Sonora (), officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, along with
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
, comprise the
Federal Entities of
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
. The state is divided into
72 municipalities; the capital (and largest) city of which being
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
, located in the center of the state. Other large cities include
Ciudad Obregón
Ciudad Obregón is a city in southern Sonora. It is the state's second largest city after Hermosillo and serves as the municipal seat of Cajeme, as of 2020, the city has a population of 436,484. Ciudad Obregón is south of the state's norther ...
,
Nogales (on the
Mexico-United States border),
San Luis Río Colorado
San Luis Río Colorado is a city and also the name of its surrounding municipality in the state of Sonora, Mexico. In the 2020 census, the city had a population of 176,685. The city is the fourth-largest community in the state, and the municip ...
, and
Navojoa
Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of the state. The city is the administrative seat of Navojoa Municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.
History
The city name de ...
.
Sonora is bordered by the states of
Chihuahua Chihuahua may refer to:
Places
*Chihuahua (state), a Mexican state
**Chihuahua (dog), a breed of dog named after the state
**Chihuahua cheese, a type of cheese originating in the state
**Chihuahua City, the capital city of the state
**Chihuahua Mun ...
to the east,
Baja California
Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
to the northwest and
Sinaloa
Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is d ...
to the south. To the north, it shares the
U.S.–Mexico border primarily with the state of
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
with a small length with
New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ker ...
, and on the west has a significant share of the coastline of the
Gulf of California
The Gulf of California ( es, Golfo de California), also known as the Sea of Cortés (''Mar de Cortés'') or Sea of Cortez, or less commonly as the Vermilion Sea (''Mar Bermejo''), is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean that separates the Baja Ca ...
.
Sonora's natural geography is divided into three parts: the
Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre is part of the American C ...
in the east of the state; plains and rolling hills in the center; and the coast on the Gulf of California. It is primarily arid or semiarid deserts and grasslands, with only the highest elevations having sufficient rainfall to support other types of vegetation.
Sonora is home to eight indigenous peoples, including the
Mayo Mayo often refers to:
* Mayonnaise, often shortened to "mayo"
* Mayo Clinic, a medical center in Rochester, Minnesota, United States
Mayo may also refer to:
Places
Antarctica
* Mayo Peak, Marie Byrd Land
Australia
* Division of Mayo, an Aust ...
, the
O’odham, the
Yaqui
The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...
, and
Seri
Seri or SERI may refer to:
People
*Jean Michaël Seri, an Ivorian professional footballer Places
*Seri Yek-e Zarruk, Iran
*Seri, Bheri, Nepal
*Seri, Karnali, Nepal
*Seri, Mahakali, Nepal
*Seri, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
Oth ...
. The state has been economically important for its agriculture, livestock (especially beef), and mining since the colonial period, and for its status as a border state since the
Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War, also known in the United States as the Mexican War and in Mexico as the (''United States intervention in Mexico''), was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. It followed the 1 ...
. With the
Gadsden Purchase
The Gadsden Purchase ( es, region=MX, la Venta de La Mesilla "The Sale of La Mesilla") is a region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that the United States acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of Mesilla, which took effe ...
, Sonora lost more than a quarter of its territory. From the 20th century to the present, industry, tourism, and
agribusiness
Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy,
in which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise.
The primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit w ...
have dominated the economy, attracting migration from other parts of Mexico.
Etymology
Several theories exist as to the origin of the name "Sonora". One theory states that the name was derived from ''Nuestra Señora'', the name given to the territory when Diego de Guzmán crossed the
Yaqui River
The Yaqui River (Río Yaqui in Spanish) (Hiak Vatwe in the Yaqui or Yoreme language) is a river in the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. It was formerly known as the Rio del Norte. Being the largest river system in the state of Sonora, the ...
on the day of ''Nuestra Señora del Rosario'' ("
Our Lady of the Rosary
Our Lady of the Rosary, also known as Our Lady of the Holy Rosary, is a Marian title.
The Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary, formerly known as Feast of Our Lady of Victory and Feast of the Holy Rosary is celebrated on 7 October in the General Roma ...
"), which falls on with the pronunciation possibly changing because none of the indigenous languages of the area have the ''ñ'' sound. Another theory states that
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (; 1488/90/92"Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Núñez (1492?-1559?)." American Eras. Vol. 1: Early American Civilizations and Exploration to 1600. Detroit: Gale, 1997. 50-51. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 Decembe ...
and his companions, who had wrecked off the Florida coast and made their way across the continent, were forced to cross the arid state from north to south, carrying an image of ''Nuestra Señora de las Angustias'' ("Our Lady of Anguish") on a cloth. They encountered the
Opata
The Opata (written Ópata in Spanish, pronounced with stress on the first syllable: /ˈopata/) are three indigenous peoples of Mexico. Opata territory, the “Opatería” in Spanish, encompasses the mountainous northeast and central part of the ...
, who could not pronounce ''Señora'', instead saying ''Senora'' or ''Sonora''. A third theory, written by Father Cristóbal de Cañas in 1730, states that the name comes from the word for a natural water well, ''sonot'', which the Spaniards eventually modified to "''Sonora''". The first record of the name Sonora comes from explorer
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado y Luján (; 1510 – 22 September 1554) was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who led a large expedition from what is now Mexico to present-day Kansas through parts of the southwestern United States between 15 ...
, who passed through the state in 1540 and called part of the area the ''Valle de la Sonora''.
Francisco de Ibarra
Francisco de Ibarra (1539 –June 3, 1575) was a Spanish-Basque explorer, founder of the city of Durango, and governor of the Spanish province of Nueva Vizcaya, in present-day Durango and Chihuahua.
Biography
Francisco de Ibarra was born a ...
also traveled through the area in 1567 and referred to the ''Valles de Señora''.
The literal meaning of "sonora" in Spanish is a
feminine
Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered fe ...
form of the adjective "sonoro" meaning "sonorous" or "loud."
History
Pre-Hispanic period
![Knight Gomphotherium](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Knight_Gomphotherium.jpg)
Evidence of human existence in the state dates back over 10,000 years, with some of the best-known remains at the
San Dieguito complex
The San Dieguito complex is an archaeological pattern left by early Holocene inhabitants of Southern California and surrounding portions of the Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Radiocarbon dating places a 10,200 BP (Before Prese ...
in the
El Pinacate Desert. The first humans were nomadic hunter gatherers who used tools made from stones, seashells, and wood.
[Gonzalez, pp. 36–37][Foster, p. 242] During much of the prehistoric period, the environmental conditions were less severe than they are today, with similar but more dense vegetation spread over a wider area.
[Foster, p. 243]
The oldest
Clovis culture
The Clovis culture is a prehistoric Paleoamerican culture, named for distinct stone and bone tools found in close association with Pleistocene fauna, particularly two mammoths, at Blackwater Locality No. 1 near Clovis, New Mexico, in 1936 ...
site in North America is believed to be
El Fin del Mundo
El Fin del Mundo (Spanish: 'End of the World') is an ancient Pleistocene site near Pitiquito in northwestern Sonora, Mexico. It features Clovis culture period occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP and was discovered during a 2007 su ...
in northwestern Sonora. It was discovered during a 2007 survey. It features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP.
In 2011, remains of
Gomphothere
Gomphotheres are any members of the diverse, extinct taxonomic family Gomphotheriidae. Gomphotheres were elephant-like proboscideans, but do not belong to the family Elephantidae. They were widespread across Afro-Eurasia and North America during ...
were found; the evidence suggests that humans did in fact kill two of them here.
Agriculture first appeared around and in the river valleys. Remains of ceramics have been found dating from with diversification from 800 and
Between 1100 and 1350, the region had socially complex small villages with well-developed trade networks. The lowland central coast, however, seems never truly to have adopted agriculture.
Because Sonora and much of the northwest does not share many of the cultural traits of that area, it is not considered part of
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
. Though evidence exists of trade between the peoples of Sonora and Mesoamerica,
Guasave
Guasave () is a city and the seat of the homonymous municipality in the Mexican state of Sinaloa. It is located in the northwestern part of Mexico, southeast of the city of Los Mochis. It stands at .
In the 2010 census, the city reported a popu ...
in
Sinaloa
Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is d ...
is the most north-westerly point considered Mesoamerican.
[Foster, p. 150]
Three archaeological cultures developed in the low, flat areas of the state near the coast: the Trincheras tradition, the Huatabampo tradition, and the Central Coast tradition. The Trincheras tradition is dated to between 750 and 1450 CE and mostly known from sites in the Altar, Magdalena, and Concepción valleys, but its range extended from the Gulf of California into northern Sonora. The tradition is named after trenches found in a number of sites, the best known of which is the Cerro de Trincheras. The Huatabampo tradition is centered south of the Trincheras along the coast, with sites along extinct lagoons, estuaries, and river valleys. This tradition has a distinctive ceramic complex. Huatabampo culture shows similarities with the
Chametla to the south and the
Hohokam
Hohokam () was a culture in the North American Southwest in what is now part of Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico. It existed between 300 and 1500 AD, with cultural precursors possibly as early as 300 BC. Archaeologists disagree about ...
to the north. This probably ended around 1000 CE. Unlike the other two traditions, the Central Coast remained a hunter-gatherer culture, as the area lacks the resources for agriculture.
[Foster, p. 18]
The higher elevations of the state were dominated by the
Casas Grandes
Casas Grandes (Spanish for ''Great Houses''; also known as Paquimé) is a prehistoric archaeological site in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. Construction of the site is attributed to the Mogollon culture. Casas Grandes has been design ...
and
Río Sonora tradition
Río Sonora (''Sonora River'') is a 402-kilometer-long river of Mexico. It lies on the Pacific slope of the Mexican state of Sonora and it runs into the Gulf of California.
Watershed
The Sonora River watershed covers of public land. Slopes range ...
. The Río Sonora culture is located in central Sonora from the border area to modern Sinaloa. A beginning date for this culture has not been determined but it probably disappeared by the early 14th century. The Casas Grandes tradition in Sonora was an extension of the Río Sonora tradition based in the modern state of Chihuahua, which exerted its influence down to parts of the Sonoran coast.
[Foster, p. 19][Foster, p. 251]
Climatic changes in the middle of the 15th century resulted in the increased
desertification
Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...
of northwest Mexico in general. This is the probable cause for the drastic decrease in the number and size of settlements starting around this time. The peoples that remained in the area reverted to a less complex social organization and lifestyle.
[Foster, p. 252] Whatever socially complex organization existed in Sonora before the Spaniards was long gone by the 16th century.
Viceroyalty of New Spain
Little reliable information remains about the area in the 16th century following the
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, also known as the Conquest of Mexico or the Spanish-Aztec War (1519–21), was one of the primary events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. There are multiple 16th-century narratives of the eve ...
. Some state that the first Spanish settlement was founded by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca in 1530, near
Huépac Huepac is the seat of a Huépac Municipality in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 317.37 km² with a population of 1,142 registered in 2000Most of the inhabitants live in the municipal seat.
Huépac was founded in ...
. Others state that Francisco Vásquez de Coronado founded a village on the edge of the Yaqui River in 1540 on his way north.
Another source states that the first Spanish presence was not until 1614, by missionaries such as
Pedro Méndez and
Pérez de Rivas
Pérez, or Perez as most commonly written in English, is a Castilian Spanish surname. Perez (pronounced Peretz, see below) is also common in people of Sephardic Jewish descent and is the 4th most common surname in Israel, most common surname not o ...
, working with the Mayo.
[Gonzalez, p. 37] Unlike in central Mexico, no central social or economic centralization occurred in the Sonora area, given the collapse of population centers in the 15th century. The five traditions of the past had broken down to a number of fractured ethnicities. No empire or other system was present for the Spaniards to co-opt for domination purposes.
In addition, the Yaqui people resisted European intrusion on their lands, effectively keeping the Spaniards out of their area until the 17th century.
[Hamnett, p. 105] While exploration of the area happened through the expeditions of the 16th century, significant permanent Spanish settlement did not become possible until the establishment of the mission system.
[Foster][Foster, p. 241]
Jesuit priests began to work in Sonora in the 1610s in the lowlands near the coast. Originally, these missionaries worked out a peaceful compromise with the 30,000 Yaquis allowing for the establishment of more than fifty mission settlements in the Sonora river valleys. This broke down when the Jesuits opposed the native
shaman
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
ic religious tradition. The Opata were more receptive to the missionaries and allied with them. After this, the Jesuits began to move into
Pima
Pima or PIMA may refer to:
People
* Pima people, the Akimel O'odham, Indigenous peoples in Arizona (U.S.) and Sonora (Mexico)
Places
* Pima, Arizona, a town in Graham County
* Pima County, Arizona
* Pima Canyon, in the Santa Catalina Mountains ...
and
Tohono O'odham territories.
Spanish exploration and missionary work was sufficient to consider the territory part of
New Spain
New Spain, officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( es, Virreinato de Nueva España, ), or Kingdom of New Spain, was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire, established by Habsburg Spain during the Spanish colonization of the Am ...
. An agreement between General
Pedro de Perea
Pedro is a masculine given name. Pedro is the Spanish, Portuguese, and Galician name for ''Peter''. Its French equivalent is Pierre while its English and Germanic form is Peter.
The counterpart patronymic surname of the name Pedro, meaning " ...
and the
viceroy
A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning "k ...
of New Spain resulted in the general shaping of the province, initially called ''Nueva Navarra'' in 1637, but renamed ''Sonora'' in 1648.
The most famous missionary of Sonora, as well as much of what is now the
American Southwest
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, N ...
, was
Eusebio Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino ( it, Eusebio Francesco Chini, es, Eusebio Francisco Kino; 10 August 1645 – 15 March 1711), often referred to as Father Kino, was a Tyrolean Jesuit, missionary, geographer, explorer, cartographer and astronomer born i ...
.
He arrived in Sonora in 1687 and started missionary work in the
Pimería Alta
The ''Pimería Alta'' (translated to 'Upper Pima Land'/'Land of the Upper Pima' in English) was an area of the 18th century Sonora y Sinaloa Province in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, that encompassed parts of what are today southern Arizona in th ...
area of Sonora and Arizona. He began his first mission at Cucurpe, then established churches and missions in other villages such as
Los Remedios, Imuris, Magdalena, Cocóspera, San Ignacio, Tubutama and Caborca. To develop an economy for the natives, Father Kino also taught them European farming techniques.
[Gonzalez, p. 38]
The initial attraction of Sonora for the Spaniards was its fertile farmlands along the river valleys
and its position as part of a corridor linking the central Mexican highlands around
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
up the Pacific coast and on into Arizona and points north. This corridor still exists in the form of
Federal Highway 15.
[Foster, p. 139] After the establishment of the mission system, Spanish colonists followed. Indigenous response was a mixture of accommodation and violence, as different strategies were employed by different groups at different times. The sporadic violence, which would continue throughout the colonial period, resulted in the Spanish building
presidio
A presidio ( en, jail, fortification) was a fortified base established by the Spanish Empire around between 16th century, 16th and 18th century, 18th centuries in areas in condition of their control or influence. The presidios of Captaincy Genera ...
s and other fortifications to protect missions and Spanish settlements.
While the colonization process was not especially violent, the impact on the indigenous of the area was severe, as it almost completely disrupted their formerly very independent lives, forcing them to conform to an alien centralized system. One consequence of this was alcoholism among the native peoples.
In 1691, what are now the states of Sonora and Sinaloa were joined into an entity called the ''Provincias de Sonora, Ostimuri, y Sinaloa''. They would remain as such through the rest of the colonial period until 1823.
At this time, about 1,300 Spanish settlers were in the area.
[Hamnett, p. 107] Colonization increased in the 18th century, especially from 1700 to 1767, when mineral deposits were discovered, especially in
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
. This led to the establishment of a number of royally controlled mining camps, forcing many natives off their agricultural lands. Loss of said lands along the
Yaqui
The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...
and
Mayo Rivers led to native uprisings during this time.
A major
Seri
Seri or SERI may refer to:
People
*Jean Michaël Seri, an Ivorian professional footballer Places
*Seri Yek-e Zarruk, Iran
*Seri, Bheri, Nepal
*Seri, Karnali, Nepal
*Seri, Mahakali, Nepal
*Seri, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
Oth ...
rebellion took place on the coast area in 1725–1726, but the largest uprising was by the Yaquis and Mayos from 1740 to 1742 with the goal of expelling the Spaniards. Part of the reason for the rebellion was that the Jesuits, as well as the secular Spaniards, were exploiting the indigenous. This rebellion destroyed the reputation of the Jesuit mission system. Another Seri rebellion occurred in 1748, with Pima and Tohono O’otham support and lasted into the 1750s. This kept the settlement situation in disarray. With population of the Mexican split half indigenous and half Spanish, about one-quarter of the indigenous population lived in Sonora alone.
[Hamnett, p. 108] In 1767, the king of Spain expelled the Jesuits from Spanish-controlled territories, ending the mission system.
[Gonzalez, pp. 37–38]
Independence
In 1821, the colonial era in Sonora was ended by the
Mexican War of Independence
The Mexican War of Independence ( es, Guerra de Independencia de México, links=no, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain. It was not a single, co ...
, which started in 1810. Without being directly involved in the war, Sonora became part of an independent Mexico, which allowed for economic development. The former province of ''Sonora, Ostimuri, y Sinaloa'' was divided in 1823 to form the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, with the Sonoran capital in
Ures
Ures is a small city and a municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area
It has an area of 2,618.56 square kilometers. This is 1.41% of the total area of the state, and 0.13 percent of the national area of Mexico. Besides the seat, the most i ...
.
They were reunited in 1824
but became separate again in 1831, when Sonora wrote its first state constitution, which put the capital in
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
. In 1832, the capital was moved to
Arizpe
Arizpe (or Arispe) is a small town and the municipal seat of the Arizpe Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located at 30°20'"N 110°09'"W. The area of the municipality is 2,806.78 sq.km. The population in 2005 was ...
.
In 1835, the government of Sonora put a bounty on the
Apache
The Apache () are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States, which include the Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Mimbreño, Ndendahe (Bedonkohe or Mogollon and Nednhi or Carrizaleño an ...
which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each
scalp
The scalp is the anatomical area bordered by the human face at the front, and by the neck at the sides and back.
Structure
The scalp is usually described as having five layers, which can conveniently be remembered as a mnemonic:
* S: The ski ...
of a male 14 or more years old.
James L. Haley
James L. Haley is an American author who has written numerous books on Texas and Western history, as well as several novels. Haley grew up in Fort Worth, Texas, attended L. D. Bell High School in Hurst, Texas, and graduated from the University ...
wrote: "In 1835, Don Ignacio Zúñiga, who was the long-time commander of the presidios of northern Sonora, asserted that since 1820 the Apaches had killed at least five thousand settlers, which convinced another four thousand to flee, forced the abandonment of over one hundred settlements, and caused the virtual depopulation of the interior frontier. ... The state of Sonora resorted to paying a bounty on Apache scalps in 1835."
The
struggles between the Conservatives, who wanted a centralized government, and Liberals, who wanted a federalist system, affected the entire country during the 19th century. In 1835, a centralist government was instituted based on what were called the ''Bases Constitucionales'' ("Constitutional Bases"). They were followed by the ''Siete Leyes Constitucionales'' ("Seven Constitutional Laws"), which remained in effect until 1837. But in December of the same year, General
José de Urrea
José Cosme de Urrea y Elías González (full name) or simply José de Urrea (March 19, 1797 – August 1, 1849) was a Mexican general. He fought under General Antonio López de Santa Anna during the Texas Revolution. Urrea's forces were never ...
proclaimed in Arizpe the re-establishment of the Constitution of 1824, initially supported by then-Governor
Manuel Gándara. However, for the rest of the century, Gándara and succeeding governors would support a centralized government, leading to political instability in the state.
In 1838, the capital was moved back to Ures.
The fertile lands of the Mayo and Yaquis continued to attract outsiders during the 19th century. These were now Mexicans rather than Spaniards, and later in the century, it was a major draw for North Americans.
By the end of the 19th century, however, the area received large numbers of immigrants from
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
, especially from
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
,
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
, and
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
, the
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabian Peninsula, Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Anatolia, Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Pro ...
