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Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province by population after
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
. It shares land borders with the Pakistani provinces of
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
to the west and north-west and
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
to the north. It shares
International border Borders are usually defined as geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Political borders c ...
with the
Indian states India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, with a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions. History Pre-indepen ...
of
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
and
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern s ...
to the east; it is also bounded by the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel ...
to the south. Sindh's landscape consists mostly of alluvial plains flanking the Indus River, the
Thar Desert The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, a ...
in the eastern portion of the province along the international border with India, and the
Kirthar Mountains The Kirthar Mountains ( ur, كوه کھیرتھر; sd, کير ٿر جبل) are a mountain range that mark the boundary between the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan and Sindh, and which comprise much of the Kirthar National Park. The mountain ra ...
in the western portion of the province. The economy of Sindh is the second-largest in Pakistan after the province of Punjab; its provincial capital of
Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...
is the most populous city in the country as well as its main financial hub. Sindh is home to a large portion of Pakistan's industrial sector and contains two of the country's busiest commercial seaports: Port Qasim and the
Port of Karachi The Port of Karachi ( ur, , ''Bandar gāh Karāchī'') is one of South Asia's largest and busiest deep-water seaports, handling about 60% of the nation's cargo (25 million tons per annum) located in Karachi, Pakistan. It is located on the Kar ...
. The remainder of Sindh consists of an
agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...
-based economy and produces fruits, consumer items and vegetables for other parts of the country. Sindh is sometimes referred to as the ''Bab-ul Islam'' (), as it was one of the first regions of the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
to fall under Islamic rule. Parts of the modern-day province were intermittently subject to raids by the
Rashidun army The Rashidun army () was the core of the Rashidun Caliphate's armed forces during the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. The army is reported to have maintained a high level of discipline, strategic prowess and organization, granti ...
during the
early Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...
, but the region did not fall under Muslim rule until the Arab invasion of Sind occurred under the
Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by th ...
, headed by
Muhammad ibn Qasim Muḥammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Thaqāfī ( ar, محمد بن القاسم الثقفي; –) was an Arab military commander in service of the Umayyad Caliphate who led the Muslim conquest of Sindh (part of modern Pakistan), inaugurating the Umayy ...
in 712 CE. Ethnic
Sindhi people Sindhis ( sd, سنڌي Perso-Arabic: सिन्धी Devanagari; ) are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the province of Sindh in Pakistan. After the partition of British Indian empire in 1947, m ...
constitute the largest group in the province; Sindh is also the place of residence for the overwhelming majority of Muhajirs (), a multiethnic group of
Indian Muslims Islam is India's second-largest religion, with 14.2% of the country's population, approximately 172.2 million people identifying as adherents of Islam in 2011 Census. India is also the country with the second or third largest number of Muslim ...
who migrated to the region after the
Partition of British India The Partition of British India in 1947 was the change of political borders and the division of other assets that accompanied the dissolution of the British Raj in South Asia and the creation of two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. T ...
in 1947. The province is well known for its distinct culture, which is strongly influenced by Sufism, an important marker of Sindhi identity for both
Hindus Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
and
Muslims Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
. Several important Sindhi Sufi shrines are located throughout the province and attract millions of devotees annually. Sindh is prominent for its history during the
Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...
under the Indus Valley civilization, and is home to two
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
-designated
World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
s: the
Makli Necropolis Makli Necropolis ( ur, ; sd, مڪلي جو مقام) is one of the largest funerary sites in the world, spread over an area of 10 kilometres near the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The site houses approximately 500,000 ...
and
Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Greeks The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, oth ...
who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
referred to the Indus River as '' Indós'', hence the modern ''Indus''. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as ''hind''. The word ''Sindh'' is a
Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
derivative of the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
term ''Sindhu,'' meaning "river" - a reference to Indus River. Southworth suggests that the name ''Sindhu'' is in turn derived from ''Cintu'', a Dravidian word for date palm, a tree commonly found in Sindh. The previous spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic ) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in
Sindh Assembly The Provincial Assembly of Sindh ( ur, ) is a unicameral legislature of elected representatives of the Pakistani provinces, Pakistani province of Sindh, and is located in Karachi, the provincial capital. It was established under Article 106 of ...
, and is now spelt "Sindh."


