فارح) (born 24 November 1945) is a Somali novelist. His first novel, ''From a Crooked Rib'', was published in 1970 and has been described as "one of the cornerstones of modern East ...
is probably the most celebrated. Books such as '' From a Crooked Rib'' and ''Links'' are considered important literary achievements, works which have earned Farah, among other accolades, the 1998
Neustadt International Prize for Literature The Neustadt International Prize for Literature is a biennial award for literature sponsored by the University of Oklahoma and its international literary publication, ''World Literature Today''. It is considered one of the more prestigious inte ...
.
Farah Mohamed Jama Awl Farah Mohamed Jama Awl ( so, Faarax Maxamed Jaamac Cawl, ar, فارح محمد جامع عول; 1937–1991), usually credited as Farah Awl, was a Somali writer. His surname ''Cawl'' () means "gazelle", which was the nickname of his great-g ...
is another prominent Somali writer who is perhaps best known for his Dervish era novel, ''Ignorance is the enemy of love''.
Mohamed Ibrahim Warsame Mohamed Ibrahim Warsame (1943 – 18 August 2022), known by the pseudonym Hadrawi, was a Somali poet, philosopher and songwriter. Having written many notable protest works, Hadrawi has been likened by some to Shakespeare, and his poetry has been ...
is considered by many to be the greatest living Somali poet, and several of his works have been translated internationally.


Sport

Football Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word ''football'' normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly c ...
, or soccer, is the most popular sport in Somalia. Important domestic competitions are the
Somalia League The Somali First Division ( so, Heerka Koowaad ee Soomaali), Somali League, or Somali Premier League, is the Somali professional league for men's association football. It has been active for over 50 years, having been established in 1967. Somalia ...
and
Somalia Cup The Somalia Cup is the top knockout football Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word ''football'' normally means the form of football that is the most ...
, with the
Somalia national football team The Somalia national football team ( so, Kooxda Qaranka Soomaaliya, Arabic: الاتحاد الصومالي لكرة القدم), nicknamed the ''Ocean Stars'', represents Somalia in international football and is controlled by the Somali Footba ...
playing internationally.
Basketball Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one another on a rectangular Basketball court, court, compete with the primary objective of #Shooting, shooting a basketball (ball), basketball (appr ...
is also played in the country. The
FIBA Africa Championship 1981 The FIBA Africa Championship 1981 was hosted by Somalia from December 15 to December 23, 1981. Games were played in the national capital Mogadishu. Egypt and Cote d'Ivoire competed in the final. The Cote d'Ivoire squad wound up winning the tourna ...
was hosted in Mogadishu from December 15 to December 23, 1981, during which the national basketball team received the bronze medal.
Abdi Bile Abdi Bile ( so, Cabdi Bile Cabdi, ar, عبد بلي عبد ; born 28 December 1962) is a former middle distance runner. He holds the highest number of national records in athletics in Somalia across various disciplines. He is currently Somalia' ...
was the first athlete from Somalia to win a gold medal at the
IAAF World Championships in Athletics The World Athletics Championships (until 2019 known as the World Championships in Athletics) are a biennial athletics competition organized by World Athletics (formerly IAAF, International Association of Athletics Federations). Alongside the Ol ...
when he became 1500 metre champion at the 1987 World Championships.
Mo Farah Sir Mohamed Muktar Jama Farah (born Hussein Abdi Kahin; 23 March 1983) is a British long-distance runner. His ten global championship gold medals (four Olympic and six World titles) make him the most successful male track distance runner ever ...
has also won three World Championship golds and two Olympic golds at the 2012 London Olympics in the 5000 and 10,000 metres. In the
martial arts Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; combat sport, competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; a ...
, Faisal Jeylani Aweys and Mohamed Deq Abdulle took home a silver medal and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open World
Taekwondo ''Taekwondo'', ''Tae Kwon Do'' or ''Taekwon-Do'' (; ko, 태권도/跆拳道 ) is a Korean form of martial arts involving punching and kicking techniques, with emphasis on head-height kicks, spinning jump kicks, and fast kicking techniques. T ...
Challenge Cup in
Tongeren Tongeren (; french: Tongres ; german: Tongern ; li, Tóngere ) is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Limburg, in the southeastern corner of the Flemish region of Belgium. Tongeren is the oldest town in Belgium, as the onl ...
. The Somali National Olympic committee has devised a special support program to ensure continued success in future tournaments. Additionally, Mohamed Jama has won both world and European titles in K1 and
Thai Boxing Muay Thai ( th, มวยไทย, , ), sometimes referred to as Thai boxing, is a combat sport that uses stand-up striking along with various clinching techniques. This discipline is known as the "art of eight limbs", as it is characterised ...
.


See also

* Cinema of Somalia *
Music of Somalia The Music of the Somali people () is music following the musical styles, techniques and sounds of the Somali people. Overview Traditional Somali music Somali people have a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somali folklore. Soma ...
*
Somali cuisine Somali cuisine is the traditional cuisine of Somalis from the Horn of Africa. Somali cuisine does have moderate foreign influence from different countries mainly due to trade but traditionally also varies from region to region due to the expansi ...
* Somaliwood


References

{{Africa in topic, Culture of *