, mainly
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus li ...
or
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, and even
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
,
[Lee, p. 92] who brought new forms of agriculture, mining, livestock, industrial processes, ironwork, and textiles.
The
Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War, also known in the United States as the Mexican War and in Mexico as the (''United States intervention in Mexico''), was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. It followed the 1 ...
resulted in only one major military confrontation between Mexican and United States forces, but its consequences were severe for the state. In October 1847, the warship
USS ''Cyane'' laid siege to
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
Bay, resulting in United States control of this part of the coast until 1848.
When the war ended, Sonora lost 339,370 hectares (13,200 square miles) of its territory to the United States through the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( es, Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo), officially the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits, and Settlement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States, is the peace treaty that was signed on 2 ...
. Additionally, the war ruined the state's economy.
Sonora lost more territory in the 1850s, through the
Gadsden Purchase
The Gadsden Purchase ( es, region=MX, la Venta de La Mesilla "The Sale of La Mesilla") is a region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that the United States acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of Mesilla, which took effe ...
. Before the war, Sonora was the largest State in Mexico. The State lost more than 29,000 square miles to the United States as a result of the 1853 Gadsden Purchase. The majority of the area is today's Arizona south of the
Gila River
The Gila River (; O'odham ima Keli Akimel or simply Akimel, Quechan: Haa Siʼil, Maricopa language: Xiil) is a tributary of the Colorado River flowing through New Mexico and Arizona in the United States. The river drains an arid watershed of n ...
and a part of the present-day southwestern New Mexico.
The area's political vulnerability immediately after the war made it susceptible to buccaneers such as
William Walker William Walker may refer to:
Arts
* William Walker (engraver) (1791–1867), mezzotint engraver of portrait of Robert Burns
* William Sidney Walker (1795–1846), English Shakespearean critic
* William Walker (composer) (1809–1875), American Ba ...
,
Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon
Charles René Gaston Gustave de Raousset-Boulbon (May 5, 1817 – August 13, 1854) was a French adventurer, filibuster and entrepreneur and, by some accounts a pirate, and a theoretician of colonialism.
Early life
Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon was ...
, and
Henry Alexander Crabb
Henry may refer to:
People
* Henry (given name)
*Henry (surname)
* Henry Lau, Canadian singer and musician who performs under the mononym Henry
Royalty
* Portuguese royalty
** King-Cardinal Henry, King of Portugal
** Henry, Count of Portugal ...
, who attacked Sonoran ports such as Guaymas and
Caborca
Caborca is the municipal seat of the Caborca Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. The city has a population of 67,604, while the municipal population was 89,122 as of 2020. Municipal boundaries are with Pima County, Arizona, in the Unite ...
. However, most attacks were repelled.
The economy did not begin to recover from the war until the late 1850s, when
Ignacio Pesqueira
Ignacio Pesqueira García was a 19th-century Mexican general and politician. He was the Governor of Sonora over six times, with two of the six terms being an insurgent governor during the Second French intervention in Mexico.
Childhood
His par ...
became governor and attracted foreign investment to the state, especially in the mining sector, as well as worked to create markets abroad for agricultural products.
During the
Second Mexican Empire
The Second Mexican Empire (), officially the Mexican Empire (), was a constitutional monarchy established in Mexico by Mexican monarchists in conjunction with the Second French Empire. The period is sometimes referred to as the Second French i ...
, Sonora was taken over by French and Mexican Imperial troops as part of the
Mexican conservative party
The Conservative Party ( es, Partido Conservador) was one of two major factions in Mexican political thought that emerged in the years after independence, the other being the Liberals.
At various times and under different circumstances they wer ...
’s election of
Maximilian I Maximilian I may refer to:
*Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, reigned 1486/93–1519
*Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, reigned 1597–1651
*Maximilian I, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1636-1689)
*Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, reigned 1795 ...
as
Emperor of Mexico
The Emperor of Mexico (Spanish: ''Emperador de México'') was the head of state and ruler of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century.
With the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire from Spain in 1821, Mexico bec ...
. The port of Guaymas was attacked by forces under Armando Castagny, forcing Mexican forces under Pesqueira and General Patoni to retreat north of the city. Imperial troops attacked the republicans again ''La Pasión'', again resulting in defeat for the republican resistance. The French and Mexican Imperialists were not defeated in the state until the
Battle of Llanos de Ures
A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...
in 1866 by Pesqueira, Jesús García Morales and Ángel Martínez.
[Gonzalez, p. 39] Shortly after this, the state's current constitution was written in 1871, and its capital was permanently moved to Hermosillo.
![Cajeme2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Cajeme2.jpg)
During the regime of
Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori ( or ; ; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915), known as Porfirio Díaz, was a Mexican general and politician who served seven terms as President of Mexico, a total of 31 years, from 28 November 1876 to 6 Decem ...
from the late 19th century to the 20th century, major economic changes occurred. These changes promoted rapid economic growth, which had far-reaching social and political consequences. Sonora and the rest of the northern states rapidly increased in economic importance. Development of a rail system integrated the state's economy into the national, and also allowed greater federal control over all of Mexico's territory. After 1880, this rail system was extended north into the United States, making it an important part of binational economic relations to this day.
[Hamnett, p. 184] However, the changes also permitted foreigners and certain Mexicans to take over very large tracts of land in Mexico. In Sonora,
Guillermo Andrade
Guillermo () is the Spanish form of the male given name William. The name is also commonly shortened to 'Guille' or, in Latin America, to nickname 'Memo'. People
*Guillermo Amor (born 1967), Spanish football manager and former player
*Guillermo Ar ...
controlled ,
Manuel Peniche
Manuel may refer to:
People
* Manuel (name)
* Manuel (Fawlty Towers), a fictional character from the sitcom ''Fawlty Towers''
* Charlie Manuel, manager of the Philadelphia Phillies
* Manuel I Komnenos, emperor of the Byzantine Empire
* M ...
and American
William Cornell Green
William is a male given name of Germanic origin.Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 276. It became very popular in the English language after the Norman conquest of Eng ...
about . Foreign industry owners also tended to bring in Asian and European workers.
Chinese immigration into Sonora would begin at this time, and the Chinese soon became an economic force as they built small businesses that spread wherever economic development occurred.
[Lee, pp. 89–92]
The appropriation of land for both agriculture and mining placed renewed pressure on the Yaquis and other native peoples of Sonora. Previously, active resistance had given the Yaqui fairly autonomous control of a portion of the state and kept their agricultural system along the Yaqui River. Encroachment on this land led to uprisings and guerilla warfare by the Yaquis after 1887. By 1895, the federal and state governments began to violently repress the Yaquis and forcefully relocate captured Yaquis to the plantations in Mexico's tropical south, especially the
henequen
Henequen (''Agave fourcroydes'') is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, native to southern Mexico and Guatemala. It is reportedly naturalized in Italy, the Canary Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Hispaniola, the Cayman Islands and ...
plantations in the
Yucatán Peninsula
The Yucatán Peninsula (, also , ; es, Península de Yucatán ) is a large peninsula in southeastern Mexico and adjacent portions of Belize and Guatemala. The peninsula extends towards the northeast, separating the Gulf of Mexico to the north ...
. The Yaqui resistance continued into the 20th century, with the expulsions reaching a peak between 1904 and 1908, by which time about one-quarter of this population had been deported. Still more were forced to flee into Arizona.
[Hamnett, p. 191]
20th century
![Cananea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Cananea.jpg)
The policies of the Díaz government caused resentment not only among the Yaquis, but also throughout the country.
[Hamnett, p. 192] One of the preludes to the
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution ( es, Revolución Mexicana) was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It resulted in the destruction ...
was the
1906 Cananea miner's strike. Approximately 2,000 strikers sought negotiations with American mine owner William Greene, but he refused to meet with them. The strike quickly turned violent when the miners tried to take control of the mine and gunfire was exchanged. Greene requested help from federal troops, but when it was obvious they could not arrive in time, he appealed to the governments of Arizona and Sonora to allow Arizona volunteers to assist him. This increased the scale of the violence. When Mexican federal troops arrived two days later, they put everything to a brutal end, with the suspected leaders of the strike executed. The heavy-handed way in which Díaz had handled the strike made resentment against Diaz grow, with more strikes beginning in other areas.
[Gonzalez, pp. 39–40]
In late 1910, the Mexican Revolution began in earnest, and Díaz was quickly deposed. The governor of
Coahuila
Coahuila (), formally Coahuila de Zaragoza (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila de Zaragoza ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza), is one of the 32 states of Mexico.
Coahuila borders the Mexican states of N ...
,
Venustiano Carranza
José Venustiano Carranza de la Garza (; 29 December 1859 – 21 May 1920) was a Mexican wealthy land owner and politician who was Governor of Coahuila when the constitutionally elected president Francisco I. Madero was overthrown in a February ...
, sought refuge in Sonora, and became one of the principal political leaders during the rest of the war, with his main base of operations in Hermosillo. A number of the revolutionary leaders who joined Carranza in Sonora did not come from peasant backgrounds, but rather the lower middle class of hacienda-managers, shopkeepers, mill-workers, or schoolteachers, who opposed large-scale landowners and the Porfirian elite.
[Hamnett, p. 220] After Díaz was deposed, Carranza competed for power against
Álvaro Obregón
Álvaro Obregón Salido (; 17 February 1880 – 17 July 1928) better known as Álvaro Obregón was a Sonoran-born general in the Mexican Revolution. A pragmatic centrist, natural soldier, and able politician, he became the 46th President of Me ...
and others.
The Yaquis joined with Álvaro Obregón's forces after 1913.
By 1920, Carranza had become president of Mexico, but found himself opposed by Obregón and others. Carranza tried to suppress political opposition in Sonora, which led to the
Plan of Agua Prieta
The Plan of Agua Prieta (Spanish: ''Plan de Agua Prieta)'' was a manifesto, or plan, that articulated the reasons for rebellion against the government of Venustiano Carranza. Three revolutionary generals from Sonora, Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco E ...
, which formalized the resistance to Carranza by Obregón and his allies (primarily
Abelardo L. Rodríguez
Abelardo Rodríguez Luján, commonly known as Abelardo L. Rodríguez (; 12 May 1889 – 13 February 1967) was the Substitute President of Mexico from 1932 to 1934. He completed the term of President Pascual Ortiz Rubio after his resignation, du ...
,
Benjamín Hill and
Plutarco Elías Calles
Plutarco Elías Calles (25 September 1877 – 19 October 1945) was a general in the Mexican Revolution and a Sonoran politician, serving as President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928.
The 1924 Calles presidential campaign was the first populist ...
). This movement soon dominated the political situation, but it caused widespread political instability in doing so.
Obregón deposed Carranza and became the next president of Mexico. For the 1924 presidential elections, Obregón chose to succeed himself Plutarco Elias Calles, who was also a revolutionary leader from Sonora.
This effectively ended the war, but hostilities had again destroyed the Sonoran economy.
From 1920 to the early 1930s, four Sonorans came to occupy the Mexican presidency:
Adolfo de la Huerta
Felipe Adolfo de la Huerta Marcor (; 26 May 1881 – 9 July 1955) was a Mexican politician, the 45th President of Mexico from 1 June to 30 November 1920, following the overthrow of Mexican president Venustiano Carranza, with Sonoran generals ...
, Obregón, Calles and Rodríguez.
The Chinese first arrived at Guaymas in the late 19th century and congregated there and in Hermosillo. Over the following decades, they moved into growing communities such as
Magdalena and
Cananea
Cananea is a city in the Mexican state of Sonora, Northwestern Mexico. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cananea, in the vicinity of the U.S−Mexico border.
The population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The pop ...
. Rather than working in the fields, most started their own small businesses, networking with other Chinese.
These businesses spanned a wide range of industries from manufacturing to retail sales of nearly every type of merchandise.
[Lee, p. 94] The Chinese in Sonora not only become successful shopkeepers, they eventually came to control local small businesses in many areas of the state.
[Lee, p. 89] By 1910, the Chinese population in Sonora was 4,486 out of a total population of 265,383, making them the largest foreign presence in the state, with only North Americans a close second at 3,164. Almost none were female, as there were only 82 Chinese females in the entire country at the time. The Chinese population reached its peak in 1919 with 6,078 people, again with almost no Chinese women.
![Colonia Centro Nogales](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Colonia_Centro_Nogales.jpg)
Resentment against Chinese success began quickly, and
Sinophobia
Anti-Chinese sentiment, also known as Sinophobia, is a fear or dislike of China, Chinese people or Chinese culture. It often targets Chinese minorities living outside of China and involves immigration, development of national identity in ...
rose sharply during the Mexican Revolution as many Chinese prospered despite the war, and many attacks were targeted against them.
The first organized anti-Chinese campaign in Sonora began in 1916 in Magdalena.
[Lee, p. 98] A more serious campaign began in 1925, calling for their expulsion from the state.
[Lee, p. 103] Mass expulsions were mostly carried out in Sonora and Sinaloa, partly because of their large populations, but the Chinese, often with their Mexican wives and children, were deported from all over the country. Some were returned to China but many others were forced to enter the United States through the border with Sonora, even though Chinese exclusion laws were still in effect there.
Sonoran governor
Rodolfo Elias Calles
Rodolfo is a given name. Notable people with the name include:
*Rodolfo (footballer, born 1992), Brazilian footballer Rodolfo José da Silva Bardella
*Rodolfo Albano III, Filipino politician
*Dolphy, Rodolfo Vera Quizon Sr. (1928-2012), Filipino ...
was responsible for the expulsion of most Chinese-Mexican families into United States territory. Despite the diplomatic problems this caused, Elias Calles did not stop the expulsions until he himself was expelled from Sonora. However, by that time almost all of Sonora's Chinese-Mexicans had disappeared.
By the 1940 census, only 92 Chinese were still living in Sonora, with more than two-thirds of these having acquired Mexican citizenship. This had the unintended consequence of nearly collapsing the Sonoran economy.
The efforts at modernization and economic development begun in the Díaz period would continue through the Revolution and on through the rest of the 20th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the process of electrification greatly increased the demand for
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
, which led to a boom in mining in Sonora and neighboring Arizona. Cananea grew very quickly from a village of 900 to a city of 20,000. It also led to a network of roads, railroads and other connections across the border.
However, organized development of the state's agriculture was put on hold because of the Revolution, the
Great Depression
The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
and other political upheavals.
[Yetman, p. 5]
In the 1930s, Sonora benefitted from a number of national policies aimed at developing the cities on the border with the United States and at building a number of dams to help develop agriculture and the general water supply.
[Gonzalez, p. 40] Major agricultural reform was begun in the 1940s in the
Mayo River area, when the delta was cleared of natural vegetation and made into farmland. Water for these farms was secure through the building of the Mocúzari Dam about from
Navojoa
Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of the state. The city is the administrative seat of Navojoa Municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.
History
The city name de ...
. When it was completed in 1951, there was a system of canals, wells and highways to support large-scale agriculture for shipment to other places.
In the last half of the 20th century, the state's population has grown and foreign investment has increased due to its strategic location along the border and its port of Guaymas. More than 200 international and domestic enterprises moved into the state, allowing for the development of modern infrastructure such as highways, ports and airports, making the state one of the best connected in the country. A bridge was built over the
Colorado River
The Colorado River ( es, Río Colorado) is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid drainage basin, watershed that encompasses parts of ...
to link Sonora with neighboring
Baja California
Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
in 1964. One important sector of the economy has been industry, culminating in the Ford automotive plant in Hermosillo and a number of assembly plants called maquiladoras on the border with the United States. One of the fastest-growing sectors of the economy has been tourism, now one of the most important sectors of the economy, especially along the coast, with the number of visitors there increasing every year. This has led to a surge in hotel infrastructure, especially in
Puerto Peñasco
Puerto Peñasco ( ood, Geʼe Ṣuidagĭ) is a small city located in Puerto Peñasco Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora, from the border with the U.S. state of Arizona. According to the 2020 census, it has a population o ...
.
![Puentec](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Puentec.JPG)
For most of the 20th century, Mexico was dominated by the
Institutional Revolutionary Party
The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( es, Partido Revolucionario Institucional, ; abbr. PRI) is a political party in Mexico that was founded in 1929 and held uninterrupted power in the country for 71 years, from 1929 to 2000, first as the Nati ...
(PRI). Discontent with this one-party system became prominent in the northern states of Mexico, including Sonora. As early as 1967, a competing party, the
National Action Party (PAN), won control of the city government of Sonora's capital, Hermosillo.
[Hamnett, p. 268] PAN won important municipal victories in the state in 1983, which President
de la Madrid refused to officially recognize but was forced to let stand.
[Eisenstadt, p. 171] PAN's growing strength by the 1980s forced the PRI to nominate candidates who were similar to PAN, successful business executives who favored economic liberalization over traditional Mexican statism, preferred in the north of the country. Institutional Revolutionary Party won the Sonoran gubernatorial race in 1985, but it was heavily contested with obvious problems of fraud.
[Eisenstadt, p. 54] By the 1990s, PRI operatives caught manipulating election results were actually prosecuted by the Sonoran state attorney.
[Eisenstadt, p. 178] This along with other events in the country eventually led to the end of the one-party system when
Vicente Fox
Vicente Fox Quesada (; born 2 July 1942) is a Mexican businessman and politician who served as the 62nd president of Mexico from 1 December 2000 to 30 November 2006. After campaigning as a Right-wing populism, right-wing populist, Fox was elec ...
was elected president in 2000. PAN has since dominated most of the north of the country, but Sonora did not have its first PAN governor until 2009, with the election of
Guillermo Padrés Elías
Guillermo Padrés Elías (born 29 June 1969 in Arizpe, Mexico but raised in Cananea, Mexico) is a Mexican politician and a member of the '' Partido Acción Nacional'' ("National Action Party", PAN). He served as Governor of Sonora from 2009 to 2 ...
.
Sonora's border with Arizona has received more attention since 2000, with the increase of illegal border crossings and drug smuggling, especially in rural areas such as around
Naco, which is one of the main routes into the United States.
Starting in the 1990s, increased border patrols and the construction of corrugated metal and chain link fences in California and Texas dramatically cut illegal border crossing in these two states. This led illegal immigrants into the more dangerous desert areas of Arizona and New Mexico, which have mostly seen rises in illegal crossings since then.
Many migrants now come to the Arizona border between
Agua Prieta
Agua Prieta (English: ''Dark Water'', Opata: ''Bachicuy'') is a town in Agua Prieta Municipality in the northeastern corner of the Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the Mexico–U.S. border, adjacent to the town of Douglas, Arizona. The mun ...
and
Nogales, with Naco as one of the preferred routes for "coyotes" (also called "polleros" or "enganchadores") or smugglers who offer to take migrants across.
Migrant shelters and hotel in border towns cater to those waiting to cross into Arizona.
Providing lodging for migrants is a growing business in Naco and other border towns, where the rate is between 200 and 300
pesos
The peso is the monetary unit of several countries in the Americas, and the Philippines. Originating in the Spanish Empire, the word translates to "weight". In most countries the peso uses the same sign, "$", as many currencies named "dollar" ...
per night per person. Many of these lodgings are filled with people who cannot cross the border.
One example is the Hospedaje Santa María, which is a run-down, two-story building.
![Mexican-American border at Nogales](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Mexican-American_border_at_Nogales.jpg)
Forty-five percent of the deaths of migrants occur on the Arizona side of the border.
According to Arizonan authorities, 2010 was a record year for deaths in Arizona for people crossing illegally from Sonora, with the bodies of 252 crossers found in the deserts between the
New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ker ...
and California borders. This broke the previous record of 234 in 2007, with nearly 2,000 found in this area since 2001.
However, Mexican officials state that the figures are higher, with over four hundred dying in Arizona deserts in 2005 alone. In 2006, Mexican officials began to distribute maps of Arizona to Mexicans gathered in Sonoran border town with the intention of crossing illegally. The Mexican government stated the reason for the maps was to help Mexican avoid dangerous areas that have caused deaths from the desert's heat.
Migration and drug smuggling problem has affected most border towns. Many people make a living by catering migrants or working as "coyote" guides.