History


Historical Period (7000 BC-1800)


Prehistoric period

Sindh's first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BC. Permanent settlements at
Mehrgarh Mehrgarh (; ur, ) is a Neolithic archaeological site (dated ) situated on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan in Pakistan. It is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River and between the modern-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, ...
, currently in
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
, to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley civilization around 3000 BC.


Indus Valley civilisation

Sindh was the centre of the
Indus Valley civilisation The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300  BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900& ...
, which rivaled the contemporary civilizations of Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
in size and scope, numbering nearly half a million inhabitants at its height with well-planned grid cities and sewer systems. The primitive village communities in
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
were still struggling against a difficult highland environment, a highly cultured people was trying to assert itself at
Kot Diji The ancient site at Kot Diji ( sd, ڪوٽ ڏیجي; ur, کوٹ ڈیجی) was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization. The occupation of this site is attested already at 3300 BCE. The remains consist of two parts; the citadel area on high ground ...
. This was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the
ancient world Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cov ...
. It flourished between the 25th and 15th centuries BC in the Indus valley sites of
Mohenjo Daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Harappa. The people had a high standard of art and craftsmanship and a well-developed system of quasi-pictographic writing which remains un-deciphered. The ruins of the well planned towns, the brick buildings of the common people, roads, public baths and the covered drainage system suggest a highly organized community. There is no evidence of large palaces or large tombs for the elite. The grand and presumably holy site might have been the great bath, which is built upon an artificially created elevation. This civilization collapsed around 1700 BC for reasons that are uncertain; the cause is hotly debated and may have been a massive earthquake, which dried up the Ghaggar River. Skeletons discovered in the ruins of Moan Jo Daro ("mount of dead") were thought to indicate that the city was suddenly attacked and the population was wiped out, but further examinations showed that the marks on the skeletons were due to erosion and not of violence.