People hoping to cross the border and those recently deported crowd the border area; some of these people return home, but many others decide to stay on the Sonoran border, working to earn money for another attempt. These workers put a strain on insufficient municipal medical services.
The walls, which have shut down much of the illegal crossing into Texas and California, have also been built on parts of the Arizona border, especially between towns such as the two Nacos and the two Nogaleses. The wall in Naco is four meters high and made of steel. It currently extends , but there are plans to extend it another . Security there was further tightened after the 2001
September 11 attacks
The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated suicide terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda against the United States on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. That morning, nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercia ...
. The
U.S. Border Patrol
The United States Border Patrol (USBP) is a Federal law enforcement in the United States, federal law enforcement agency under the United States' U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Customs and Border Protection and is responsible for securing ...
credits the wall and better surveillance technology with cutting the number of captured border crossers near Naco by half in 2006. People on both sides of the wall have mixed feelings about it.
Violence connected to drug smuggling on the border and in Mexico in general has caused problems with tourism, an important segment of the entire country. Federal troops have been stationed here due to the violence, which has the population divided. While the security they can provide is welcomed, there is concern about the violation of human rights. In 2005, the state began advertising campaigns to reassure Arizonans that it is safe to cross the border.
Geography
Natural divisions
![Hasteecöla](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Hasteec%C3%B6la.JPG)
Sonora is located in northwest Mexico. It has a territory of and is the second largest state of the country.
It borders the states of Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Baja California Norte, with the United States to its north and the Gulf of California to its west.
Its border with the United States is long.
The state is divided into five hydraulic regions – Río Colorado, Sonora Norte, Sonora Sur, Sinaloa, Cuencas Cerradas del Norte.
The state's geography is divided into three regions created by the rise of the
Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre is part of the American C ...
mountains and the separation of the
Baja California Peninsula, with all three running roughly north–south. The mountains dominate eastern Sonora, while the center is dominated by plains and rolling hills, which then extend west to the coast on the Gulf of California.
[Yetman, pp. 13–15]
Center plains and coast
![Valle de Sonora](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Valle_de_Sonora.jpg)
The center plains and coastline were both created by the tearing away of the Baja California Peninsula between ten and twelve million years ago. These plains are between and wide, wedged between the Sierra Madre and the Gulf of California, which began to form between 5.5 and 6 million years ago. Climate patterns bring moisture east from the Pacific Ocean, forming rivers and streams that cross the plains area and empty into the gulf. These rivers have brought down sediment from the volcanic rock of the Sierra Madre and eventually buried most of the mountains and hills of the center of the state, smoothing them into plains. These soils are rich in clays and thousands of feet thick in places, making this region very fertile, only lacking water.
The state has of coastline, all of which faces the Gulf of California, with its relatively shallow and very calm waters.
There are beaches along most of this coastline, some of which with fine, white sand. The best known of these are
San Carlos,
Puerto Peñasco
Puerto Peñasco ( ood, Geʼe Ṣuidagĭ) is a small city located in Puerto Peñasco Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora, from the border with the U.S. state of Arizona. According to the 2020 census, it has a population o ...
and
Bahía Kino
Bahía Kino is a town part of the Hermosillo Municipality in Sonora, Mexico on the Gulf of California; it was named after Eusebio Kino. It has a population of approximately 7,000 people. The name also applies to the adjacent bay between Tibur ...
. San Carlos, with its Los Algodones Beach is one of the most visited areas on the Sonoran coast. ''Los Algodones'' ("The Cottons") is named for its dunes of white sand, which can be compared to cotton balls. San Carlos has a large variety of sea life off its shores, making it popular for sports fishing and scuba diving. A number of Yaquis, Seris and
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
on and around the Tetakawi Hill, making a living from fishing.
![San carlos sonora](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/San_carlos_sonora.jpg)
Puerto Peñasco is located in the extreme northwest of the state in the Upper Gulf somewhat near where the Colorado River empties. It contains of beaches on calm seas, located in the Altar Desert near El Pinacate biosphere reserve, with some of the driest climates in Mexico. Since the 1990s, it has experienced large-scale development along its of beaches, which have calm seas. The area has experienced a building boom since the 2000s.
However, as of late 2013, many buildings are vacant, for sale, or neglected due to the suppressed economic conditions and the corresponding decline in tourism.
Bahía Kino is located near San Carlos, with a dock located in the community of Kino Viejo. This bay's beaches have white sand, with warm calm waters off of them. For this reason, Bahía Viejo calls itself ''la perla del Mar de Cortés'' ("the pearl of the Gulf of California"). The area is popular for scuba diving and sports fishing as its waters are filled with various species of multicolored fish, small invertebrates, large crustaceans, manta rays,
sponges
Sponges, the members of the phylum Porifera (; meaning 'pore bearer'), are a basal animal clade as a sister of the diploblasts. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through ...
and turtles. On the neighboring islands,
sea lion
Sea lions are pinnipeds characterized by external ear flaps, long foreflippers, the ability to walk on all fours, short and thick hair, and a big chest and belly. Together with the fur seals, they make up the family Otariidae, eared seals. ...
s can be seen. Off this coast is the
Isla Tiburón
Isla or ISLA may refer to:
Organizations
* International Securities Lending Association, a trade association
* International School of Los Angeles
* International Bilingual School, later named International School of Los Angeles
People
* Isla (g ...
, Mexico's largest island and a nature reserve with wild sheep and deer. There are indigenous communities here, especially at
Punta Chueca
Punta Chueca (Seri: ) is a Seri town located on the Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located 25 kilometers north of the fishing and tourist town of Bahía de Kino. Both of these towns are part of the Municipality of Hermos ...
, which still practice hunting, fishing and collecting natural resources, as well as selling crafts to tourists.
Lesser known beaches include
El Desemboque
El Desemboque (Seri: ) is a town located 376 km from Hermosillo on the shore of Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora; coordinates N 29° 30' 13", W 112° 23' 43". It is part of the Municipality of Pitiquito, and is one of two maj ...
,
El Himalaya
EL, El or el may refer to:
Religion
* El (deity), a Semitic word for "God"
People
* EL (rapper) (born 1983), stage name of Elorm Adablah, a Ghanaian rapper and sound engineer
* El DeBarge, music artist
* El Franco Lee (1949–2016), American ...
and
Huatabampito. El Desemboque is a small Seri village with beaches located northwest of
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
, just south of
. Activities in the area include scuba diving and swimming in isolated and relatively undeveloped beaches. The current name is from Spanish (disembarkation point), but the Seri name for the area means "where there are clams."
El Himalaya Beach is located forty km from
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
. It is a semi virgin beach surrounded by calm waters, mountains, and unusual species of flora and fauna and cave paintings. The area is filled with large stone yellow-red rock formations that were created by a volcanic eruption.
Huatabampito is an area of beaches in the south of the state. The beaches have delicate dune of fine sand and the waters are clear with a green-blue color. Each year, whales arrive to this area to reproduce in the warm waters. This is the main attraction, bringing visitors from Mexico and abroad.
Sierra Madre Occidental
The east of the state is dominated by the Sierra Madre Occidental, which has less extreme temperatures and, due to the high elevation, relatively more rainfall.
As moist air masses move inland from the Pacific and the tropics and are forced against the mountains, they cool and this leads to precipitation, mostly rain but occasional snows in the highest regions. This process takes most of the moisture out of the air and feeds the various rivers and streams, which empty into Gulf of California as well as underground aquifers under the coastal plain.
[Yetman, p. 15]
Flora and fauna
![Laguna Nainari](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Laguna_Nainari.jpg)
Habitats and vegetation vary greatly depending on elevation and rainfall.
[Yetman, p. 10] An estimated of Sonora is in arid grasslands; are covered in forests, in rainforest and in farmland. Seventy percent of the territory, or , is covered in desert vegetation or arid grasslands.
The
Yécora municipality in eastern Sonora has one of the highest grass diversities in Mexico.
[Cartron, p. 3] There are eight types of desert vegetation, seven of which are native to the
Sonoran Desert
The Sonoran Desert ( es, Desierto de Sonora) is a desert in North America and ecoregion that covers the northwestern Mexican states of Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, as well as part of the southwestern United States (in Arizona ...
and one in the area that transitions to the
Chihuahua Desert Chihuahua may refer to:
Places
*Chihuahua (state), a Mexican state
**Chihuahua (dog), a breed of dog named after the state
**Chihuahua cheese, a type of cheese originating in the state
**Chihuahua City, the capital city of the state
**Chihuahua Mun ...
. Most are scrubs or small bushes, which generally do not reach over in height, most of the rest are
cactus
A cactus (, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales. The word ''cactus'' derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Greek ...
, with some
mangroves
A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in several ...
and other
halophile
The halophiles, named after the Greek word for "salt-loving", are extremophiles that thrive in high salt concentrations. While most halophiles are classified into the domain Archaea, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryotic species, ...
plants.
Many plants are rainfall sensitive, with most trees and shrubs growing leaves and flowers just before or during the rainy season, then drop their leaves afterwards. However, there are plants in flower at one time or another throughout the year.
[Yetman, p. 12] Coastal plants receive less water stress due to lower evaporation rates, and substantial moisture from dew, especially in the cooler months.
[Yetman, p. 11]
![Infiernillo Tiburon Island](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Infiernillo_Tiburon_Island.JPG)
Most forests are located in the northeast of the state, covering about 6.4% of the state. This is the area with the coolest temperatures.
Deforestation has been a significant problem, especially after 1980, because the rate of cutting trees has increased. In central Sonora, the area covered by
Madrean evergreen woodland
The Madrean Region (named after the Sierra Madre Occidental) is a floristic region within the Holarctic Kingdom in North America, as delineated by Armen Takhtajan and Robert F. Thorne. It occupies arid or semiarid areas in the southwestern United ...
and Sonoran Desert scrub decreased 28% and 31%, respectively, between 1973 and 1992 (ValdezZamudio et al. 2000). During this same period,
[Cartron, p. 70] For example, much of the forests of
mesquite
Mesquite is a common name for several plants in the genus ''Prosopis'', which contains over 40 species of small leguminous trees. They are native to dry areas in the Americas.
They have extremely long roots to seek water from very far under grou ...
trees in the lower elevations of the state have disappeared because of the demand for local fuels and the market for mesquite charcoal in Mexico and the United States
[Cartron, p. 64]
Most of northern Mexico suffers from one of the world's highest rates of
desertification
Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...
due to
land degradation
Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land.
It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious ...
in arid and semi-arid areas, with the loss of biological and/or economic productivity, but the process is most severe Sonora as neighboring
Sinaloa
Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is d ...
. Land degradation occurs because of clearing land for agriculture, the planting of non-native buffelgrass for grazing, the cutting of forests, overgrazing of natural vegetation and soil salinization from irrigation. A study by Balling in 1998 showed higher soil and air temperatures in areas that have been overgrazed, deforested and otherwise cleared land, likely due to the lack of shading vegetation, which leads to higher soil evaporation and desert conditions. Studies have also indicated that warming trends are higher in Sonora than in neighboring Arizona, into which the Sonora Desert also extends.
The state contains 139 species and subspecies of native mammals, with the most important being white tailed deer,
mule deer
The mule deer (''Odocoileus hemionus'') is a deer indigenous to western North America; it is named for its ears, which are large like those of the mule. Two subspecies of mule deer are grouped into the black-tailed deer.
Unlike the related whit ...
, wild sheep, bats, hares, squirrels,
moles Moles can refer to:
*Moles de Xert, a mountain range in the Baix Maestrat comarca, Valencian Community, Spain
*The Moles (Australian band)
*The Moles, alter ego of Scottish band Simon Dupree and the Big Sound
People
*Abraham Moles, French engineer ...
,
beaver
Beavers are large, semiaquatic rodents in the genus ''Castor'' native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere. There are two extant species: the North American beaver (''Castor canadensis'') and the Eurasian beaver (''C. fiber''). Beavers ar ...
s,
coyote
The coyote (''Canis latrans'') is a species of canis, canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecologica ...
s, wolves, foxes,
jaguar
The jaguar (''Panthera onca'') is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus '' Panthera'' native to the Americas. With a body length of up to and a weight of up to , it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the th ...
s, and
mountain lion
The cougar (''Puma concolor'') is a large cat native to the Americas. Its range spans from the Canadian Yukon to the southern Andes in South America and is the most widespread of any large wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere. I ...
s. Amphibians and reptiles include frogs and toads,
desert tortoise
The desert tortoise (''Gopherus agassizii''), is a species of tortoise in the Family (biology), family Testudinidae. The species is native to the Mojave Desert, Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexic ...
s,
chameleon
Chameleons or chamaeleons (family Chamaeleonidae) are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of Old World lizards with 202 species described as of June 2015. The members of this family are best known for their distinct range of colors, bein ...
s,
gila monster
The Gila monster (''Heloderma suspectum'', ) is a species of venomous lizard native to the Southwestern United States and the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is a heavy, typically slow-moving reptile, up to long, and it is the only v ...
s,
rattlesnake
Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes that form the genera ''Crotalus'' and ''Sistrurus'' of the subfamily Crotalinae (the pit vipers). All rattlesnakes are vipers. Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small anim ...
s and other types of snakes. The number of bird species native to the state is not known, but major species include
roadrunner
The roadrunners (genus ''Geococcyx''), also known as chaparral birds or chaparral cocks, are two species of fast-running ground cuckoos with long tails and crests. They are found in the southwestern and south-central United States and Mexico, us ...
s,
quail
Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds generally placed in the order Galliformes. The collective noun for a group of quail is a flock, covey, or bevy.
Old World quail are placed in the family Phasianidae, and New Wor ...
, turkeys,
buzzard
Buzzard is the common name of several species of birds of prey.
''Buteo'' species
* Archer's buzzard (''Buteo archeri'')
* Augur buzzard (''Buteo augur'')
* Broad-winged hawk (''Buteo platypterus'')
* Common buzzard (''Buteo buteo'')
* Eastern ...
s and doves.
Climate
![Sonoran desert sunset](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Sonoran_desert_sunset.jpg)
During the
Pliocene
The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58[xeric
Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric (ancient Greek xērós, “dry") shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in this h ...](_blank)
communities and the development of species endemic only to this region.
[Cartron, p. 44]
There are four major climate regions in the state: arid (
Köppen Köppen is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Bernd Köppen (born 1951), German pianist and composer
* Carl Köppen (1833-1907), German military advisor in Meiji era Japan
* Edlef Köppen (1893–1939), German author and ...
''BW''),
semi-arid
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi-ar ...
lands (''BS''), semi-moist lands, and temperate zones (''Cwb'').
[Cartron, p. 19] Ninety percent of the state has arid or semi-arid conditions. The other two climates are restricted to the areas of the state with the highest altitude such as the Yécora area, the mountains north of
Cananea
Cananea is a city in the Mexican state of Sonora, Northwestern Mexico. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cananea, in the vicinity of the U.S−Mexico border.
The population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The pop ...
and a strip along the southeast of the state on the Chihuahua border.
Average annual maximum temperatures range from in Yécora to in Tesia, municipality of
Navojoa
Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of the state. The city is the administrative seat of Navojoa Municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.
History
The city name de ...
. Average annual minimum temperatures range from in Yécora to in Orégano, municipality of
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
.
In the winter, cold air masses from the north reach the state, and can produce below freezing temperatures and high winds at night in the higher elevations, but the temperature can then jump back up to over during the afternoon. Freezing temperatures almost never occur in the lowlands.
In February 2011, the Mexican government recorded a low in Yécora of .
![San Carlos Sonora landscape](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/San_Carlos_Sonora_landscape.jpg)
Precipitation is seasonal and mostly occurs in the higher elevations. In hot and arid or semi-arid lands, evaporation vastly exceeds precipitation.
[Yetman, p. 9] Mexico's most arid area, the
Altar Desert
The Gran Desierto de Altar is one of the major sub-ecoregions of the Sonoran Desert, located in the State of Sonora, in northwest Mexico. It includes the only active erg dune region in North America. The desert extends across much of the norther ...
is located in this state.
The east of the state is dominated by the Sierra Madre Occidental, which has less extreme temperatures and relatively more rainfall due to altitude.
Most moisture comes in from the Pacific Ocean and the tropics, which is pushed against the Sierra Madre. This cools the air masses, leading to rain and occasionally snow in the higher elevations. While most of the rain falls in the mountainous areas, much of this water finds its way back to the western coastal plains in the form of rivers and streams that empty into the Gulf of California and fill underground
aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characterist ...
s.
Most of the year's precipitation falls during the rainy season, which is locally called “las aguas” (the waters). These last from July to mid-September, when
monsoon
A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscil ...
winds bring moist air from southerly tropical waters. Most of this is from the Pacific Ocean west of
Central America
Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
but can also come from
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico ( es, Golfo de México) is an oceanic basin, ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of ...
as well. This moister flow results in nearly daily afternoon thunderstorms. After the las aguas, there may be additional moisture brought in by hurricanes, which generally move west along the Pacific coast of Mexico and occasionally come inland, especially in southern Sonora. However, these storms tend to drop large quantities of rain in a short time, causing flooding and destruction.
In the winter, from November to February, there are light rains called ''equipatas'' ("horse hoofs", named after the sound the rain makes). These rains come in from the north from the southern extensions of frontal storms that originate in the northern Pacific Ocean. These end by March or April when the fronts are no longer strong enough to reach this far south. They end even earlier in the extreme south of the state as the storm systems retreat, with the dry season lasting eight or nine months in this part of the state. In the north, these rains support a wide variety of spring annuals and wildflowers, but the water they supply in the south of the state is still important to help replenish wells.
Hydrology
![ColoradoRiverDelta ISS009-E-09839](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/ColoradoRiverDelta_ISS009-E-09839.jpg)
With the exception of the
Colorado River
The Colorado River ( es, Río Colorado) is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid drainage basin, watershed that encompasses parts of ...
, river and aquifer systems in Sonora are a result of rains from incoming clouds rising above the Sierra Madre Occidental. This water runs down the west side of the mountains along the canyons and valleys towards the plains and coast and into the
Gulf of California
The Gulf of California ( es, Golfo de California), also known as the Sea of Cortés (''Mar de Cortés'') or Sea of Cortez, or less commonly as the Vermilion Sea (''Mar Bermejo''), is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean that separates the Baja Ca ...
,
Sonora has seven major rivers – the Colorado River, the
Concepción River
The Concepción River (or just Concepción) is a river in Chiapas, Mexico.
Other rivers
There is also a Rio Concepción in Sonora, Mexico (30.528027, -112.98392).
See also
*List of longest rivers of Mexico
*List of rivers of Mexico
This is a ...
, the
San Ignacio River, the
Sonora River
Río Sonora (''Sonora River'') is a 402-kilometer-long river of Mexico. It lies on the Pacific slope of the Mexican state of Sonora and it runs into the Gulf of California.
Watershed
The Sonora River watershed covers of public land. Slopes range ...
, the
Mátepe River, the
Yaqui River
The Yaqui River (Río Yaqui in Spanish) (Hiak Vatwe in the Yaqui or Yoreme language) is a river in the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. It was formerly known as the Rio del Norte. Being the largest river system in the state of Sonora, the ...
and the
Mayo River. Dams, such as
Alvaro Obregon, Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, Plutarco Elias Calles, Abelardo Rodriguez and Lázaro Cárdenas, have been built along some of these rivers, at least two of them where natural lakes existed.
Some of the dams formed large deltas, such as that of the Mayo River.
[Yetman, p. 4] The largest aquifers are mostly found between Hermosillo and coast, the Guaymas Valley and the area around
Caborca
Caborca is the municipal seat of the Caborca Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. The city has a population of 67,604, while the municipal population was 89,122 as of 2020. Municipal boundaries are with Pima County, Arizona, in the Unite ...
. Most of these are having problems due to overpumping for agricultural irrigation.
Protected areas
Sonora has of protected wildlife areas.
[Cartron, p. 74] Protected natural areas in the state are of three types: biosphere reserves, areas for the protection of flora and fauna and areas for the protection of natural resources.
The
El Pinacate biosphere reserve is located between Puerto Peñasco and the United States border in the Altar Desert. The reserve consists of an area with a series of gigantic dormant volcanic craters, which are covered with flora and fauna. It is frequently visited by foreign tourists, researchers and photographers. The reserve has a site museum, which displays the area history from its formation to the present. The craters are named ''Badillo'', ''Molina'' or ''El Trébol'', ''Cerro Colorado'', ''Volcan Grande'', ''Caravajales'' and the largest, ''Mc Dougal''.
The
Cañón las Barajitas ("Barajitas Canyon") is a protected natural area that consists of three different ecosystems, located north of San Carlos. It contains a kilometer of beaches and a canyon which has two distinct microclimates, one arid and desert-like and the other subtropical. The area has a wide variety of fauna including whales, dolphins and
manta ray
Manta rays are large rays belonging to the genus ''Mobula'' (formerly its own genus ''Manta''). The larger species, '' M. birostris'', reaches in width, while the smaller, '' M. alfredi'', reaches . Both have triangular Pectoral fin#AnchPect ...
s that can be seen off the coast depending on the season. Activities for visitors include
kayaking
Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving over water. It is distinguished from canoeing by the sitting position of the paddler and the number of blades on the paddle. A kayak is a low-to-the-water, canoe-like boat in which the paddler sits fac ...
,
paddleboats,
scuba diving
Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving whereby divers use breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface air supply. The name "scuba", an acronym for "Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus", was coined by Chris ...
and fishing. There are also caves as well as a solor observatory.
The
Alto Golfo y Delta ("Upper Gulf and Delta") biosphere reserve encompasses is in the northwest of Sonora and northeast of Baja California Norte at the northernmost part of the Gulf of California and the delta of the Colorado River. The area is home to a very large number of marine species. There are also rocky beaches along with those with fine sand. Some of these are home to groups of
seals
Seals may refer to:
* Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly:
** Earless seal, or "true seal"
** Fur seal
* Seal (emblem), a device to impress an emblem, used as a means of a ...
and sea lions. The reserve was created in 1993 and encompasses an area of 934,756 hectares. On land, there are arid scrub brush,
coastal dunes
A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, fl ...
and an
estuary
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environment ...
. It extends into the far upper part of the Gulf of California.
The
Bahía e islas de San Jorge ("Bay and Islands of San Jorge"), covering , are located on Sonora's northern coast between Caborca and Puerto Peñasco. The islands were first made a federal reserve in 1978 due to its importance to migratory birds. They are especially important to species such as the
Sterna antillarum
The least tern (''Sternula antillarum'') is a species of tern that breeds in North America and locally in northern South America. It is closely related to, and was formerly often considered conspecific with, the little tern of the Old World. Oth ...
, colonies of
Sula leucogaster
The brown booby (''Sula leucogaster'') is a large seabird of the booby family Sulidae, of which it is perhaps the most common and widespread species. It has a pantropical range, which overlaps with that of other booby species. The gregarious brow ...
,
Myotis vivesi
''Myotis vivesi'', the fish-eating bat or fish-eating myotis, is a species of bat that lives around the Gulf of California, and feeds on fish and crustaceans. It is the largest species of the genus ''Myotis'' in the Americas, and has exceptional ...
and
Zalophus californianus
The California sea lion (''Zalophus californianus'') is a coastal eared seal native to western North America. It is one of six species of sea lions. Its natural habitat ranges from southeast Alaska to central Mexico, including the Gulf of Califo ...
. The islands are large rocks and are white from
guano
Guano (Spanish from qu, wanu) is the accumulated excrement of seabirds or bats. As a manure, guano is a highly effective fertilizer due to the high content of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, all key nutrients essential for plant growth. G ...
. The beaches extend for ten km and end at the bay of San Jorge on the south end. The area is home to sea lions and a type of bat that fishes. There are sand dunes with arid zone vegetation as well as a small estuary. The climate is very arid and semi hot with an average temperature of between .
The
Isla Tiburón
Isla or ISLA may refer to:
Organizations
* International Securities Lending Association, a trade association
* International School of Los Angeles
* International Bilingual School, later named International School of Los Angeles
People
* Isla (g ...
is an ecological reserve with about 300 species of plants with desert and marine wildlife. The island was once inhabited by the Seris, and they still consider it their territory.
The
La Mesa el Campanero-Arroyo El Reparo reserve is found in the municipality of Yécora. It is a mesa with mountains which cover , containing pine and tropical forests, rivers,
arroyo
Arroyo often refers to:
* Arroyo (creek), an intermittently dry creek
Arroyo may also refer to:
People
* Arroyo (surname)
Places United States
;California
* Arroyo Burro Beach, a public beach park in Santa Barbara County, California
* Arroyo ...
s, rock formations and dirt roads. Due to its altitude of between 700 and 2100 masl, its temperatures are temperate for the state. It is part of the Sierra Madre Occidential bio region and in the upper basins of the Yaqui and Mayo rivers.
Politics and government
Sonora is divided into
72 municipalities.
Mexico-United States border
![USMexicoborder](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/USMexicoborder.jpg)
Sonora's border with the United States is long,
and runs through desert and mountains, from the western
Chihuahuan Desert
The Chihuahuan Desert ( es, Desierto de Chihuahua, ) is a desert ecoregion designation covering parts of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. It occupies much of far West Texas, the middle to lower Rio Grande Valley and the lower P ...
, through an area of grasslands and oak mountain areas to the
Sonoran Desert
The Sonoran Desert ( es, Desierto de Sonora) is a desert in North America and ecoregion that covers the northwestern Mexican states of Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, as well as part of the southwestern United States (in Arizona ...
west of
Nogales. The area gets drier from here west and the last third of the border is generally uninhabited. There are six official border crossings. From east to west these at
Agua Prieta
Agua Prieta (English: ''Dark Water'', Opata: ''Bachicuy'') is a town in Agua Prieta Municipality in the northeastern corner of the Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the Mexico–U.S. border, adjacent to the town of Douglas, Arizona. The mun ...
,
Naco, Nogales,
Sasabe,
Sonoyta
Sonoyta, Sonora is a town in the northern Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the U.S.-Mexico border, facing Lukeville, Arizona, in the United States. It is the municipal seat of the municipality of Plutarco Elías Calles.
Demographics
Accor ...
and
San Luis Río Colorado
San Luis Río Colorado is a city and also the name of its surrounding municipality in the state of Sonora, Mexico. In the 2020 census, the city had a population of 176,685. The city is the fourth-largest community in the state, and the municip ...
. In populated areas, much of the border is marked by corrugated metal walls, but most of the rest is marked by barbed wire fence and border monuments.
Like others in the world, the border is a culture unto itself, not belonging 100% to either country. Interaction between the peoples on both sides is a part of both the culture and the economy. In the 1980s, an international
volleyball
Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team's court under organized rules. It has been a part of the official program of the Summ ...
game was regularly held near Naco, with the chain link border fence serving as the net. Much of Arizona and Sonora share a cuisine based on the wheat, cheese and beef that was introduced to the region by the Spaniards, with wheat
tortilla
A tortilla (, ) is a thin, circular unleavened flatbread originally made from maize hominy meal, and now also from wheat flour. The Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers called tortillas ''tlaxcalli'' (). First made by the indigenous peoples of Me ...
s being especially large on both sides of the border. This diet is reinforced by the vaquero/cowboy tradition which continues in both states.
The six border crossings are essential to the existence and extent of the communities that surround them, as most of them function as ports for the passage of goods between the two countries.
People regularly shop and work on the other side, taking advantage of opportunities there.
The economic opportunities of the border are not equal on both sides. Most of the population along this border lives on the Sonoran side, many of which have moved here for the opportunities created by the maquiladoras and other businesses. These are lacking on the Arizona side.
The border has separated the region's indigenous populations, such as the
Tohono O’odham. While members of the Tohono O’odham have special border crossing privileges, these have become endangered as Mexican farmers encroach on tribal lands in Sonora, which are vulnerable to drug smugglers. Yaquis in Arizona travel south to the
Yaqui River
The Yaqui River (Río Yaqui in Spanish) (Hiak Vatwe in the Yaqui or Yoreme language) is a river in the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. It was formerly known as the Rio del Norte. Being the largest river system in the state of Sonora, the ...
area for festivals, especially
Holy Week
Holy Week ( la, Hebdomada Sancta or , ; grc, Ἁγία καὶ Μεγάλη Ἑβδομάς, translit=Hagia kai Megale Hebdomas, lit=Holy and Great Week) is the most sacred week in the liturgical year in Christianity. In Eastern Churches, w ...
, and Yaquis travel north to Arizona for cultural reasons as well. When
Father Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino ( it, Eusebio Francesco Chini, es, Eusebio Francisco Kino; 10 August 1645 – 15 March 1711), often referred to as Father Kino, was a Tyrolean Jesuit, missionary, geographer, explorer, cartographer and astronomer born i ...
arrived in this area, he named much of it the Pimería Alta, as Pima territory extends from the highlands of eastern Sonora up towards
Tucson
, "(at the) base of the black ill
, nicknames = "The Old Pueblo", "Optics Valley", "America's biggest small town"
, image_map =
, mapsize = 260px
, map_caption = Interactive map ...
.
Authorities on each side work to keep out from the other that which is undesirable. For the United States, this mostly involves drugs and illegal immigrants. For Mexico, this mostly involves struggling against the importation of untaxed goods, especially automobiles. Smuggling people and drugs into the United States is big business in Mexico, but while it affects everyone living on the border, it is generally not seen, except for occasional newspaper headlines, occasional violent crime and religious articles geared to those in the trade. Illegal crossings taking place through tunnels, hidden cars and trucks or most commonly, simply passing through a gap in the fence, especially in the more remote areas. In 1990, a tunnel linking two warehouses in Agua Prieta and
Douglas, Arizona
Douglas is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States that lies in the north-west to south-east running Sulpher Springs Valley. Douglas has a border crossing with Mexico at Agua Prieta and a history of mining.
The population was 16,531 in ...
was discovered. It was sophisticated with hydraulic equipment and means to move large quantities of goods. At least three
corrido
The corrido () is a popular narrative metrical tale and poetry that forms a ballad. The songs are often about oppression, history, daily life for criminals, the vaquero lifestyle, and other socially relevant topics. Corridos were widely popular ...
s have been written about this tunnel.
Demographics
General population
![Farlninios01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Farlninios01.jpg)
Economic growth in the state since the
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution ( es, Revolución Mexicana) was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It resulted in the destruction ...
has led to steady population growth. However, this population growth has been concentrated on the arid coastline due to the dominant agriculture and fishing industries. Eighty-five percent of Sonora's population growth since 1970 has been in this area.
[Cartron, p. 53] Another area where there have been gains are municipalities with industry, such as in Hermosillo and along the United States border. However, those municipalities with none of these economic advantages do not see population growth and some see population decreases.
Despite population growth, Sonora is still one of the least densely populated states in the country.
About 90% of the state's population is Catholic, with about 5% belonging to
Evangelical
Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide Interdenominationalism, interdenominational movement within Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that affirms the centrality of being "bor ...
or Protestant groups and over 7% professing some other faith.
The 1921 census reported Sonora's population as 55.84% white, 30.38% mixed indigenous and white, and 13.78% indigenous.
According to the 2020 Census, 1.48% of Sonora's population identified as Black,
Afro-Mexican
Afro-Mexicans ( es, afromexicanos), also known as Black Mexicans ( es, mexicanos negros), are Mexicans who have heritage from sub-Saharan Africa and identify as such. As a single population, Afro-Mexicans include individuals descended from both ...
, or of African descent.
Indigenous population
The most numerous indigenous groups in the state are the
Mayo Mayo often refers to:
* Mayonnaise, often shortened to "mayo"
* Mayo Clinic, a medical center in Rochester, Minnesota, United States
Mayo may also refer to:
Places
Antarctica
* Mayo Peak, Marie Byrd Land
Australia
* Division of Mayo, an Aust ...
, the
Yaquis
The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...
and the
Seris
The Seri or ''Comcaac'' are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property ( es, ejido), in the towns of Punta Chueca ( sei, Socaaix) and El Desemboque ( sei, Haxöl Iihom, link=no) on the ...
; however, there are a number of other groups which have maintained much of their way of life in territory in which they have lived for centuries.
[Gonzalez, pp. 23–24] There were at least nine tribes, eight of which remain today. Seven are indigenous to Sonora, with one migrating to the state over a century ago from the United States.
These cultures generally hold in reverence the deserts, mountains, riverbeds and Gulf of California with which they have contact. Many of these beliefs have been adapted to Catholicism. There are efforts to preserve indigenous languages, but with groups of diminished size, this has been a challenge.
As of 2000, there were 55,609 people, or 2.85% of the population, who spoke an indigenous language in the state. The indigenous population is concentrated in fourteen municipalities, which are home to 91% of the total indigenous population of the state. The municipalities with the greatest presence include
Etchojoa
Etchojoa is the seat of Etchojoa Municipality. Founded in 1613, Etchojoa is located in the southwest of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is situated at . The total municipal area is 1,220.23 km². Etchojoa had a population of 56,129 in 2000 ...
with 19% of the municipal population,
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
with 8.34%,
Huatabampo
Huatabampo () is a city in Huatabampo Municipality in the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. It is situated on the Gulf of California, near the mouth of the Mayo River. It is located at latitude . Huatabampo is southwest of Navojoa via So ...
with 11.8%,
Navojoa
Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of the state. The city is the administrative seat of Navojoa Municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.
History
The city name de ...
with 5.92%,
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
with 1.1%,
Cajeme
Cajeme is one of the 72 municipalities of the northwestern state of Sonora, Mexico. It is named after Cajemé, a Yaqui leader. The municipality has an area of 3,312.05 km2 (1,278.79 sq mi) and with a population of 433,050 inhabitants as of 20 ...
with 1%,
Bácum
Bácum is a small city and the county seat of Bácum Municipality, located in the south of the Mexican state of Sonora at .
It is one of eight mission villages founded in the early seventeenth century by colonial Spanish Jesuit missionaries f ...
with 9.26%,
Benito Juárez
Benito Pablo Juárez García (; 21 March 1806 – 18 July 1872) was a Liberalism in Mexico, Mexican liberal politician and lawyer who served as the 26th president of Mexico from 1858 until his death in office in 1872. As a Zapotec peoples, Zapo ...
with 5.2%,
San Ignacio Río Muerto with 7.4%,
Nogales with 1.2%,
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
with 3.9%,
San Miguel de Horcasitas
San Miguel de Horcasitas is a town in San Miguel de Horcasitas Municipality, in the Mexican state of Sonora. San Miguel is located in the center of the state at an elevation of 518 meters.
The settlement was founded in 1749 as a military fort. ...
with 13.7%,
Yécora with 6.8% and
San Luis Río Colorado
San Luis Río Colorado is a city and also the name of its surrounding municipality in the state of Sonora, Mexico. In the 2020 census, the city had a population of 176,685. The city is the fourth-largest community in the state, and the municip ...
with 5.1%.
![Danza del venado](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Danza_del_venado.jpg)
The
Mayos
The Mayo or ''Yoreme'' are an indigenous group in Mexico, living in the northern states of southern Sonora, northern Sinaloa and small settlements in Durango.
Mayo people originally lived near the Mayo River and Fuerte River valleys. The Mayo ...
are the most numerous indigenous ethnic group in the state with more than 75,000 who have maintained their language and traditions. These people, who call themselves Yoreme, are descended from ancient Huatabampo culture.
[Gonzalez, p. 24] They are concentrated along the
Mayo River. Most are found in the municipalities of Álamos,
Quiriego
Quiriego is a small town and the county seat of the Municipality of Quiriego, located in the southeast of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Geography
The Quiriego Municipality area is 2,705.72 km². The town is located at an elevation of 822 ...
and others in the south of the state, as well as in some parts of the coast near the
Isla Tiburón
Isla or ISLA may refer to:
Organizations
* International Securities Lending Association, a trade association
* International School of Los Angeles
* International Bilingual School, later named International School of Los Angeles
People
* Isla (g ...
. There is also a notable community in the northwest of Sonora.
Their religion is a mix of Catholicism and traditional beliefs, which they assimilated along with European farming and livestock knowledge. Mayo houses often have a cross made of
ironwood
Ironwood is a common name for many woods or plants that have a reputation for hardness, or specifically a wood density that is heavier than water (approximately 1000 kg/m3, or 62 pounds per cubic foot), although usage of the name ironwood in E ...
to protect against evil. Ethnically pure Mayos tend to segregate themselves from mestizos and other ethnicities.
The Mayos make their living from subsistence farming, working on larger farms and combing wild area for herbs, fruits and other resources. They also work making crafts in wood, making utensils and decorative items.
The
Yaquis
The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...
are the indigenous group mostly closely associated with the state of Sonora.
These people are second most numerous in the state with about 33,000 members traditionally located along the Yaqui River. They are found principally in the communities of
Pótam,
Huíviris,
Torim,
Cocorit,
Bácum
Bácum is a small city and the county seat of Bácum Municipality, located in the south of the Mexican state of Sonora at .
It is one of eight mission villages founded in the early seventeenth century by colonial Spanish Jesuit missionaries f ...
,
Vícam
Vícam is a town in the Mexican state of Sonora located in the municipio of Guaymas. It is one of the main settlements of the Yaqui people. Historically the Yaqui also ranged through what is now the American Southwest, and there is a federally re ...
,
Rahúm and
Belem, which have semi autonomous government. The Yaqui have been able to maintain most of their traditions including ancestor worship, original language, and many of their traditional rites and dances, with the
deer dance the best known among outsiders. The Yaquis call themselves and the Mayos the “Yoreme” or "Yoeme". The Yaqui and Mayo languages are mutually intelligible, and the two peoples are believed to have been united until relatively recently. One of the Yaqui religious celebrations which is best known among outsiders is
Holy Week
Holy Week ( la, Hebdomada Sancta or , ; grc, Ἁγία καὶ Μεγάλη Ἑβδομάς, translit=Hagia kai Megale Hebdomas, lit=Holy and Great Week) is the most sacred week in the liturgical year in Christianity. In Eastern Churches, w ...
, along with rituals associated with
Lent
Lent ( la, Quadragesima, 'Fortieth') is a solemn religious observance in the liturgical calendar commemorating the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring temptation by Satan, according to the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke ...
and
Day of the Dead
The Day of the Dead ( es, Día de Muertos or ''Día de los Muertos'') is a holiday traditionally celebrated on November 1 and 2, though other days, such as October 31 or November 6, may be included depending on the locality. It is widely obser ...
. As they consider the soul immortal, funerals are not a somber occasion but rather celebrations with banquets and music.
The preservation of history is important to the Yaqui, especially the struggles they have had to maintain their independence.
The
Seris
The Seri or ''Comcaac'' are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property ( es, ejido), in the towns of Punta Chueca ( sei, Socaaix) and El Desemboque ( sei, Haxöl Iihom, link=no) on the ...
call themselves the Comcáac,
which means “the people” in the
Seri language
Seri ( sei, cmiique iitom, link=no) is an indigenous language spoken by between 716La situación sociolingüística de la lengua seri en 2006. and 900 Seri people in Punta Chueca and El Desemboque, two villages on the coast of Sonora, Mexico. T ...
. The name Seri comes from the
Opata language
Ópata (also Tegüima, Teguima, Tehuima, Tehui, Eudeve, Eudeva, Heve, Dohema, Jova, Joval, Tonichi, Sonori and Ure; opt, Teguima) is either of two closely related Uto-Aztecan languages, ''Teguima'' and ''Eudeve'', spoken by the Opata people of n ...
and means “men of sand.”
There are about 650 Seri people today. They are well known among outsiders in the state because of their culture and the
crafts they produce in ironwood. For centuries they have inhabited the central coast of the state, especially in
Punta Chueca
Punta Chueca (Seri: ) is a Seri town located on the Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located 25 kilometers north of the fishing and tourist town of Bahía de Kino. Both of these towns are part of the Municipality of Hermos ...
,
El Desemboque
El Desemboque (Seri: ) is a town located 376 km from Hermosillo on the shore of Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora; coordinates N 29° 30' 13", W 112° 23' 43". It is part of the Municipality of Pitiquito, and is one of two maj ...
and
Kino Viejo as well as a number of islands in the Gulf of California in and around the
Isla Tiburón
Isla or ISLA may refer to:
Organizations
* International Securities Lending Association, a trade association
* International School of Los Angeles
* International Bilingual School, later named International School of Los Angeles
People
* Isla (g ...