Early history

The ancient city of Roruka, identified with modern
Aror Aror ( Sindhi: اروهڙ) or Alor or Arorkot (Sindhi: اروهڙ ڪوٽ) is the medieval name of the city of Rohri (in Sindh, modern Pakistan). Aror once served as the capital of Sindh. History As Roruka, capital of the Sauvira Kingdom, i ...
/
Rohri Rohri (Sindhi: روهڙي; ur, ) is a city of Sukkur District, Sindh province, Pakistan. It is located on the east bank of the Indus River, located directly across from Sukkur, the third largest city in Sindh. Rohri town is the administrative ...
, was capital of the
Sauvira Kingdom Sauvīra was an ancient kingdom of the lower Indus Valley mentioned in the Late Vedic and early Buddhist literature and the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. It is often mentioned alongside the Sindhu Kingdom. Its capital city was Roruka, identified ...
, and finds mentioned early Buddhist literature as a major trading center. Sindh finds mention in the Indian epic ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the s ...
'' as being part of
Bharatvarsha The Republic of India has two principal short names, each of which is historically significant, "India" and "Bharata". A third name, "Hindustān", is sometimes an alternative name for the region comprising most of the modern Indian states o ...
. Sindh was conquered by the
Persian Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Based in Western Asia, it was the largest empire the world had ...
in the sixth century BC. In the late fourth century BC, Sindh was conquered by a mixed army led by
Macedonian Greeks Macedonians ( el, Μακεδόνες, ''Makedónes''), also known as Greek Macedonians or Macedonian Greeks, are a regional and historical population group of ethnic Greeks, inhabiting or originating from the Macedonia (Greece), Greek region o ...
under
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
. The region remained under control of Greek satraps for only a few decades. After Alexander's death, there was a brief period of
Seleucid The Seleucid Empire (; grc, Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, ''Basileía tōn Seleukidōn'') was a Greek state in West Asia that existed during the Hellenistic period from 312 BC to 63 BC. The Seleucid Empire was founded by the ...
rule, before Sindh was traded to the Mauryan Empire led by Chandragupta in 305 BC. During the rule of the Mauryan Emperor
Ashoka Ashoka (, ; also ''Asoka''; 304 – 232 BCE), popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was the third emperor of the Maurya Empire of Indian subcontinent during to 232 BCE. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, s ...
, the
Buddhist religion Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
spread to Sindh. Mauryan rule ended in 185 BC with the overthrow of the last king by the
Shunga is a type of Japanese erotic art typically executed as a kind of ukiyo-e, often in woodblock print format. While rare, there are also extant erotic painted handscrolls which predate ukiyo-e. Translated literally, the Japanese word ''shunga' ...
Dynasty. In the disorder that followed, Greek rule returned when
Demetrius I of Bactria Demetrius I Anicetus ( grc, Δημήτριος Ἀνίκητος, Dēmētrios Anikētos, "the unconquered"), also called Damaytra was a Greco-Bactrian and later Indo-Greek king (Yona in Pali language, "Yavana" in Sanskrit) (reigned c. 200–167 ...
led a
Greco-Bactrian The Bactrian Kingdom, known to historians as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom or simply Greco-Bactria, was a Hellenistic-era Greek state, and along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world in Central Asia and the India ...
invasion of India and annexed most of the northwestern lands, including Sindh. Demetrius was later defeated and killed by a usurper, but his descendants continued to rule Sindh and other lands as the
Indo-Greek Kingdom The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent (p ...
. Under the reign of
Menander I Menander I Soter ( grc, Μένανδρος Σωτήρ, Ménandros Sōtḗr, Menander the Saviour; pi, मिलिन्दो, Milinda), was a Greco-Bactrian and later Indo-Greek King (reigned c.165/155Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectivel ...
, many Indo-Greeks followed his example and converted to Buddhism. In the late second century BC,
Scythian The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...
tribes shattered the Greco-Bactrian empire and invaded the Indo-Greek lands. Unable to take the
Punjab region Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
, they invaded South Asia through Sindh, where they became known as
Indo-Scythians Indo-Scythians (also called Indo-Sakas) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples of Scythian origin who migrated from Central Asia southward into modern day Pakistan and Northwestern India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th centu ...
(later
Western Satraps The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...
). By the first century AD, the Kushan Empire annexed Sindh. Kushans under
Kanishka Kanishka I (Sanskrit: कनिष्क, '; Greco-Bactrian: Κανηϸκε ''Kanēške''; Kharosthi: 𐨐𐨞𐨁𐨮𐨿𐨐 '; Brahmi: '), or Kanishka, was an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, under whose reign (c. 127–150 CE) the empire ...
were great patrons of Buddhism and sponsored many building projects for local beliefs.
Ahirs Ahir or Aheer are a community of traditionally non-elite pastoralists in India, most members of which identify as being of the Indian Yadav community because they consider the two terms to be synonymous. The Ahirs are variously described as a ...
were also found in large numbers in Sindh. Abiria country of Abhira tribe was in southern Sindh. The Kushan Empire was defeated in the mid-3rd century AD by the Sassanid Empire of Persia, who installed vassals known as the
Kushanshahs Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (also called Kushanshas, Kushanshahs, KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ ''or Koshano Shao'' in Bactrian language, Bactrian, or Indo-Sasanians) is a historiographic term used by modern scholars to refer to a branch of the Sasanian Persians ...
in these far eastern territories. These rulers were defeated by the Kidarites in the late fourth century. It then came under the
Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...
after dealing with the Kidarites. By the late fifth century, attacks by Hephthalite tribes known as the Indo-Hephthalites or ''Hunas'' (
Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...
) broke through the Gupta Empire's northwestern borders and overran much of northwestern India. Afterwards, Sindh came under the rule of Emperor
Harshavardhan Harshavardhana (IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyava ...
, then the
Rai Dynasty The Rai dynasty (c. 489–632 CE) was a polity of ancient Sindh. Scholarship Pre-Islamic Sindh has been the subject of voluminous scholarship concerning the eve of Arab conquests; otherwise, the paucity of source materials remains a severe hi ...
around 478. The Rais were overthrown by Chachar of Alor around 632. The Brahman dynasty ruled a vast territory that stretched from
Multan Multan (; ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan, on the bank of the Chenab River. Multan is Pakistan's seventh largest city as per the 2017 census, and the major cultural, religious and economic centre of southern Punjab. Multan is one of the old ...
in the north to the
Rann of Kutch The Rann of Kutch (alternately spelled as Kuchchh) is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located in Gujarat (primarily the Kutch district), India, and in Sindh, Pakistan. It is divided into ...
, Alor was their capital.