. Generally, the Seris are the tallest of the indigenous peoples of the region, and the first Spaniards to encounter them described them as "giants." Their traditional diet almost entirely consisted of hunted animals and fish. However, this diet changed after the arrival of the Spaniards, when the use of firearms led to the extinction of many food animals. The Seris' traditional beliefs are based on the animals in their environment, especially the
pelican
Pelicans (genus ''Pelecanus'') are a genus of large water birds that make up the family Pelecanidae. They are characterized by a long beak and a large throat pouch used for catching prey and draining water from the scooped-up contents before s ...
and the turtle, with the sun and moon playing important roles as well.
[Gonzalez, pp. 24–25] Rituals are now based on Catholicism,
especially those related to birth, puberty and death, but they include traditional chants about the power of the sea, the shark and great deeds of the past. They are also known for the use of face paint during rituals which is applied in lines and dots of various colors.
![Punta Chueca Socaaix 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Punta_Chueca_Socaaix_1.JPG)
The
Tohono O’odham, still referred to as the Pápago by Spanish speakers, have inhabited the most arid areas of the state, and are mostly found in
Caborca
Caborca is the municipal seat of the Caborca Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. The city has a population of 67,604, while the municipal population was 89,122 as of 2020. Municipal boundaries are with Pima County, Arizona, in the Unite ...
,
Puerto Peñasco
Puerto Peñasco ( ood, Geʼe Ṣuidagĭ) is a small city located in Puerto Peñasco Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora, from the border with the U.S. state of Arizona. According to the 2020 census, it has a population o ...
,
Sáric
, nickname =
, settlement_type =
, motto =
, image_skyline =
, imagesize =
, image_caption =
, image_flag =
, flag_size =
, image_seal ...
,
Altar
An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, churches, and other places of worship. They are used particularly in paga ...
and
Plutarco Elías Calles
Plutarco Elías Calles (25 September 1877 – 19 October 1945) was a general in the Mexican Revolution and a Sonoran politician, serving as President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928.
The 1924 Calles presidential campaign was the first populist ...
in the north of the state. However, most people of this ethnicity now live in neighboring Arizona. The Tohono O’odham have as a principal deity the “Older Brother,” who dominates the forces of nature. Among their most important rituals is one called the Vikita, which occurs in July, with dances and song to encourage rainfall during the area's short rainy season. In July, during the full moon, a dance called the Cu-cu is performed, which is to ask for favors from
Mother Nature so that there will be no drought and the later harvests will be abundant. The dance is performed during a large festival with brings together not only the Tohono O’odham from Sonora, but from Arizona and California as well. The feast day of
Francis of Assisi
Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, better known as Saint Francis of Assisi ( it, Francesco d'Assisi; – 3 October 1226), was a mystic Italian Catholic friar, founder of the Franciscans, and one of the most venerated figures in Christianit ...
is also important. Many of these people are known as skilled carpenters, making furniture as well as delicate figures of wood. There are also craftspeople who make ceramics and baskets, especially a type of basket called a “corita.”.
[Gonzalez, p. 25]
The
Opatas
The Opata (written Ópata in Spanish, pronounced with stress on the first syllable: /ˈopata/) are three indigenous peoples of Mexico. Opata territory, the “Opatería” in Spanish, encompasses the mountainous northeast and central part of the ...
are location in a number of communities in the center and northwest of the state, but have been disappearing as a distinct ethnicity. This group has lost its traditional rituals, and the language died out in the 1950s. The name means “hostile people” and was given to them by the
Pima
Pima or PIMA may refer to:
People
* Pima people, the Akimel O'odham, Indigenous peoples in Arizona (U.S.) and Sonora (Mexico)
Places
* Pima, Arizona, a town in Graham County
* Pima County, Arizona
* Pima Canyon, in the Santa Catalina Mountains ...
s, as the Opatas were generally in conflict with their neighbors. They were especially hostile to the Tohono O’odham, who they depreciatingly refer to as the Papawi O’otham, or “bean people.” Today's Opatas have completely adopted the Catholic religion with
Isidore the Laboror
Isidore ( ; also spelled Isador, Isadore and Isidor) is an English and French masculine given name. The name is derived from the Greek name ''Isídōros'' (Ἰσίδωρος) and can literally be translated to "gift of Isis." The name has survived ...
as the ethnicity's patron saint.
[Gonzalez, p. 26]
The
Pima
Pima or PIMA may refer to:
People
* Pima people, the Akimel O'odham, Indigenous peoples in Arizona (U.S.) and Sonora (Mexico)
Places
* Pima, Arizona, a town in Graham County
* Pima County, Arizona
* Pima Canyon, in the Santa Catalina Mountains ...
s occupy the mountains of the
Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre is part of the American C ...
in eastern Sonora and western Chihuahua state. The Pimas call themselves the O’ob, which means "the people." The name Pima was given to them by the Spaniards because the word ''pima'' would be said in response to most questions asked to them in Spanish. This word roughly means “I don’t know” or “I don’t understand.” The traditional territory of this ethnicity is known as the Pimería, and it is divided into two regions: the Pimería Alta and the Pimería Baja. The principal Pima community in Sonora is in
Maycoba, with other communities in
Yécora and its vicinity as well as the community of San Diego, where there is a center selling Pima handcrafts. Pima religion is a mix of traditional beliefs and Catholicism. One of the most important celebrations is the feast of Francis of Assisi, who has been adopted as the patron saint of the Pima. Another important festival is called the Yúmare, which has a variable date with the purpose of asking for an abundant harvest, especially corn. Festivals generally last four days and consist of chants and dances such as the Pascola, accompanies by a fermented corn drink called
tesgüino
Tesgüino is an artisanal corn beer produced by several Yuto-Aztec people.[El T ...]
.
The
Guarijíos
The Guarijío are an indigenous people of Mexico. They primarily live in 17 villages near the West Sierra Madre Mountains in Chihuahua and the Sonoran border. Their homelands are remote and reached either on foot or horseback.Yetman 30 Their tra ...
are one of the least understood groups in the state, and are mostly restricted to an area called the
Mesa del Matapaco
A mesa is an isolated, flat-topped elevation, ridge or hill, which is bounded from all sides by steep escarpments and stands distinctly above a surrounding plain. Mesas characteristically consist of flat-lying soft sedimentary rocks capped by a ...
in the southeast. The Guarijíos are related to the
Tarahumaras and the
Cáhita
Cahíta is a group of Indigenous peoples of Mexico, which includes the Yaqui and Mayo people. Numbering approximately 40,000, they live in west coast of the states of Sonora and Sinaloa.[Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...]
s in 1620. Initially, they lived in the area around what is now Álamos, but when the Spaniards arrived, they were dispossessed of their lands. They also did not intermarry with the newcomers, isolating themselves. For this reason, people of this group have very distinct facial features, and have kept their traditions almost completely intact. They remain isolated but are known for their handcrafts. In the 1970s, there was oppression of this group, which was not formally recognized until 1976. In this year, they were granted an
ejido
An ''ejido'' (, from Latin ''exitum'') is an area of communal land used for agriculture in which community members have usufruct rights rather than ownership rights to land, which in Mexico is held by the Mexican state. People awarded ejidos in ...
.
The
Cocopah
The Cocopah ( Cocopah: Xawitt Kwñchawaay) are Native Americans who live in Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.
In the United States, Cocopah people belong to the federally recognized Cocopah Tribe of Arizona.
Name
The C ...
is the smallest native indigenous group to Sonora with about 170 members, who live mostly in
San Luis Río Colorado
San Luis Río Colorado is a city and also the name of its surrounding municipality in the state of Sonora, Mexico. In the 2020 census, the city had a population of 176,685. The city is the fourth-largest community in the state, and the municip ...
, along the United States border, in addition to nearby communities in
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
and
Baja California
Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
. Their own name for themselves, Kuapak, means “which comes” and possibly refers to the frequent changes in the course of the
Colorado River
The Colorado River ( es, Río Colorado) is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The river drains an expansive, arid drainage basin, watershed that encompasses parts of ...
.
[Gonzalez, p. 27] Traditional native dress is in disuse. It is characterized by the use of feathers and necklaces made of bones, and includes nose rings and earrings with colorful belts for the men. The women used to wear skirts made of feathers. They still practice a number of traditional rituals such as cremation upon death so that the soul can pass on to the afterlife without the body encumbering it. Another traditional practice is the use of
tattoo
A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes, and/or pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin to form a design. Tattoo artists create these designs using several Process of tatt ...
s.
The
Kickapoos
The Kickapoo people ( Kickapoo: ''Kiikaapoa'' or ''Kiikaapoi''; es, Kikapú) are an Algonquian-speaking Native American and Indigenous Mexican tribe, originating in the region south of the Great Lakes. Today, three federally recognized Kickap ...
are not native to Sonora, but migrated here from the United States over a century ago. Today, they are found in the communities of El Nacimiento in the state of
Coahuila
Coahuila (), formally Coahuila de Zaragoza (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila de Zaragoza ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza), is one of the 32 states of Mexico.
Coahuila borders the Mexican states of N ...
, Tamichopa in the municipality of
Bacerac
Bacerac is a town in Bacerac Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is situated in the northeast of the state and the municipality has boundaries with Bavispe Municipality in the north, with Huachinera in the south, with the state of Chi ...
, as well as on several different reservations in the United States. However, the Kickapoo community in Sonora is in danger of disappearing. In the 1980s, there were attempts to gather these disparate groups into one community. Eighty members remain in Sonora and they have lost their ancestral language, which was part of the
Algonquin family, with the last speaker dying in 1996, although the language is still widely spoken in other Kickapoo communities, especially in Coahuila. The Kickapoo community in Sonora has also lost much of their traditional culture.
Economy
General profile
![Llavedeldesierto](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Llavedeldesierto.jpg)
Despite a rough terrain and a harsh climate, Sonora, like the rest of northern Mexico, is rich in mineral resources. This has led to a history of self-reliance, and many see themselves as the heirs to a pioneering tradition.
A large part of this is linked to the vaquero or cowboy tradition, as much of the state's economy has traditionally been linked to livestock.
[Gonzalez, pp. 27–28] Sonorans and other ''norteños'' (northerners) have a reputation for being hard-working and frugal, and being more individualistic and straightforward than other Mexicans.
Although most people in the state are employed in industry and tourism, the trappings of the cowboy, jeans, cowboy hats and pickup trucks, are still very popular.
In 2000, the
gross domestic product
Gross domestic product (GDP) is a money, monetary Measurement in economics, measure of the market value of all the final goods and services produced and sold (not resold) in a specific time period by countries. Due to its complex and subjec ...
(GDP) of the state was 40,457 million pesos, accounting for 2.74% of the country's total.
In 2008,
Moody's Investor's Service gave the state an A1.mx (Mexico) and Ba1 (global) ratings, based mostly on its strong economic base. The state has a highly skilled labor force, and strong ties to the United States economy, mostly due to its shared border with Arizona. This link affects various sectors of the state's economy. Sonora is one of Mexico's wealthier states with the GDP per capita about 15% higher than average, and GDP growth generally outpaces the rest of the country, with a growth of 8.4% in 2006 as compared to the national average of 4.8%.
[
] The economic success of the state, especially its industrial and agricultural sectors, as well as the border, have attracted large numbers of migrants to the state, from the central and southern parts of Mexico.
[Cartron, p. 52]
Agriculture and livestock
Agriculture is the most important economic activity in the state, mostly with the production of grains. The major agricultural regions include the Yaqui Valley, the Mayo Valley, the Guaymas Valley, the coast near Hermosillo, the Caborca coast and the San Luis Río Colorado Valley. These areas permit for large scale irrigation to produce large quantities of crops such as wheat, potatoes, watermelons, cotton, corn, melons,
sorghum
''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many othe ...
,
chickpea
The chickpea or chick pea (''Cicer arietinum'') is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. Its different types are variously known as gram" or Bengal gram, garbanzo or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea. Chickpea seeds are high ...
s, grapes,
alfalfa
Alfalfa () (''Medicago sativa''), also called lucerne, is a perennial flowering plant in the legume family Fabaceae. It is cultivated as an important forage crop in many countries around the world. It is used for grazing, hay, and silage, as w ...
, oranges and more. In 2002, agricultural production included of wheat, of potatoes, of wine grapes (both red and white), of alfalfa, of oranges and of watermelon.
Sonora and Baja California Norte are Mexico's two largest wheat-producing states,
with Sonora alone producing 40% of Mexico's wheat.
[Cartron, p. 59]
There is some small-scale farming done in the state, especially in the highland areas, where farmers grow corn and other staples mostly for self-consumption; this unirrigated agriculture is highly dependent on the late-summer rainy season, as failure will result from the lack of rain.
However, most of the agriculture continues to shift away from small farms producing for local markets to largescale commercial agro-industry.
Many of the country's largest
agribusiness
Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy,
in which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise.
The primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit w ...
farms are located in Sonora.
This agricultural production is concentrated in the lowlands areas, with much of the production exported to the United States. This includes non-traditional crops such as fruits, nuts and winter vegetables such as tomatoes, especially since
NAFTA
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA ; es, Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte, TLCAN; french: Accord de libre-échange nord-américain, ALÉNA) was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States that crea ...
.
Irrigation is essential for reliable agriculture on the coastal lowlands of the state,
[Yetman, p. 7] and large-scale irrigation infrastruction is needed for large-scale production. After the
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution ( es, Revolución Mexicana) was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It resulted in the destruction ...
, the federal government took control of Sonora's irrigation infrastructure and after
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, began extensive dam and reservoir construction. From the 1940s to the 1970s, advanced in agricultural techniques were pioneered by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) based in
Ciudad Obregón
Ciudad Obregón is a city in southern Sonora. It is the state's second largest city after Hermosillo and serves as the municipal seat of Cajeme, as of 2020, the city has a population of 436,484. Ciudad Obregón is south of the state's norther ...
. This combined new varieties of wheat, with irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides to greatly increase production. Mexico went from a wheat importer in the 1940s to a wheat exporter in the 1960s.
However, such intensive agriculture in such an arid area has had a significant negative impact on water supplies. Eighty-eight percent of all water taken from above and below the surface is used for agriculture. One third of
aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characterist ...
s are overdrafted, especially in
Caborca
Caborca is the municipal seat of the Caborca Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. The city has a population of 67,604, while the municipal population was 89,122 as of 2020. Municipal boundaries are with Pima County, Arizona, in the Unite ...
,
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
, and the coast near
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
.
There have been water disputes in the state, notably between officials from Hermosillo and the relatively water-rich Ciudad Obregón.
[Yetman, pp. 7–8] The overpumping has drastically lowered water tables and has increased
soil salinity
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the ...
in many areas. In some areas, the tables have dropped by as much as one or two meters per year, making fresh water increasingly unavailable and forcing the abandonment of croplands. For this reason, the area under cultivation dropped by more than 24% during the last quarter of the 20th century.
The state still maintains its traditional livestock industry, especially in beef cattle, which has a national reputation for quality. In 2001, the state produced 1,477,686 heads of cattle, 1,229,297 pigs, 38,933 sheep, 33,033 goats, 83,260 horses and 11,988,552 heads of domestic fowl.
The availability of relatively inexpensive semiarid land, along with proximity to United States markets, concentrates livestock production in Sonora and other northern states.
[Cartron, p. 60]
Fishing
Sonora is a major producer of seafood in Mexico with a developed fishing infrastructure.
The Gulf of California contains a large quantity of fish and shellfish, but major fishing did not begin in Sonora and neighboring
Sinaloa
Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is d ...
until the mid 20th century. Today, some of Mexico's largest commercial fisheries are in the state.
[Cartron, p. 67] Sonora is one of Mexico's leading fish producing states, with 70% of Mexico's total coming from the Pacific coast, including the Gulf of California.
Much of the catch is shrimp and
sardines
"Sardine" and "pilchard" are common names for various species of small, oily forage fish in the herring family Clupeidae. The term "sardine" was first used in English during the early 15th century, a folk etymology says it comes from the I ...
, with about three quarters exported to the United States.
In 2002, the catch totaled 456,805 tons of seafood with a value of about 2,031 million pesos. In addition to what is caught at sea, there is active fish farming which raises mostly oysters and shrimp.
Much of the commercial and sports fishing is essentially unregulated and has had a very pronounced impact on the Gulf of California, with commercially important species such as shrimp,
grouper
Groupers are fish of any of a number of genera in the subfamily Epinephelinae of the family Serranidae, in the order Perciformes.
Not all serranids are called "groupers"; the family also includes the sea basses. The common name "grouper" is u ...
s,
snappers,
corvinas,
yellowtail,
billfish
The term billfish refers to a group of saltwater predatory fish characterised by prominent pointed bills (rostra), and by their large size; some are longer than . Extant billfish include sailfish and marlin, which make up the family Istiophor ...
es have been harvested well above sustainability. Two species that have been particularly hard hit are sharks and
manta ray
Manta rays are large rays belonging to the genus ''Mobula'' (formerly its own genus ''Manta''). The larger species, '' M. birostris'', reaches in width, while the smaller, '' M. alfredi'', reaches . Both have triangular Pectoral fin#AnchPect ...
s. In addition, shrimp trawling catches a large amount of non-target species, which are discarded, and have destroyed large areas of the Gulf's seafloor. All this has led to rapidly declining harvests.
Industry and mining
![Cananea mine](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Cananea_mine.jpg)
Most of the industry of the state is related to agriculture and fishing, in food processing and packing.
In the 1980s, the state gained a large number of industrial plants called "
maquiladora
A (), or (), is a word that refers to factories that are largely duty free and tariff-free. These factories take raw materials and assemble, manufacture, or process them and export the finished product. These factories and systems are present t ...
s", mostly situated along the border and in the capital of
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
.
These are assembly plants run by mostly United States companies, which have certain duty and tax breaks. By the end of the 20th century, these enterprises had a large influence on the expansion and modernization of the border area, including Sonora. They not only introduced new sources of employment, but their United States management styles have also had influence on business in the state and the rest of the north. However, maquiladoras peaked in 2001, and now many United States companies are moving production facilities to China. The number of maquiladoras has declined, but the value of their output has increased as those that remain shift to higher value-added goods and automation. In addition, many of the plants abandoned by United States companies have been taken over by Mexican firms. Despite the decline of maquiladoras, exports from them have risen 40%.
In addition to livestock, mining is another traditional element of Sonora's economy, beginning with a major find near the city of
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
. While the silver of that area has mostly been depleted, Sonora still plays a large part in Mexico's standing as one of the top fifteen producers of minerals in the world, leading in silver,
celestite
Celestine (the IMA-accepted name) or celestite is a mineral consisting of strontium sulfate ( Sr S O). The mineral is named for its occasional delicate blue color. Celestine and the carbonate mineral strontianite are the principal sources of t ...
and
bismuth
Bismuth is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Bi and atomic number 83. It is a post-transition metal and one of the pnictogens, with chemical properties resembling its lighter group 15 siblings arsenic and antimony. Elemental ...
. Sonora is the leading producer of gold, copper,
graphite
Graphite () is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of stacked layers of graphene. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on large ...
,
molybdenum
Molybdenum is a chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42 which is located in period 5 and group 6. The name is from Neo-Latin ''molybdaenum'', which is based on Ancient Greek ', meaning lead, since its ores were confused with lea ...
, and
wollastonite
Wollastonite is a calcium inosilicate mineral ( Ca Si O3) that may contain small amounts of iron, magnesium, and manganese substituting for calcium. It is usually white. It forms when impure limestone or dolomite is subjected to high temperature a ...
. There are still deposits of silver in the Sierra Madre Occidental. Sonora also has one of the largest coal reserves in the country.
[Cartron, p. 56] The state has the largest mining surface in Mexico,
and three of the country's largest mines: La Caridad, Cananea and Mineria María. It is also home to North America's oldest copper mine, located in Cananea.