Arrival of Islam

The connection between the Sindh and Islam was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the Rashidun Caliphate. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year AD 649, was an early partisan of
Ali ibn Abu Talib ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
.MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in the
Battle of Camel The Battle of the Camel, also known as the Battle of Jamel or the Battle of Basra, took place outside of Basra, Iraq, in 36 AH (656 CE). The battle was fought between the army of the fourth caliph Ali, on one side, and the rebel army led by ...
and died fighting for
Ali ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam ...
. Under the Umayyads (661 – 750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees. Muhammad Ali Jinnah claimed that the
Pakistan movement The Pakistan Movement ( ur, , translit=Teḥrīk-e-Pākistān) was a political movement in the first half of the 20th century that aimed for the creation of Pakistan from the Muslim-majority areas of British India. It was connected to the per ...
started when the first Muslim put his foot on the soil of Sindh, which he labelled the "Gateway of Islam" in India. In 712, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley, bringing
South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth descr ...
n societies into contact with Islam. Raja Dahir Sen was a Hindu king that ruled over a
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
majority and that Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist
Rai Dynasty The Rai dynasty (c. 489–632 CE) was a polity of ancient Sindh. Scholarship Pre-Islamic Sindh has been the subject of voluminous scholarship concerning the eve of Arab conquests; otherwise, the paucity of source materials remains a severe hi ...
,Nicholas F. Gier, ''FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES'', presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 200