[Cartron, p. 57] Grupo México
Grupo México is a Mexican conglomerate that operates through the following divisions: Mining (Minera Mexico), Transportation ( GMxT), Infrastructure and Fundacion Grupo Mexico.
Its mining Division is the leading Copper producer in Mexico and t ...
, with one of its principal mining operations in Cananea, is the world's third-largest copper producer.
In 2002, mines produced 6,634.5 kilograms of gold, 153,834 kilograms of silver, five tons of lead, 267,171 tons of copper, three tons of
zinc
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...
, 18,961 tons of iron, 7,176 tons
barium sulphate
Barium sulfate (or sulphate) is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ba SO4. It is a white crystalline solid that is odorless and insoluble in water. It occurs as the mineral barite, which is the main commercial source of barium a ...
. However, annual production is heavily dependent on world market prices.
A large
lithium
Lithium (from el, λίθος, lithos, lit=stone) is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid el ...
open pit mine is under construction at La Ventana.
Mexico's mining industry was mostly dominated by the Spaniards during the colonial period, and then by foreign enterprises after
Independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government forced out most foreign interests in Mexican mining, beginning with the increasing restriction of ownership in Mexican mining companies.
These restrictions were relaxed starting in 1992, with the only restriction that the operating company be Mexican. Within three years of the change, more than seventy foreign companies, mostly United States and Canadian enterprises, opened offices in Hermosillo.
Major mining operations have had severe environmental impact, especially in the areas surrounding it, with Cananea as the primary example. Mining has been functioning here for over a century, with mining and smelter wastes polluting the
San Pedro and
Sonora River
Río Sonora (''Sonora River'') is a 402-kilometer-long river of Mexico. It lies on the Pacific slope of the Mexican state of Sonora and it runs into the Gulf of California.
Watershed
The Sonora River watershed covers of public land. Slopes range ...
s near the mine, threatening both watersheds. Mining operations also destroy nearby forests due to the demand for building materials and fuel. Few old trees stand near the city of
Cananea
Cananea is a city in the Mexican state of Sonora, Northwestern Mexico. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cananea, in the vicinity of the U.S−Mexico border.
The population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The pop ...
and the town of
San Javier in central Sonora.
Tourism
Business and leisure visitors to the state primarily come from Mexico (over 60%), with the majority of foreign visitors coming from the United States, especially the states of Arizona, California and New Mexico. The four most important destinations in the state for leisure and business travelers include
Nogales,
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
,
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
and
Puerto Peñasco
Puerto Peñasco ( ood, Geʼe Ṣuidagĭ) is a small city located in Puerto Peñasco Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora, from the border with the U.S. state of Arizona. According to the 2020 census, it has a population o ...
, with beach destinations preferred by most leisure travelers. One advantage that Sonora has is its proximity to the United States, from which come most of the world's travelers. In second place are tourists from Canada, many of whom visit as part of cruises. United States tourists mostly visit Puerto Peñasco,
San Carlos and Navajoa and prefer areas they consider friendly, with no “anti-U.S.” sentiment. Leisure visitors from the United States tend to be between 40 and 65 years of age, married or in a relationship, educated at the university level or higher, with about thirty days of vacation time, and they primarily research travel options on the Internet. Most visit to relax and experience another culture. Most domestic visitors also use the Internet, with about half having a university education or higher and about half are married or with a partner. Most domestic visitors are on vacation with their families. The busiest domestic travel times are
Holy Week
Holy Week ( la, Hebdomada Sancta or , ; grc, Ἁγία καὶ Μεγάλη Ἑβδομάς, translit=Hagia kai Megale Hebdomas, lit=Holy and Great Week) is the most sacred week in the liturgical year in Christianity. In Eastern Churches, w ...
, summer and Christmas, with the overall busiest months being January, April, July, August and December.
In 2009, the state received more than seven million visitors, who spent more than 20 billion pesos to the economy. Most visitors are domestic and spend an average of 742 pesos. Foreign visitors spend an average of 1,105 pesos. Most stay on average 3.3 nights. Just over half of tourists in the state arrive to their destinations by private automobile, followed by airplane and commercial bus.
During the 2000s, Sonora has increased its tourism infrastructure. In the last half of the 2000s, Sonora has increased its network of highways from to , accounting for 6.7% of all highways in Mexico. It ranks second in four-lane highways, surpassed only by Chihuahua. From 2003 to 2009 the number of hotels in the state has increased from 321 to 410 and the number of rooms from 13,226 to 15,806, over 20%. Most of these hotels and rooms are in Hermosillo (57 hotels/3232 rooms) followed by Puerto Peñasco (40/3158),
Ciudad Obregón
Ciudad Obregón is a city in southern Sonora. It is the state's second largest city after Hermosillo and serves as the municipal seat of Cajeme, as of 2020, the city has a population of 436,484. Ciudad Obregón is south of the state's norther ...
(41/1671), Guaymas/San Carlos (28/1590), Nogales (24/1185), Navojoa (15/637) and
Magdalena de Kino
Magdalena de Kino () is a city, part of the surrounding municipality of the same name, located in the Mexican state of Sonora covering approximately 560 square miles (1,460 square kilometers). According to the 2005 census, the city's populatio ...
(10/284).
The cities of Hermosillo, Ciudad Obregón, Guaymas, Nogales,
San Luis Río Colorado
San Luis Río Colorado is a city and also the name of its surrounding municipality in the state of Sonora, Mexico. In the 2020 census, the city had a population of 176,685. The city is the fourth-largest community in the state, and the municip ...
, Puerto Peñasco,
Bahía Kino
Bahía Kino is a town part of the Hermosillo Municipality in Sonora, Mexico on the Gulf of California; it was named after Eusebio Kino. It has a population of approximately 7,000 people. The name also applies to the adjacent bay between Tibur ...
and
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
all have 5-star hotels.
There are 2,577 restaurants in the state with 1288 in Hermosillo.
Hotel occupation went from 45% in 2003 to 57.7% in 2006 but dropped to 36% in 2009. The state's tourism suffered in 2008 and 2009, mostly due to the economic downturn and the
H1N1
In virology, influenza A virus subtype H1N1 (A/H1N1) is a subtype of influenza A virus. Major outbreaks of H1N1 strains in humans include the Spanish flu, the 1977 Russian flu pandemic and the 2009 swine flu pandemic. It is an orthomyxovirus ...
"swine flu" influenza crisis, which brought hotel occupancy rates down about 30%.
Sonora's major tourist attraction is its beaches, especially San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco, Bahía Kino and the Gulf of Santa Clara in San Luis Río Colorado.
San Carlos has a large variety of sea life off its shores, making it popular for sports fishing and scuba diving. One of its main attractions is the Playa de los Algodones, called such because its sand dunes look like cotton balls. On one of hills behind it, there is a lookout point which allows for views of the area. A number of Yaquis, Seris and Guaimas on and around the Tetakawi Hill, making a living from fishing. Puerto Peñasco has recently experienced large-scale development along its of beaches, which have calm seas. It is located in the extreme northwest of the state. Some of the available activities include jet skiing, boating, sailing, sports fishing, scuba diving and snorkeling. It is located near
El Pinacate biosphere reserve. There is also an aquarium called the
Acuario de Cer-Mar, which is a research center open to the public. The aquarium has a number of species such as marine turtles, octopuses,
seahorse
A seahorse (also written ''sea-horse'' and ''sea horse'') is any of 46 species of small marine fish in the genus ''Hippocampus''. "Hippocampus" comes from the Ancient Greek (), itself from () meaning "horse" and () meaning "sea monster" or " ...
s and many varieties of fish. Bahía Kino is named after the Jesuit missionary, who visited the area in the 17th century. In the 1930s, a group of fishermen established a village in what is now known as Kino Viejo. This bay's beaches have white sand, with warm calm waters off of them. For this reason, Kino Viejo calls itself ''la perla del Mar de Cortés'' (the pearl of the Gulf of California). Available activities include horseback riding, scuba diving and sports fishing. The
Isla Tiburón
Isla or ISLA may refer to:
Organizations
* International Securities Lending Association, a trade association
* International School of Los Angeles
* International Bilingual School, later named International School of Los Angeles
People
* Isla (g ...
is from Bahia Kino in the Gulf of California. It is the largest island of Mexico, measuring . It has been declared an ecological reserve to protect its flora and fauna, such as the wild rams and deer that live here.
![Cocospera2-1-](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Cocospera2-1-.jpg)
To enhance tourism in areas away from the primary beaches, the state of Sonora has set up several tourist routes for promotion as well as gained "
Pueblo Mágico
In the Southwestern United States, Pueblo (capitalized) refers to the Native tribes of Puebloans having fixed-location communities with permanent buildings which also are called pueblos (lowercased). The Spanish explorers of northern New Spain ...
" status for one of its smaller cities. The Ruta de las Missiones ("Missions Route") covers the principle stops of
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
missionary
Eusebio Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino ( it, Eusebio Francesco Chini, es, Eusebio Francisco Kino; 10 August 1645 – 15 March 1711), often referred to as Father Kino, was a Tyrolean Jesuit, missionary, geographer, explorer, cartographer and astronomer born i ...
, as the worked to establish the many religious institutions which are part of the state's identity. These include the churches and missions in
Caborca
Caborca is the municipal seat of the Caborca Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. The city has a population of 67,604, while the municipal population was 89,122 as of 2020. Municipal boundaries are with Pima County, Arizona, in the Unite ...
,
Pitiquito
Pitiquito is a small town in Pitiquito Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area and population
The municipal area is 11,979.96 km² which makes up 6.46% of the state total. The municipal population counted in 200 ...
,
Oquitoa
Oquitoa is a small town surrounded by Oquitoa Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora.
History
It was founded in 1689 by the Jesuit missionary: Eusebio Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino ( it, Eusebio Francesco Chini, es, ...
,
Átil
Atil (also Átil) is a small town in Atil Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora. The total area is 400.43 km² and the population of the municipality was 734 in 2005, of whom 699 lived in the municipal seat (2000). N ...
,
Tubutama
Tubutama is a town in Tubutama Municipality, in the north-west of the Mexican state of Sonora. Eusebio Kino, SJ, founded Mission San Pedro y San Pablo del Tubutama in 1691. Tubutama was the headquarters of religious administration for the entire ...
,
Imuris,
Cucurpe Cucurpe is the municipal seat of Cucurpe Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora.
History
Originally the territory was occupied by the Opatas and the Pimas Altas. In 1647 the Jesuit missionary Marcos del Río founded the first Spanish settle ...
and
Magdalena. In Magdalena, Father Kino remains are at the Padre Kino mausoleum.
The Ruta del Río (River Route) follows a seriers of villages and towns along the
Sonora River
Río Sonora (''Sonora River'') is a 402-kilometer-long river of Mexico. It lies on the Pacific slope of the Mexican state of Sonora and it runs into the Gulf of California.
Watershed
The Sonora River watershed covers of public land. Slopes range ...
. The state recommends this route in the fall when the chili pepper and peanut harvest occurs. The route includes the settlements of
Ures
Ures is a small city and a municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area
It has an area of 2,618.56 square kilometers. This is 1.41% of the total area of the state, and 0.13 percent of the national area of Mexico. Besides the seat, the most i ...
,
Baviácora
Baviácora is a small town and the municipal seat of the surrounding municipality of the Mexican state of Sonora. The geographical coordinates are .
Location and Boundaries
The municipality is located almost in the center of the state at a dist ...
,
Aconchi
Aconchi is a small city in Aconchi Municipality that surrounds it, located in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The population of the municipality (urban and rural) was 2,452 in 2005 in an area of 358.74 square kilometers. It became a m ...
,
San Felipe de Jesús,
Huépac Huepac is the seat of a Huépac Municipality in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 317.37 km² with a population of 1,142 registered in 2000Most of the inhabitants live in the municipal seat.
Huépac was founded in ...
,
Banámichi
Banámichi (Opata: Banamitzi) is a small town in Banámichi Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. Geographical coordinates are .
Area and population
The municipal area is 773.06 and the population was 1,464 in 2005, with ...
,
Arizpe
Arizpe (or Arispe) is a small town and the municipal seat of the Arizpe Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located at 30°20'"N 110°09'"W. The area of the municipality is 2,806.78 sq.km. The population in 2005 was ...
,
Bacoachi
Bacoachi is a small town in Bacoachi Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. The area of the municipality is 487 square miles (1,260.65 km²) and the population (rural and urban) was 1,456 in 2005, with 924 inhabitants resid ...
and
Cananea
Cananea is a city in the Mexican state of Sonora, Northwestern Mexico. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cananea, in the vicinity of the U.S−Mexico border.
The population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The pop ...
.
The Ruta de la Sierra Alta ("High Mountain Route") winds its way through the highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental to see the significant peaks and towns of the area. Destinations include the towns
Moctezuma,
Villa Hidalgo,
Huásabas Huásabas is the municipal seat of Huásabas Municipality in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is 711.17 km² (274.58 mi²) with a population of 966 registered in 2000. Most of the inhabitants live in the ...
,
Granados,
Huachinera Huachinera is the municipal seat of Huachinera Municipality in the northeast of the Mexican state of Sonora. The municipal area is , with a population of 1,147 registered in 2000.
It was founded as Juan Evangelista de Huachinera in 1645 by the Spa ...
,
Bavispe
Bavispe is a small town and a municipality in the northeast part of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Location
The municipality is located in the northeast of the state at . The elevation of the administrative seat is 902 meters above sea level. It h ...
,
Nácori Chico
Nácori Chico is a small town in Nácori Chico Municipality in the east of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area and population
The municipal seat had a population of 999 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 900 meters.
Geography
The land is m ...
,
Fronteras
Fronteras is the seat of Fronteras Municipality in the northeastern part of the Mexican state of Sonora. Frontera translates as Border. The elevation is 1,120 meters and neighboring municipalities are Agua Prieta, Nacozari and Bacoachi. The area ...
,
Nacozari and
Cumpas
Cumpas is the municipal seat of Cumpas Municipality of the Mexican state of Sonora.
References
Enciclopedia de los Municipios de MexicoINEGIGobierno de SonoraSocial Economic Profile of Cumpas(in Spanish)
External linksCumpas, Ayuntamiento Di ...
, which have other attractions such as old
hacienda
An ''hacienda'' ( or ; or ) is an estate (or ''finca''), similar to a Roman ''latifundium'', in Spain and the former Spanish Empire. With origins in Andalusia, ''haciendas'' were variously plantations (perhaps including animals or orchards), ...
s, streams, forests and other forms of nature.
![Plaza de Alamos, Son](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Plaza_de_Alamos%2C_Son.jpg)
The Ruta Sierra Mar ("Mountain Sea Route") is located in the south of the state among the towns around
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
,
Navojoa
Navojoa is the fifth-largest city in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and is situated in the southern part of the state. The city is the administrative seat of Navojoa Municipality, located in the Mayo River Valley.
History
The city name de ...
and
Huatabampo
Huatabampo () is a city in Huatabampo Municipality in the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. It is situated on the Gulf of California, near the mouth of the Mayo River. It is located at latitude . Huatabampo is southwest of Navojoa via So ...
, which contain a large number of colonial-era constructions. Attractions include the above-mentioned cities along with the Adolfo Ruiz Cortínez, Tetajiosa and El Venadito dams and the town of
Etchojoa
Etchojoa is the seat of Etchojoa Municipality. Founded in 1613, Etchojoa is located in the southwest of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is situated at . The total municipal area is 1,220.23 km². Etchojoa had a population of 56,129 in 2000 ...
, which are surrounded by areas of desert and areas with tropical vegetation, around the
Mayo River. The route begins in the mountains of Álamos and ends at the beaches of Huatabampo. Travelers can engage in a number of activities such as hunting, birdwatching, boating, kayaking and photography.
The Ruta Yécora (Yécora Route) leaves from the capital of
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
and makes its way to the town of
Yécora, which is one of the highest communities in the mountains of the state. The Yécora area is known for its hunting and the area contains species that can only be found in this part of the state. From Hermosillo to Yécora, there are of highway, which pass through a number of towns and natural vistas. These include La Colorado mine, San José de Pima on the
Mátape River
The Mátape River is a river in Sonora, Mexico.
See also
*List of rivers of Mexico
This is a list of rivers of Mexico, listed from north to south. There are 246 rivers on this list. Alternate names for rivers are given in parentheses.
Rivers fl ...
, Tecoripa, San Javier which is surrounded by various hills, Tónichi, Ónavas, Tepoca, San Nicolás and the Mesa de Campanero forest.
Sonora has one Pueblo Mágico, which is Álamos, which was called Ostimuri by the native population. This town was founded in 1683, when a mineral deposit by the name of La Europea was discovered. The silver found here made it one of the richest towns in the region. The mines gave out in the 19th century and the town declined. Today, many of the old mansions and other buildings have been restored.
There are also a number of natural reserve areas that are open to visitors and promoted for tourism. These include El Pinacate in the Altar Desert and the Colorado Delta and Upper Gulf of California biosphere reserve. Both of these are near the major resort area of Puerto Peñasco and are some of the driest areas of Mexico.
[Gonzalez, pp. 57–60]
The border
Much of the state's economic activity is related to its border with the United States state of Arizona. People from both countries regularly cross the border to shop.
The border crossings are essential to many of the communities that straddle the border, not only in the main crossings in
Nogales and
Agua Prieta
Agua Prieta (English: ''Dark Water'', Opata: ''Bachicuy'') is a town in Agua Prieta Municipality in the northeastern corner of the Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the Mexico–U.S. border, adjacent to the town of Douglas, Arizona. The mun ...
, but also in the smaller ones such as
Naco.
On each side of the border, there is a fifteen km strip, which is designated as a commercial trade zone, where both Mexicans and United States citizens can enter with limited visa requirements.
Many Arizonans travel and cross one of the crossings to eat and shop, mostly to experience something different from doing the same at home. Most spend only the day. The most popular of these border crossings is Nogales, which is just over an hour south from
Tucson
, "(at the) base of the black ill
, nicknames = "The Old Pueblo", "Optics Valley", "America's biggest small town"
, image_map =
, mapsize = 260px
, map_caption = Interactive map ...
by highway. The main shopping street in Nogales is Avenida Obregón, which is crowded with pharmacies with lower prices than in the United States, stores selling knock offs of designer names such as
Louis Vuitton
Louis Vuitton Malletier, commonly known as Louis Vuitton (, ), is a French high-end Luxury goods, luxury fashion house and company founded in 1854 by Louis Vuitton (designer), Louis Vuitton. The label's LV monogram appears on most of its produc ...
,
Cuban cigar
Cuban cigars are cigars manufactured in Cuba from tobacco grown within that island nation. Historically regarded as among the world's “finest”, they are synonymous with the island's culture and contribute nearly one quarter of the value of al ...
s,
tequila
Tequila (; ) is a liquor, distilled beverage made from the Agave tequilana, blue agave plant, primarily in the area surrounding the city of Tequila, Jalisco, Tequila northwest of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Guadalajara, and in the Jaliscan Highlands ...
, cheaper cigarettes and Mexican handcrafts, including some of the best work from artisans from
Puebla
Puebla ( en, colony, settlement), officially Free and Sovereign State of Puebla ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Puebla), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 217 municipalities and its cap ...
,
Guadalajara
Guadalajara ( , ) is a metropolis in western Mexico and the capital of the list of states of Mexico, state of Jalisco. According to the 2020 census, the city has a population of 1,385,629 people, making it the 7th largest city by population in Me ...
,
Michoacán
Michoacán, formally Michoacán de Ocampo (; Purépecha: ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Michoacán de Ocampo ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Michoacán de Ocampo), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of ...
and
Oaxaca
Oaxaca ( , also , , from nci, Huāxyacac ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 32 states that compose the political divisions of Mexico, Federative Entities of Mexico. It is ...
. Although these stores cater mostly to Americans crossing the border, it is still possible to negotiate prices. Many of these communities on the Mexican side also have bars close to the port of entry, taking advantage of Mexico's lower drinking age of 18.
The more important aspect of the border crossing is the commercial shipping that goes through, especially the Nogales port. There are two crossings at Nogales, one which connects the downtowns of the two cities, mostly for non-commercial traffic, and the Mariposa Port of Entry outside of the twin cities for trucks and commercial traffic.
NAFTA
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA ; es, Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte, TLCAN; french: Accord de libre-échange nord-américain, ALÉNA) was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States that crea ...
increased cross border shipping. Counting traffic going both north and south, the Nogales port handles about three-quarters of all border crossing between Sonora and Arizona. Nogales is a major port of entry for Mexican agricultural products heading to the United States and Canada.
In 2005, 268,163 commercial trucks moved through the port, up from 242,435 in 2004,
handling about 7.6% of all United States-Mexico truck traffic. Most of the merchandise that passes through Sonora on its way to the United States winds up in western states such as Arizona,
Utah
Utah ( , ) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. Utah is a landlocked U.S. state bordered to its east by Colorado, to its northeast by Wyoming, to its north by Idaho, to its south by Arizona, and to it ...
,
Nevada
Nevada ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, Western region of the United States. It is bordered by Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, and Utah to the east. N ...
,
Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyom ...
and
Montana
Montana () is a state in the Mountain West division of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbi ...
, as well as into Canada.
The volume of traffic, along with new security measures which have been put into place since 2001, create traffic jams of trucks and other vehicles, especially during the winter when demand for products grown in Mexico's warm climates peaks. These jams can result in lines about eight miles long. For trucks moving into Sonora and south, inspection stations at
Vícam
Vícam is a town in the Mexican state of Sonora located in the municipio of Guaymas. It is one of the main settlements of the Yaqui people. Historically the Yaqui also ranged through what is now the American Southwest, and there is a federally re ...
and near the Sinaloa border also cause delays. Delays in shipping cause more produce to rot before it can get to the consumer.
The last reason for the importance of the border is the
maquiladora
A (), or (), is a word that refers to factories that are largely duty free and tariff-free. These factories take raw materials and assemble, manufacture, or process them and export the finished product. These factories and systems are present t ...
industries, which have made areas such as Nogales grow significantly.
Many of Sonora's incoming migrants from other parts of Mexico come to work at these factories.
Handcrafts
![MAPElNorte026](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/MAPElNorte026.JPG)
There are a number of different crafts made in the state, which are often distinguished by the use of certain materials and of certain designs. The best known of these is the
carving of figures from ironwood (''palo fierro'' in Spanish), which is a very dense, almost black wood that sinks in water. This wood was often used in braziers in the past because it would burn for a very long time. This carving is the specialty of the
Yaquis
The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...
and the
Seris
The Seri or ''Comcaac'' are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property ( es, ejido), in the towns of Punta Chueca ( sei, Socaaix) and El Desemboque ( sei, Haxöl Iihom, link=no) on the ...
. Before it can be carved, this wood must be dried thoroughly, a process that can take up to five years. If this is not done, the wood takes on an
ochre
Ochre ( ; , ), or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced ...
color, rather than its characteristic shiny near black. Objects made from this wood are almost always decorative in nature in a wide variety of shapes such as sahuaro and other cacti, eagles, turtles, dolphins and other flora and fauna of the state, along with crosses. The last is popular among indigenous groups as it is believed that such guard against the envy of others and other ills. Objects made of this wood are very much in demand on the international market, but indigenous craftsmen cannot compete with factory-made pieces.
[Gonzalez, pp. 48–49]
The higher elevations of the state and riverbanks contain large quantities of trees.
Aconchi
Aconchi is a small city in Aconchi Municipality that surrounds it, located in the center of the Mexican state of Sonora. The population of the municipality (urban and rural) was 2,452 in 2005 in an area of 358.74 square kilometers. It became a m ...
is one of the villages of the state with a well-established tradition of making furniture, with almost forty workshops. Many of these are in rustic or colonial style. In
Arizpe
Arizpe (or Arispe) is a small town and the municipal seat of the Arizpe Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located at 30°20'"N 110°09'"W. The area of the municipality is 2,806.78 sq.km. The population in 2005 was ...
and
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
, they specialize in a type of chair made by bending and combining long flexible branches of willow and “guásima” (
Guazuma ulmifolia
''Guazuma ulmifolia'', commonly known as West Indian elm or bay cedar, is a medium-sized tree normally found in pastures and disturbed forests. This flowering plant from the family Malvaceae grows up to 30m in height and 30–40cm in diameter. I ...
) In the town of
Tubutama
Tubutama is a town in Tubutama Municipality, in the north-west of the Mexican state of Sonora. Eusebio Kino, SJ, founded Mission San Pedro y San Pablo del Tubutama in 1691. Tubutama was the headquarters of religious administration for the entire ...
, they make clocks of
mesquite
Mesquite is a common name for several plants in the genus ''Prosopis'', which contains over 40 species of small leguminous trees. They are native to dry areas in the Americas.
They have extremely long roots to seek water from very far under grou ...
wood.
[Gonzalez, p. 49]
Basketmaking
Basket weaving (also basketry or basket making) is the process of weaving or sewing pliable materials into three-dimensional artifacts, such as baskets, mats, mesh bags or even furniture. Craftspeople and artists specialized in making baskets ...
is still widely practiced in the state, with hand-made wares available in local markets such as in
Bahía Kino
Bahía Kino is a town part of the Hermosillo Municipality in Sonora, Mexico on the Gulf of California; it was named after Eusebio Kino. It has a population of approximately 7,000 people. The name also applies to the adjacent bay between Tibur ...
,
Punta Chueca
Punta Chueca (Seri: ) is a Seri town located on the Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located 25 kilometers north of the fishing and tourist town of Bahía de Kino. Both of these towns are part of the Municipality of Hermos ...
and
El Desemboque
El Desemboque (Seri: ) is a town located 376 km from Hermosillo on the shore of Gulf of California in the Mexican state of Sonora; coordinates N 29° 30' 13", W 112° 23' 43". It is part of the Municipality of Pitiquito, and is one of two maj ...
. Those made near the ocean often have marine designs. Baskets made of reeds are made in
Ures
Ures is a small city and a municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area
It has an area of 2,618.56 square kilometers. This is 1.41% of the total area of the state, and 0.13 percent of the national area of Mexico. Besides the seat, the most i ...
along with hats. In Aconchi, palm fronds are used to make hats and baskets called guaris, used for food storage. In various locations, a basket variety called “
caritas" are made in a globe shape and have a lid. This is a specialty of the Seris. These are typically made by women, with small baskets taking a month to make. Larger ones can take up to two years. Most coritas are bought by foreigners as the work needed to create them makes them expensive.
Leather goods such as belts, shoes, jackets, wallets and more in made in locations such as
Nácori Chico
Nácori Chico is a small town in Nácori Chico Municipality in the east of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area and population
The municipal seat had a population of 999 in 2000. It is located at an elevation of 900 meters.
Geography
The land is m ...
,
Moctezuma,
Pitiquito
Pitiquito is a small town in Pitiquito Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area and population
The municipal area is 11,979.96 km² which makes up 6.46% of the state total. The municipal population counted in 200 ...
,
Bacoachi
Bacoachi is a small town in Bacoachi Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. The area of the municipality is 487 square miles (1,260.65 km²) and the population (rural and urban) was 1,456 in 2005, with 924 inhabitants resid ...
,
Banámichi
Banámichi (Opata: Banamitzi) is a small town in Banámichi Municipality in the north of the Mexican state of Sonora. Geographical coordinates are .
Area and population
The municipal area is 773.06 and the population was 1,464 in 2005, with ...
,
Huásbas,
Arivechi
Arivechi is a town in Arivechi Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora. It is located in the east of Sonora at an elevation of .
The settlement of San Javier de Arivechi was founded in 1627 by the Jesuit missionary Pedro Méndez. The land ...
and
Ures
Ures is a small city and a municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora.
Area
It has an area of 2,618.56 square kilometers. This is 1.41% of the total area of the state, and 0.13 percent of the national area of Mexico. Besides the seat, the most i ...
. This craft is a result of the state's history of cattle ranching. The mining industry gave rise to the working of metals, especially copper in
Cananea
Cananea is a city in the Mexican state of Sonora, Northwestern Mexico. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cananea, in the vicinity of the U.S−Mexico border.
The population of the city was 31,560 as recorded by the 2010 census. The pop ...
. Items include pots, pans, plates and decorative items.
Álamos
Álamos () is a town in Álamos Municipality in the Mexican state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico.
Historically an important center of silver mining, the town's economy is now dominated by the tourist sector. Designated a ''pueblo mágico ...
is known for items made in brass and wrought iron.
[Gonzalez, p. 50]
Jewelry such as necklaces, bracelets and earrings are often made using materials from the sea such as various types of shells and spines from marine animals. This is a specialty in
Puerto Peñasco
Puerto Peñasco ( ood, Geʼe Ṣuidagĭ) is a small city located in Puerto Peñasco Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora, from the border with the U.S. state of Arizona. According to the 2020 census, it has a population o ...
and of the Seris. The latter also use materials such as the tails of
rattlesnake
Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes that form the genera ''Crotalus'' and ''Sistrurus'' of the subfamily Crotalinae (the pit vipers). All rattlesnakes are vipers. Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small anim ...
s and animal teeth. Some of the Seris’ best work is located in a museum in Bahia Kino. There is also jewelry, especially necklaces made with various seeds, small twigs and river stones. In
Oquitoa
Oquitoa is a small town surrounded by Oquitoa Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora.
History
It was founded in 1689 by the Jesuit missionary: Eusebio Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino ( it, Eusebio Francesco Chini, es, ...
, they made ceremonial crowns of glass in various colors. These are most often used to decorate the tombs of loved ones on
Day of the Dead
The Day of the Dead ( es, Día de Muertos or ''Día de los Muertos'') is a holiday traditionally celebrated on November 1 and 2, though other days, such as October 31 or November 6, may be included depending on the locality. It is widely obser ...
. The Yaquis make unique belts using the paws of deer as well as elaborate masks for ceremonies. However, these people generally do not commercialize their wares, with the exception of cloth dolls in local markets.
[Gonzalez, pp. 50–51]
Media
Newspapers
A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information about current events and is often typed in black ink with a white or gray background.
Newspapers can cover a wide variety of fields such as politics, business, sports ...
of Sonora include: ''El Gran Diario de Sonora Agua Prieta'', ''El Gran Diario de Sonora Caborca'', ''El Gran Diario de Sonora Hermosillo'', ''El Gran Diario de Sonora Magdalena'', ''El Gran Diario de Sonora Nogales'', ''El Gran Diario de Sonora Puerto Peñasco'', ''El Imparcial'', ''El Informador del Mayo'', ''Entorno Informativo'', ''Expreso Hermosillo'', ''La I Noticias para Mi Hermosillo'', ''La Voz del Puerto'', ''Tribuna (Sonora)'', and ''Tribuna de San Luis.''
Culture
The most prolific art of the state is literature, which includes poetry, novels, plays and essays. To promote the state's talent, the state government sponsors a number of literary competitions, the most prestigious of which is the Libro de Sonora. It also sponsors scholarships to universities and other institutions. Important contemporary writers from the state include poet and playwright
Abigael Bohórquez, novelist
Gerardo Cornejo Murrieta Gerardo Cornejo Murrieta (1937–2014) was a writer born in a community called Tarachi in the municipality of Arivechi, Sonora, Mexico in 1937. His works reflect his love for his home state, calling himself a "tarachilango", although his caree ...
, writer and musician
Armando Zamora
Armando Zamora (born 1958, in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico) is a journalist, writer and musician. Zamora has written articles, poems, short stories and novels. A number of these deal with topics related to agriculture, many of which are academic in n ...
, writer and literary critic
Ignacio Mondaca Romero
Ignacio Mondaca Romero (born 1956, died 2021) is a Mexican writer of articles, essays, literary criticism and books.
Romero was born in San Luis Río Colorado
San Luis Río Colorado is a city and also the name of its surrounding municipali ...
, narrator
César Gándara, essayist and journalist
Eve Gil
Eve Gil (born 1968) is a Mexican writer and journalist from Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican stat ...
, short story and novel writer
Sylvia Aguilar Zéleny and poet and novelist
Iván Figueroa Iván Figueroa (b. 1974) is a poet and novelist from Sahuaripa, Sonora, Mexico.
Figueroa has received awards from the Nacional de Poesía Homenaje a San Juan del Río
San Juan del Río is a city (2010 census pop. 241,699) and administration o ...
.
[Gonzalez, pp. 13–17]
Eminent painters include
Manuel Romo Rodríguez
Manuel Romo Rodríguez (1920-1992) was a painter from Estación Torres, Sonora, Mexico.
Romo received his artistic training at the Academia de Artes Plásticas of the Universidad de Sonora, where he would later return as an instructor. Here he wo ...
,
Héctor Martínez Arteche Héctor Martínez Arteche (1934 – October 3, 2011) was a Mexican painter and muralist.
He was born in Mexico City, but spent most of his life in the state of Sonora. Most of his mural work can be seen in Hermosillo, Ciudad Obregón and Navojoa, ...
and
Mario Moreno Zazueta Mario Moreno Zazueta is a painter, etcher and art professor born in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico in 1942. He received his artistic training at the Academia Artes Plásticas of the Universidad de Sonora and at the Escuela Nacional de Pintura y Escultur ...
.
[Gonzalez, pp. 19–20]
The major indigenous dances include the Deer Dance, the Pascola and the
Matachines
Matachines (Spanish singular ''matachín''; sword dancers dressed in ritual attire called bouffon) are a carnivalesque dance troupe that emerged in Spain in the early 17th century inspired by similar European traditions such as the moresca. The ...
, which is mostly performed in
Huatabampo
Huatabampo () is a city in Huatabampo Municipality in the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. It is situated on the Gulf of California, near the mouth of the Mayo River. It is located at latitude . Huatabampo is southwest of Navojoa via So ...
.
Herbal medicine is still widely practiced, especially in rural areas.
[Gonzalez, p. 28]
Musicians include waltz composer
Rodolfo Campodónico, opera singer
Alfonso Ortiz Tirado Alfonso Ortiz Tirado (Álamos, Sonora, 24 January 1893 – Mexico City, 7 September 1960) was an opera singer and medical doctor. His musical talent was apparently evident early in life, but he studied at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria (Mexico), ...
,
Arturo Márquez
Arturo Márquez Navarro (born 20 December 1950) is a Mexican composer of orchestral music who uses musical forms and styles of his native Mexico and incorporates them into his compositions.
Life
Márquez was born in Álamos, Sonora, in 1950 wher ...
and classical music composer
Pedro Vega Granillo
Pedro Vega Granillo is a pianist born in Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico in 1959. His musical career began at age ten studying under Matilde Katase, then with Emiliana de Zubeldia, when he demonstrated his aptitude. In 1980, he debuted at a concert at t ...
. And most prominently "El Gallo De Oro"
Valentin Elizalde Valencia
Valentin is a male given name meaning "strong, healthy, power, rule, terco". It comes from the Latin name ''Valentinus'', as in Saint Valentin. Commonly found in Spain, Romania, Bulgaria, France, Italy, Russia, Ukraine, Scandinavia, Latin America ...
[Gonzalez, pp. 21–23]
The Orquesta Filharmonica de Sonora (
Sonora Philharmonic Orchestra
Sonora (), officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is d ...
) is a state-sponsored institution that offers concerts in all of the entity's major cities. Since its creation, it has been accompanied by artists such as
Olivia Gorra Olivia may refer to:
People
* Olivia (name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name
* Olivia (singer) (Olivia Longott, born 1981), American singer
* Olívia (basketball) (Carlos Henrique Rodrigues do Nascimento, born 19 ...
,
Carlos Prieto,
Martha Félix,
Felipe Chacón and
Fernando de la Mora. It has also participated in numerous events such as the 23rd anniversary of
Radio Sonora
Radio Sonora is the state radio network of the Mexican state of Sonora
Sonora (), officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Admin ...
, the Noche de Arte at the
ITESM
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) ( en, Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education), also known as Tecnológico de Monterrey or just Tec, is a secular and Mixed-sex education, coeducational private ...
Sonora campus, the
Festival Tetabiakte
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...
and the
Dr. Alfonso Ortiz Festival. There is also an organization for minors called the Orquesta Juvenil de Sonora.
The most important museums in the state are the
Museo de Sonora Museo may refer to:
* Museo, 2018 Mexican drama heist film
*Museo (Naples Metro)
Museo is a station on line 1 of the Naples Metro. It was opened on 5 April 2001 as the eastern terminus of the section of the line between Vanvitelli and Museo. ...
, the
Museo Costumbrista de Sonora Museo may refer to:
*Museum (2018 film), Museo, 2018 Mexican drama heist film
*Museo (Naples Metro), station on line 1 of the Naples Metro
*Museo, Seville, neighborhood of Seville, Spain
{{disambiguation ...
,
Museo Étnico de los Yaquis,
Museo Étnico de los Seris,
Museo de la Lucha Obrera Museo may refer to:
* Museo, 2018 Mexican drama heist film
*Museo (Naples Metro)
Museo is a station on line 1 of the Naples Metro. It was opened on 5 April 2001 as the eastern terminus of the section of the line between Vanvitelli and Museo. O ...
,
Museo de la Casa del General Museo may refer to:
* Museo, 2018 Mexican drama heist film
*Museo (Naples Metro)
Museo is a station on line 1 of the Naples Metro. It was opened on 5 April 2001 as the eastern terminus of the section of the line between Vanvitelli and Museo. ...
and the
Museo del Niño la Burbuja, which are visited by over 180,000 people per year.
Since colonial times, much of the economy of the state has traditionally been linked to livestock, especially cattle, with ''vaqueros'', or cowboys, being an important part of the state's identity. Today, most are employed in industry and tourism, but the dress and folklore of the ''vaquero'' is still important. Jeans and cowboy hats are still extremely popular, especially with men. The cowboy lifestyle is associated with the
pickup truck
A pickup truck or pickup is a light-duty truck that has an enclosed cabin, and a back end made up of a cargo bed that is enclosed by three low walls with no roof (this cargo bed back end sometimes consists of a tailgate and removable covering) ...
. This influence extends into popular music.
The most popular musical styles of the area is ''
norteño'' ("northern"), which includes
Banda
Banda may refer to:
People
*Banda (surname)
*Banda Prakash (born 1954), Indian politician
*Banda Kanakalingeshwara Rao (1907–1968), Indian actor
*Banda Karthika Reddy (born 1977), Indian politician
*Banda Singh Bahadur (1670–1716), Sikh warr ...
.
''norteño'' music developed from the late 19th until the beginning of the 20th century, all along the borderlands of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, with the influence of
waltz
The waltz ( ), meaning "to roll or revolve") is a ballroom and folk dance, normally in triple ( time), performed primarily in closed position.
History
There are many references to a sliding or gliding dance that would evolve into the wa ...
,
polka
Polka is a dance and genre of dance music originating in nineteenth-century Bohemia, now part of the Czech Republic. Though associated with Czech culture, polka is popular throughout Europe and the Americas.
History
Etymology
The term ...
s,
mazurka
The mazurka (Polish: ''mazur'' Polish ball dance, one of the five Polish national dances and ''mazurek'' Polish folk dance') is a Polish musical form based on stylised folk dances in triple meter, usually at a lively tempo, with character de ...
s and
corrido
The corrido () is a popular narrative metrical tale and poetry that forms a ballad. The songs are often about oppression, history, daily life for criminals, the vaquero lifestyle, and other socially relevant topics. Corridos were widely popular ...
s. One important instrument for the genre is the
accordion
Accordions (from 19th-century German ''Akkordeon'', from ''Akkord''—"musical chord, concord of sounds") are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free-reed aerophone type (producing sound as air flows past a reed ...
, introduced to the area by German immigrants.
Sonoran versions of this music developed from the 1920s to the 1960s. Many of the best known early works have anonymous composers. In the 1950s, with the widespread use of radio, the popularity of the genre rose as the ''norteño'' music of
Nuevo León
Nuevo León () is a state in the northeast region of Mexico. The state was named after the New Kingdom of León, an administrative territory from the Viceroyalty of New Spain, itself was named after the historic Spanish Kingdom of León. With a ...