Retrieved 11 December 2006. a view questioned by those who note the diffuse and blurred nature of Hindu and Buddhist practices in the region, especially that of the royalty to be patrons of both and those who believe that Chach may have been a Buddhist. The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated
Raja Dahir Raja Dahiraud (; ''Raja Dahiraud ''; 663 – 712 CE) was the last Hindu ruler of Sindh in present-day Pakistan. In 711 CE his kingdom was invaded by the Umayyad Caliphate led by Muhammad bin Qasim where Dahiraud died while defending his ki ...
in alliance with the Hindu Jats and other regional governors. In 711 AD, Muhammad bin Qasim led an
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
force of 20,000 cavalry and 5 catapults. Muhammad bin Qasim defeated the
Raja Dahir Raja Dahiraud (; ''Raja Dahiraud ''; 663 – 712 CE) was the last Hindu ruler of Sindh in present-day Pakistan. In 711 CE his kingdom was invaded by the Umayyad Caliphate led by Muhammad bin Qasim where Dahiraud died while defending his ki ...
and captured the cities of Alor, Multan and
Debal Debal (Urdu, Arabic, sd, ) was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, and later Thatta. Etymology In Arabic history books, most notably in the early ...
. Sindh became the easternmost State of the
Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by th ...
and was referred to as "Sind" on Arab maps, with lands further east known as "Hind". Muhammad bin Qasim built the city of Mansura as his capital; the city then produced famous historical figures such as Abu Mashar Sindhi, Abu Ata al-Sindhi,
Abu Raja Sindhi Abu Raja Al-Sindi(Arabic)ابو راجه السندي (d. 321 AH/d. 10th century AD) was an Arabic scholar of Sindhi origin in what is now Pakistan. He specialised in the study of Quran, Hadith and Arab literature. He was also a teacher of Arab ...
. At the port city of
Debal Debal (Urdu, Arabic, sd, ) was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, and later Thatta. Etymology In Arabic history books, most notably in the early ...
, most of the
Bawarij Bawarij ( sd, باوارج) were Sindhi pirates from Sindh named for their distinctive ''barja'' warships. They looted Arab shipping bound for the Indian subcontinent and China, but entirely converted to Islam during the rule of the Samma Dynasty ...
embraced Islam and became known as Sindhi Sailors, who were renowned for their navigation, geography and languages. After Bin Qasim left, the Arab
Caliphate A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
ruled Sindh through the
Governors A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
. By the year 750,
Debal Debal (Urdu, Arabic, sd, ) was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, and later Thatta. Etymology In Arabic history books, most notably in the early ...
(modern
Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...
) was second only to
Basra Basra ( ar, ٱلْبَصْرَة, al-Baṣrah) is an Iraqi city located on the Shatt al-Arab. It had an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2018. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is han ...
; Sindhi sailors from the port city of Debal voyaged to Basra,
Bushehr Bushehr, Booshehr or Bushire ( fa, بوشهر ; also romanised as ''Būshehr'', ''Bouchehr'', ''Buschir'' and ''Busehr''), also known as Bandar Bushehr ( fa, ; also romanised as ''Bandar Būshehr'' and ''Bandar-e Būshehr''), previously Antio ...
,
Musqat Muscat ( ar, مَسْقَط, ) is the capital and most populated city in Oman. It is the seat of the Governorate of Muscat. According to the National Centre for Statistics and Information (NCSI), the total population of Muscat Governorate was ...
, Aden,
Kilwa Kilwa Kisiwani (English: ''Kilwa Island'') is an island, national historic site, and hamlet community located in the township of Kilwa Masoko, the district seat of Kilwa District in the Tanzanian region of Lindi Region in southern Tanzania. K ...
,
Zanzibar Zanzibar (; ; ) is an insular semi-autonomous province which united with Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. It is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islan ...
,
Sofala Sofala, at present known as Nova Sofala, used to be the chief seaport of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom, whose capital was at Mount Fura. It is located on the Sofala Bank in Sofala Province of Mozambique. It was founded by Somali merchants. This name w ...
, Malabar, Sri Lanka and
Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mos ...
(where Sindhi merchants were known as the
Santri In Indonesia, ''santri'' is a term for someone who follows Islamic religious education in ''pesantren'' (Islamic boarding schools). Santri usually stay in the place until their education is complete. After completing their study period, some of ...
). During the Decline of the Abbasid Caliphate in 860s, the
Habbari dynasty The Habbari (, Sindhi: حباري خاندان) were an Arab dynasty that ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent ''emirate'' from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became sem ...
became semi-independent and was eliminated and Mansura was invaded by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi. Sindh then again became an easternmost client State of the Later Abbasid Caliphs ruled by the
Soomro Dynasty The Soomra (or Soomro) dynasty (, '' lit.'' the family/dynasty of the Soomras) was a late medieval dynasty of Sindh, and at times adjacent regions, located in what is now Pakistan. Sources The only contemporary literary source remains the ...
until the
siege of Baghdad (1258) The siege of Baghdad was a siege that took place in Baghdad in 1258, lasting for 13 days from January 29, 1258 until February 10, 1258. The siege, laid by Ilkhanate Mongol forces and allied troops, involved the investment, capture, and sack of ...
. Mansura was the first capital of the
Soomra Dynasty The Soomra (or Soomro) dynasty (, '' lit.'' the family/dynasty of the Soomras) was a late medieval dynasty of Sindh, and at times adjacent regions, located in what is now Pakistan. Sources The only contemporary literary source remains the ' ...
and the last of the Habbari dynasty. Muslim geographers, historians and travelers such as
al-Masudi Al-Mas'udi ( ar, أَبُو ٱلْحَسَن عَلِيّ ٱبْن ٱلْحُسَيْن ٱبْن عَلِيّ ٱلْمَسْعُودِيّ, '; –956) was an Arab historian, geographer and traveler. He is sometimes referred to as the "Herodotus ...
,
Ibn Hawqal Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal (), also known as Abū al-Qāsim b. ʻAlī Ibn Ḥawqal al-Naṣībī, born in Nisibis, Upper Mesopotamia; was a 10th-century Arab Muslim writer, geographer, and chronicler who travelled during the ye ...
,
Istakhri Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Farisi al-Istakhri () (also ''Estakhri'', fa, استخری, i.e. from the Iranian city of Istakhr, b. - d. 346 AH/AD 957) was a 10th-century travel-author and geographer who wrote valuable accounts in Arab ...
,
Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi Abu Zayd Ahmed ibn Sahl Balkhi ( fa, ابو زید احمد بن سهل بلخی) was a Persian Muslim polymath: a geographer, mathematician, physician, psychologist and scientist. Born in 850 CE in Shamistiyan, in the province of Balkh, Greater ...
, al-Tabari,
Baladhuri ʾAḥmad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Jābir al-Balādhurī ( ar, أحمد بن يحيى بن جابر البلاذري) was a 9th-century Muslim historian. One of the eminent Middle Eastern historians of his age, he spent most of his life in Baghdad and e ...
, Nizami,
al-Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 – after 1050) commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian in scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Co ...
,
Saadi Shirazi Saadi Shīrāzī ( fa, ابومحمّد مصلح‌الدین بن عبدالله شیرازی), better known by his pen name Saadi (; fa, سعدی, , ), also known as Sadi of Shiraz (, ''Saʿdī Shīrāzī''; born 1210; died 1291 or 1292), was ...
,
Ibn Battutah Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim wor ...
and Katip Çelebi wrote about or visited the region, sometimes using the name "Sindh" for the entire area from the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel ...
to the
Hindu Kush The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and western Afghanistan, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Province ...
.


Soomra dynasty period

When Sindh was under the
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
Caliphate A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
, the Arab
Habbari dynasty The Habbari (, Sindhi: حباري خاندان) were an Arab dynasty that ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent ''emirate'' from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854 CE, the region became sem ...
was in control. The Umayyads appointed Aziz al Habbari as the governor of Sindh. Habbaris ruled Sindh until Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated the Habbaris in 1024. Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi viewed the
Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
to be the caliphs thus he removed the remaining influence of the
Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by th ...
in the region and Sindh fell to Abbasid control following the defeat of the Habbaris. The Abbasid Caliphate then appointed Al Khafif from Samarra; 'Soomro' means 'of Samarra' in Sindhi. The new governor of Sindh was to create a better, stronger and stable government. Once he became the governor, he allotted several key positions to his family and friends; thus Al-Khafif or Sardar Khafif Soomro formed the
Soomro Dynasty The Soomra (or Soomro) dynasty (, '' lit.'' the family/dynasty of the Soomras) was a late medieval dynasty of Sindh, and at times adjacent regions, located in what is now Pakistan. Sources The only contemporary literary source remains the ...
in Sindh; and became its first ruler. Until the
siege of Baghdad (1258) The siege of Baghdad was a siege that took place in Baghdad in 1258, lasting for 13 days from January 29, 1258 until February 10, 1258. The siege, laid by Ilkhanate Mongol forces and allied troops, involved the investment, capture, and sack of ...
, the Soomro dynasty was the Abbasid Caliphate's functionary in Sindh, but after that it became independent. When the
Soomro dynasty The Soomra (or Soomro) dynasty (, '' lit.'' the family/dynasty of the Soomras) was a late medieval dynasty of Sindh, and at times adjacent regions, located in what is now Pakistan. Sources The only contemporary literary source remains the ...
lost ties with the Abbasid Caliphate after the siege of Baghdad, the Soomra ruler Dodo-I established their rule from the shores of the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel ...
to the
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
in the north and in the east to
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern s ...
and in the west to Pakistani
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
. The
Soomro Soomro ( sd, سومرو, सूमरो) or Soomra or Sumrah is a tribe having a local origin in Sindh who had later claimed to being either Rajputs or Arabs. They are found in Sindh, parts of Punjab especially bordering Sindh, Balochistan provi ...
s were one of the first indigenous Muslim dynasties in Sindh of
Parmar Parmar is a Rajput clan found in Northern and Central India, especially in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Kutch, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and North Maharashtra. See also * Paramara Dynasty * Panwar Dynasty * Pawar * Pan ...
Rajput Rajput (from Sanskrit ''raja-putra'' 'son of a king') is a large multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Ra ...
origin. They were the first Muslims to translate the
Quran The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
into the
Sindhi language Sindhi ( ; , ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh, where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language, withou ...
. The Soomros created a chivalrous culture in Sindh, which eventually facilitated their rule centred at Mansura. It was later abandoned due to changes in the course of the Puran River; they ruled for the next 95 years until 1351. During this period, Kutch was ruled by the
Samma Dynasty The Samma dynasty ( sd, سمن جو راڄ, ) was a medieval Sindhi dynasty in the Indian subcontinent, that ruled Sindh, as well as parts of Kutch, Punjab and Balochistan from 1351 to 1524 CE, with their capital at Thatta known as Sa ...
, who enjoyed good relations with the Soomras in Sindh. Since the
Soomro Dynasty The Soomra (or Soomro) dynasty (, '' lit.'' the family/dynasty of the Soomras) was a late medieval dynasty of Sindh, and at times adjacent regions, located in what is now Pakistan. Sources The only contemporary literary source remains the ...
lost its support from the Abbasid Caliphate, the Sultans of
Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders ...
wanted a piece of Sindh. The Soomros successfully defended their kingdom for about 36 years, but their dynasties soon fell to the might of the Sultanate of Delhi's massive armies such as the Tughluks and the Khaljis.