,
Durango
Durango (), officially named Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Durango; Tepehuán: ''Korian''; Nahuatl: ''Tepēhuahcān''), is one of the 31 states which make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, situated in ...
and other states were heard. These versions often included music written by Sonoran composers such as Amor de Madre by Jesús “El Chito” Peralta, Cuatro Milpas, Mundo Engañoso, El Venadito, La Higuerita and El Tarachi by Aristeo Silvas Antúnez and La Barca de Guaymas by José López Portillo. The music especially resonated with youth which worked in fields and on ranches.
The first formal ''norteño'' group from Sonora was
Los Cuatreros de Sonora
LOS, or Los, or LoS may refer to:
Science and technology
* Length of stay, the duration of a single episode of hospitalisation
* Level of service, a measure used by traffic engineers
* Level of significance, a measure of statistical significance ...
, formed by the Carvajal brothers. In contrast to bands from other states, which were duets, Sonoran bands were trios before becoming quartets and quintets with the addition of more musical instruments. Lyrics most often deal with the important moments of everyday life which are celebrated and embellished. Only recently has ''norteño'' music been accepted by social classes outside those with which it developed. ''Norteño'' groups of Sonora, often referred to as ''taca-tacas'', can now be heard at social events at all socioeconomic levels.
Archeology
![Cerro de Trincheras](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Cerro_de_Trincheras.jpg)
The region has been an area of study for archeologists, anthropologists and historians, who have worked on
prehispanic
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
ruins and fossilized bones.
However, much of the research in this area is still in its initial descriptive stage with many basic questions still unanswered. Sonora is considered a cultural zone separate from
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
, although there may have been some Mesoamerican influence. The major differences between Sonoran cultures and Mesoamerica include dry climate farming, although the same basics of corn, squash and beans are produced. There is also a heavier reliance on wild resources. More important was the lack of true cities during this area's prehispanic history, with small settlements clustered around water sources and weak hierarchical systems. The cultures here also share some traits with those of the United States Southwest, but are distinct from these as well.
[Foster, pp. 241–242]
The
Cerro de Trincheras
Cerro is Spanish for "hill" or "mountain".
Toponyms
;Bolivia:
* Cerro Rico, the "Rich Mountain" containing silver ore near Potosi, Bolivia
;Brazil:
* Cerro Branco, a municipality of Rio Grande do Sul
* Cerro Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, a munici ...
("Trench Hill") is an archeological site, with
petroglyph
A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions ...
s, plazas and astronomical observatories. The exact purpose of the area has been disputed, but the area reached its height between 1300 and 1450 CE, when it had a population of about 1,000, which made its living growing corn, squash, cotton and
agave
''Agave'' (; ; ) is a genus of monocots native to the hot and arid regions of the Americas and the Caribbean, although some ''Agave'' species are also native to tropical areas of North America, such as Mexico. The genus is primarily known for ...
. Its largest structure is called La Cancha ("The Ballcourt"), which is at the base of the north side of the hill. It is a rectangular patio marked by rocks piled on its edges, measuring . Some researchers believe it was some kind of
ball court
The Mesoamerican ballgame ( nah, ōllamalīztli, , myn, pitz) was a sport with ritual associations played since at least 1650 BC by the pre-Columbian people of Ancient Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during t ...
and others believe it was a kind of open-air theater. On the hill itself is an observatory, which gives views of the area. Most of the area's artifacts of stone and shell were found here. The Plaza de Caracol (Snail Plaza) is marked by a meter and a half high stone wall in an open spiral, most likely used for ceremonies.
Gastronomy
![IMG 0558-746804](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Large_Tortilla.jpg)
As in other parts of Mexico, Sonoran cuisine is basically a mixture of indigenous and Spanish influences. When the Spaniards moved north from the Mexico City area, they found that the diet of the area was simpler, with the basics of corn, beans and squash, but without the further variety as existed in the lusher south. The Spaniards had a great impact on the diet of the region. They brought European staples of wheat, beef, dairy products, pork and more, as well as dishes and ingredients from the center and south of Mexico, such as
tortilla
A tortilla (, ) is a thin, circular unleavened flatbread originally made from maize hominy meal, and now also from wheat flour. The Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers called tortillas ''tlaxcalli'' (). First made by the indigenous peoples of Me ...
s, more varieties of
chile pepper
Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from Nahuatl '' chīlli'' (), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for t ...
s and
tamale
A tamale, in Spanish tamal, is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tamale ...
s.
The cowboy/''vaquero'' culture has been an important aspect of Sonora's culture since the colonial period and much of the cuisine is based on what cowboys ate on the range, even though most Sonorans no longer work outdoors.
Sonoran cuisine is not limited to the present state. Arizona, especially in southern border area, has a cuisine that is also heavy on wheat, cheese and beef introduced by the Spaniards, back when the area was part of Sonora. Both states continue the cowboy tradition.
Because Sonora is a border state, its cuisine has received significant influence from the United States as well.
Two important staples in the diet are
seafood
Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of molluscs (e.g. bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters and mussels, and cephalopods such as octopus an ...
and beef, the latter playing a larger role in the cuisine of Sonora than in the rest of Mexico. Beef is often cooked over an open flame, and Sonorans prefer robust cuts such as
brisket
Brisket is a cut of meat from the breast or lower chest of beef or veal. The beef brisket is one of the nine beef primal cuts, though the definition of the cut differs internationally. The brisket muscles include the superficial and deep pectora ...
and
skirt steak
Skirt steak is a cut of beef steak from the plate. It is long, flat, and prized for its flavor rather than tenderness. It is not to be confused with hanger steak, a generally similar adjacent cut also from the plate.
Though it is from a dif ...
.
Machaca
Machaca is a traditionally dried meat, usually spiced beef or pork, that is rehydrated and then used in popular local cuisine in Northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States. It is also readily available in many groceries and supermarket ...
, or ''
carne seca :''See also carne-seca, a Brazilian dried meat.''
Carne seca ("dried meat" in Spanish) is a type of dried beef used in Mexican cuisine.
Regional variants
Northern Mexico
In northern Mexican cuisine, particularly the states of Chihuahua, So ...
'', is still enjoyed, although refrigeration has eliminated the need to dry meat. Sonora also has a reputation for producing fine cuts of beef, but the lean Spanish cattle of the colonial period have been replaced by
Angus
Angus may refer to:
Media
* ''Angus'' (film), a 1995 film
* ''Angus Og'' (comics), in the ''Daily Record''
Places Australia
* Angus, New South Wales
Canada
* Angus, Ontario, a community in Essa, Ontario
* East Angus, Quebec
Scotland
* An ...
,
Herefords and
Holsteins. Dishes based on or usually containing beef include ''carne desebrada'', ''carne con rajas verdes'',
burrito
A burrito (, ) is a dish in Mexican and Tex-Mex cuisine that took form in Ciudad Juárez, consisting of a flour tortilla wrapped into a sealed cylindrical shape around various ingredients. The tortilla is sometimes lightly grilled or steamed ...
s, ''carne con chile colorado'', beef ''
chorizo
Chorizo (, from Spanish ; similar to but distinct from Portuguese ) is a type of pork cured meat originating from the Iberian Peninsula.
In Europe, chorizo is a fermented, cured, smoked meat, which may be sliced and eaten without cooking, or ...
'', ''carne seca'', machaca, ''menudo'', ''gorditas'' and meatballs.
Seafood is an important staple, especially along the coast as there is a large variety of fish and shellfish in the Gulf of California. Seafood is generally cooked in very simple dishes, such as fish tacos, seafood soups, rice with shrimp or squid and shrimp meatballs. Favored fish include
cabrilla,
flounder
Flounders are a group of flatfish species. They are demersal fish, found at the bottom of oceans around the world; some species will also enter estuaries.
Taxonomy
The name "flounder" is used for several only distantly related species, thou ...
,
marlin
Marlins are fish from the family Istiophoridae, which includes about 10 species. A marlin has an elongated body, a spear-like snout or bill, and a long, rigid dorsal fin which extends forward to form a crest. Its common name is thought to deri ...
,
sardines
"Sardine" and "pilchard" are common names for various species of small, oily forage fish in the herring family Clupeidae. The term "sardine" was first used in English during the early 15th century, a folk etymology says it comes from the I ...
, manta rays and various types of jacks.
![Parrillada Carne asada](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Parrillada_Carne_asada.jpg)
Tortillas are the base of the diet, but they are made from wheat, rather than corn. In Sonora, these tortillas are much larger than those prepared elsewhere and paper thin. Dairy products are common in dishes with chile peppers playing a smaller role.
However, one important native chile pepper is the ''chiltepín'' (''
Capsicum annuum var. aviculare
''Capsicum'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the Solanum, nightshade family Solanaceae, native to Americas, the Americas, cultivated worldwide for their chili pepper or bell pepper fruit.
Etymology and names
The generic name may come f ...
''), which people continue to harvest wild in the mountains of northwestern Mexico. In a dry year, about can be harvested in Sonora, with as much as during a wet year.
[Cartron, p. 66]
The cuisine contains a number of soups and stews, which combine native ingredients with Mexico-wide staples of beef, pork and corn. Seafood soups are popular along the coast. These dishes include ''pozole de trigo'', ''pozole de res'', ''menudo con pata'', ''verdolagas'' (''
Portulaca oleracea
''Portulaca oleracea'' (common purslane, also known as little hogweed, or pursley) is an annual (actually tropical perennial in USDA growing zones 10–11) succulent in the family Portulacaceae.
Description
The plant may reach in height. It ...
'') broth, ''sopa de elote'', ''caldo de calabazas'' and ''sopa de camarón''.
Tamales are made with cornmeal dough and fillings such as beans, vegetables, potatoes, ''chile colorado'' and other ingredients, wrapped in dried corn husks and steamed. Tamale fillings vary in the state but the most popular include fresh corn with cream, green chile strips with cheese, beef with ''chile colorado'' and seafood.
The various cultures that have come through the state have influenced the development of breads, desserts and sweets. Most sweets are made from cow's milk, sugar cane, peanuts, rice, nuts, sesame seeds and
piloncillo
Panela () or rapadura (Portuguese pronunciation: ) is an unrefined whole cane sugar, typical of Central and Latin America. It is a solid form of sucrose derived from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice. Panela is known by other na ...
. These include ''pipitoria'', ''jamoncillo'', ''cubierto de viznaga'', ''cubiertos de calabaza'', ''cubiertos de camote'', squash in honey, ''piloncillo'', ''pitahaya'' ice cream, crystallized oranges and limes, cakes made from corn and rice pudding.
Bacanora is a local liquor that has been made for decades in the town of the same name, located in the center of the state. Its base is an agave plant (''
agave lechuguilla
''Agave lechuguilla'' (common name in Chihuahua: ''lechuguilla'', meaning "small lettuce") is an ''Agave'' species found only in the Chihuahuan Desert. The plant flowers once in its life and then dies.
Description
The plant reproduces most ...
'' or ''
agave angustifolia
''Agave angustifolia'' (Caribbean agave) is a type of agave plant which is native to Mexico and Central America. It is used to make mezcal and also as an ornamental plant, the cultivar 'Marginata' that white margins on the leaves is a popular v ...
'') like
mezcal
Mezcal (, ), sometimes spelled mescal, is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from any type of agave. The word ''mezcal'' comes from Nahuatl , which means "oven-cooked agave", from and .What is MezcalElmezcal.org Traditionally the word "m ...
and
tequila
Tequila (; ) is a liquor, distilled beverage made from the Agave tequilana, blue agave plant, primarily in the area surrounding the city of Tequila, Jalisco, Tequila northwest of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Guadalajara, and in the Jaliscan Highlands ...
, and it comes in various styles including aged. It has a distinct flavor.
[Gonzalez, p. 51] It is estimated that half a million plants are harvested from the wilds to make this beverage each year, leading to concerns of overexploitation.
[Cartron, p. 65]
Education
![UNISON URC](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/UNISON_URC.jpg)
Public education is offered from preschool to university level studies. Development of the educational system has lowered the rates of illiteracy. The state has 1,475 preschools, 1,847 primary schools, 623 middle schools, 92 technical high schools and 203 high schools.
Sonora sponsors a number of scholarships for low income students through the Instituto de Crédito Educativo del Estado de Sonora.
and it also sponsors scholarships for students in the arts.
The main public institution of higher education in the state is the
Universidad de Sonora
The University of Sonora (Universidad de Sonora, abbreviated as Unison) is a public university in the northwestern state of Sonora, Mexico that has a strong research program. The university was founded in 1942 and is considered the main cultural ...
, whose main campus is in Hermosillo.
Founded in 1938 by state decree, the university has grown while retaining its identity. In 1953, students and professors were given more say in operations. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there were occasional student protests which disrupted operations. In 1973, the institution undertook reorganization in response to the student strikes.
The instuition offers degrees in over forty specialities through six divisions. Masters and doctorates are mostly offered in science and technology.
The
Instituto Tecnológico de Sonora (ITSON, Sonora Technology Institute) has about 17,000 students and offers twenty-three bachelor's degrees, eight masters programs, and three doctorate programs among its six campuses.
The institution was formed through the initiative of the Cajemense Society in
Ciudad Obregón
Ciudad Obregón is a city in southern Sonora. It is the state's second largest city after Hermosillo and serves as the municipal seat of Cajeme, as of 2020, the city has a population of 436,484. Ciudad Obregón is south of the state's norther ...
in 1955, but received its current name in 1962. Originally it was a technical training school, but it was reorganized as a university in 1973. Today, it is the largest technological institution in the state.
Transportation
![Hmoair](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Hmoair.jpg)
Sonora lies on the corridor which as connected the
central Mexican highlands (
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
) north into the United States along the Pacific Coast at least since the colonial period, and there is evidence this corridor existed in the pre-Hispanic period as well. Today, it is still a major corridor for travel and shipping, with rail lines and
Federal Highway 15 following it.
The state contains a total of 24,396 km of highways. Rail lines mostly consist of those which lead into the United States. The major commercial port is in
Guaymas
Guaymas () is a city in Guaymas Municipality, in the southwest part of the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico. The city is south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and from the U.S. border. The municipality is located on the Gulf of Califo ...
, with smaller ones, mostly for tourism located in
San Carlos,
Puerto Peñasco
Puerto Peñasco ( ood, Geʼe Ṣuidagĭ) is a small city located in Puerto Peñasco Municipality in the northwest of the Mexican state of Sonora, from the border with the U.S. state of Arizona. According to the 2020 census, it has a population o ...
and
Bahia Kino
Bahia ( , , ; meaning "bay") is one of the 26 Federative units of Brazil, states of Brazil, located in the Northeast Region, Brazil, Northeast Region of the country. It is the fourth-largest Brazilian state by population (after São Paulo (sta ...
.
The state has four airports in the cities of
Hermosillo
Hermosillo (), formerly called Pitic (as in ''Santísima Trinidad del Pitic'' and ''Presidio del Pitic''), is a city located in the center of the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is the municipal seat of the Hermosillo Municipality, Her ...
, Puerto Peñasco, Ciudad Obregón and
Nogales. These airports connect the state with 112 other locations both in Mexico and abroad. Airlines that operate out of them have included
Aeromexico,
Volaris
Volaris, legally ''Concesionaria Vuela Compañía de Aviación S.A.P.I. de C.V.'', is a Mexican low-cost airline based in Santa Fe (Mexico City), Santa Fe, Álvaro Obregón, D.F., Álvaro Obregón, Mexico City l-888-Ʒ9Ʒ-I394 with its hubs in M ...
,
Interjet
Interjet (official legal name ABC Aerolíneas, S.A. de C.V.), also known as Interjet Airlines, was a Mexican low-cost carrier headquartered in Mexico City. The airline operated scheduled flights to and from various destinations within Mexico, as ...
, and
Vivaaerobus
Aeroenlaces Nacionales, S.A. de C.V., trading as Viva Aerobus, is a Mexican low-cost airline fully owned by the largest bus company group in Mexico, IAMSA, and was co-founded by and invested in by Irelandia Aviation. Based in Monterrey Internati ...
.
Famous people
*
Luis Aguilar
*
Plutarco Elías Calles
Plutarco Elías Calles (25 September 1877 – 19 October 1945) was a general in the Mexican Revolution and a Sonoran politician, serving as President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928.
The 1924 Calles presidential campaign was the first populist ...
*
Julio César Chávez
Julio César Chávez González (; born July 12, 1962), also known as Julio César Chávez Sr., is a Mexican former professional boxer who competed from 1980 to 2005. A multiple-time world champion in three weight divisions, Chávez was liste ...
*
Jesús Manuel Corona
Jesús Manuel Corona Ruíz (; born 6 January 1993), popularly known by his nickname Tecatito, is a Mexican professional footballer who plays as a winger for La Liga club Sevilla and the Mexico national team.
Tecatito began his career in 2010 ...
*
Valentín Elizalde
Valentín Elizalde Valencia (; 1 February 1979 – 25 November 2006) was a Regional Mexican singer. Nicknamed "El Gallo de Oro" (The Golden Rooster), he was known for his off-key style and his biggest hits included: "Vete Ya," "Ebrio de Amor", " ...
*
María Félix
María de los Ángeles Félix Güereña (; 8 April 1914 – 8 April 2002) was a Mexican actress and singer. Along with Pedro Armendáriz and Dolores del Río, she was one of the most successful figures of Latin American cinema in the 1940s an ...
*
Luis Fernando González Hoenig
*
Adolfo de la Huerta
Felipe Adolfo de la Huerta Marcor (; 26 May 1881 – 9 July 1955) was a Mexican politician, the 45th President of Mexico from 1 June to 30 November 1920, following the overthrow of Mexican president Venustiano Carranza, with Sonoran generals ...
*
Christian Nodal
Christian Jesus González Nodal (born January 11, 1999) is a Mexican musician, singer, and songwriter born and raised in Sonora, Mexico. His debut studio album, '' Me Dejé Llevar'' (2017), was met with critical acclaim and success. Nodal has w ...
*
Álvaro Obregón
Álvaro Obregón Salido (; 17 February 1880 – 17 July 1928) better known as Álvaro Obregón was a Sonoran-born general in the Mexican Revolution. A pragmatic centrist, natural soldier, and able politician, he became the 46th President of Me ...
*
Silvia Pinal
Silvia Pinal Hidalgo (born 12 September 1931) is a Mexican actress. She began her career in the theater, venturing into cinema in 1949. Her film work and popularity in her native country led her to work in Europe (Spain and Italy). Pinal achiev ...
*
Jesse Pintado
Jesus "Jesse" Ernesto Pintado Andrade (July 12, 1969 – August 27, 2006) was a Mexican-American guitarist best known as the lead guitarist for the British grindcore band Napalm Death. He started in the grindcore band Terrorizer where he record ...
*
Abelardo L. Rodríguez
Abelardo Rodríguez Luján, commonly known as Abelardo L. Rodríguez (; 12 May 1889 – 13 February 1967) was the Substitute President of Mexico from 1932 to 1934. He completed the term of President Pascual Ortiz Rubio after his resignation, du ...
*
Aurelio Rodriguez Aurelio may refer to:
People Politicians
*Aurelio D. Gonzales Jr. (born 1964), congressman in the Philippines
*Aurélio de Lira Tavares (1905–1998), President of Brazil
*Aurelio Martínez, Honduran politician
*Aurelio Mosquera (1883–1939), Pre ...
*
Fernando Valenzuela
Fernando Valenzuela Anguamea (, born November 1, 1960) is a Mexican former professional baseball pitcher. Valenzuela played 17 Major League Baseball (MLB) seasons, from to and to . While he played for six MLB teams, he is best remembered f ...
*
Isela Vega
Isela Vega Durazo (5 November 1939 – 9 March 2021) was a Mexican actress,[Televisa ...](_blank)
*
Sergio Vega
See also
*
Panthera onca arizonensis
The North American jaguar is a jaguar (''Panthera onca'') population in North America, ranging from the southwestern United States to Central America. This population has declined over decades and was almost eliminated by 1960.
Results of Morph ...
*
Panthera onca centralis
The North American jaguar is a jaguar (''Panthera onca'') population in North America, ranging from the southwestern United States to Central America. This population has declined over decades and was almost eliminated by 1960.
Results of m ...
Notes
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
Official Sonora State Government website*
{{Authority control
States of Mexico
States and territories established in 1831