Samma dynasty period

In 1339 Jam Unar founded a Sindhi
Muslim Rajput Muslim Rajputs are the descendants of Rajputs of Northern regions of the Indian subcontinent who are followers of Islam. They converted from Hinduism to Islam from the medieval period in India onwards, retaining historically Hindu surnames suc ...
Samma Dynasty The Samma dynasty ( sd, سمن جو راڄ, ) was a medieval Sindhi dynasty in the Indian subcontinent, that ruled Sindh, as well as parts of Kutch, Punjab and Balochistan from 1351 to 1524 CE, with their capital at Thatta known as Sa ...
and challenged the Sultans of Delhi. He used the title of the ''Sultan of Sindh''. The Samma tribe reached its peak during the reign of
Jam Nizamuddin II Jám Nizámuddín II ( sd, ڄام نظام الدين ثاني, ur, جام نظام الدين ثاني; 1439–1509), also known as Jam Nizam al-Din or Jám Nindó ( sd, ڄام نندو, links=no), was the Sultan of Sindh between 1461 and 1508 ...
(also known by the nickname Jám Nindó). During his reign from 1461 to 1509, Nindó greatly expanded the new capital of
Thatta Thatta ( sd, ٺٽو; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and ...
and its
Makli Makli Necropolis ( ur, ; sd, مڪلي جو مقام) is one of the largest funerary sites in the world, spread over an area of 10 kilometres near the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The site houses approximately 500,000 to ...
hills, which replaced
Debal Debal (Urdu, Arabic, sd, ) was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, and later Thatta. Etymology In Arabic history books, most notably in the early ...
. He patronized Sindhi art, architecture and culture. The Samma had left behind a popular legacy especially in architecture, music and art. Important court figures included the poet Kazi Kadal,
Sardar Darya Khan Mubarak Khan Lashari or more popular as Darya Khan Lashari ( sd, دريا خان لاشاری ), was a famous general of Samma Dynasty of Sindh, a powerful statesman and regent at the court of Samma ruler Jam Feroz According to other sources ...
, Moltus Khan, Makhdoom Bilawal and the
theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
Kazi Kaadan. However, Thatta was a port city; unlike garrison towns, it could not mobilize large armies against the
Arghun Arghun Khan (Mongolian Cyrillic: ''Аргун хан''; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a dev ...
and Tarkhan
Mongol The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
invaders, who killed many regional Sindhi Mirs and
Amir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
s loyal to the Samma. Some parts of Sindh still remained under the Sultans of Delhi and the ruthless Arghuns and the
Tarkhan Tarkhan ( otk, 𐱃𐰺𐰴𐰣, Tarqan, mn, or ; fa, ترخان; ; ar , طرخان; alternative spellings ''Tarkan'', ''Tarkhaan'', ''Tarqan'', ''Tarchan'', ''Turxan'', ''Tarcan'', ''Turgan, Tárkány, Tarján'') is an ancient Central Asia ...
s sacked Thatta during the rule of Jam Ferozudin.


Migration of Baloch

According to Dr. Akhtar Baloch,
Professor Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin as a "person who professes". Professors ...
at
University of Karachi The University of Karachi ( sd, ; informally Karachi University, KU, or UoK) is a public research university located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Established in June 1951 by an act of Parliament and as a successor to the University of Sindh (wh ...
, and Nadeem Wagan,
General Manager A general manager (GM) is an executive who has overall responsibility for managing both the revenue and cost elements of a company's income statement, known as profit & loss (P&L) responsibility. A general manager usually oversees most or all of ...
at HANDS, the Balochi migrated from
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
during the Little Ice Age and settled in Sindh and
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
. The Little Ice Age is conventionally defined as a period extending from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, (noted in Grove 2004:4). or alternatively, from about 1300Miller ''et al''. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" ''Geophysical Research Letters'' 39, 31 January
abstract (formerly on AGU website)
(accessed via wayback machine 11 July 2015); se
press release on AGU website
(accessed 11 July 2015). to about 1850.Grove, J.M., ''Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern,'' Routledge, London (2 volumes) 2004.Matthews, J.A. and Briffa, K.R.
"The 'Little Ice Age': re-evaluation of an evolving concept"
''Geogr. Ann., 87,'' A (1), pp. 17–36 (2005). Retrieved 17 July 2015. According to Professor Baloch, the climate of Balochistan was very cold during this epoch and the region was uninhabitable during the winters so the Baloch people emigrated in waves to Sindh and Punjab.


Mughal era

In the year 1524, the few remaining Sindhi
Amirs Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cerem ...
welcomed the
Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...
and Babur dispatched his forces to rally the Arghuns and the Tarkhans, branches of a Turkic dynasty. In the coming centuries, Sindh became a region loyal to the Mughals, a network of forts manned by cavalry and musketeers further extended Mughal power in Sindh. In 1540 a mutiny by
Sher Shah Suri Sher Shah Suri ( ps, شیرشاه سوری) (1472, or 1486 – 22 May 1545), born Farīd Khān ( ps, فرید خان) , was the founder of the Sur Empire in India, with its capital in Sasaram in modern-day Bihar. He standardized the silver coin ...
forced the Mughal Emperor
Humayun Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad ( fa, ) (; 6 March 1508 – 27 January 1556), better known by his regnal name, Humāyūn; (), was the second emperor of the Mughal Empire, who ruled over territory in what is now Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northe ...
to withdraw to Sindh, where he joined the Sindhi
Emir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
Hussein Umrani. In 1541
Humayun Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad ( fa, ) (; 6 March 1508 – 27 January 1556), better known by his regnal name, Humāyūn; (), was the second emperor of the Mughal Empire, who ruled over territory in what is now Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Northe ...
married
Hamida Banu Begum Hamida Banu Begum ( 1527 – 29 August 1604), was the queen consort of the second Mughal emperor Humayun and the mother of his successor, the third Mughal emperor Akbar.Akbar at Umarkot in the year 1542. During the reign of Akbar the Great, Sindh produced scholars and others such as
Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi (d.1588) was born in Thatta, Sindh. He was among the well respected and well traveled Muslim scholars at the court of Mughal Emperor Akbar. He was the son of a Qazi (Kazi) in Thatta. During his early life he was in a ...
,
Tahir Muhammad Thattvi Mir Tahir Muhammad Ibn Hassan Sabzavari Tattavi was a Sindhi Muslim poet and historian during the rule of the Mughal Empire, who composed poetry under the pen-name ''Nisyani''. His family emigrated to Thatta, Sindh from Iran. His original ancestr ...
and Mir Ali Sir Thattvi and the Mughal chronicler Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak and his brother the poet
Faizi Abu al-Faiz ibn Mubarak, popularly known by his pen-name, Faizi (20 September 1547 – 15 October 1595) was a poet and scholar of late medieval India whose ancestors ''Malik-ush-Shu'ara'' (poet laureate) of Akbar's Court. Blochmann, H. (tr.) (19 ...
was a descendant of a Sindhi Shaikh family from Rel, Siwistan in Sindh. Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak was the author of ''
Akbarnama The ''Akbarnama'', which translates to ''Book of Akbar'', the official chronicle of the reign of Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor (), commissioned by Akbar himself and written by his court historian and biographer, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak. It was w ...
'' (an official biographical account of Akbar) and the '' Ain-i-Akbari'' (a detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire). Shah Jahan carved a subah (imperial province), covering Sindh, called
Thatta Thatta ( sd, ٺٽو; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and ...
after its capital, out of
Multan Multan (; ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan, on the bank of the Chenab River. Multan is Pakistan's seventh largest city as per the 2017 census, and the major cultural, religious and economic centre of southern Punjab. Multan is one of the old ...
, further bordering on the Ajmer and Gujarat subahs as well as the rival Persian Safavid empire. During the Kalhora period, Sindhi literature began to flourish and historical figures such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sulatn-al-Aoliya Muhammad Zaman and
Sachal Sarmast Sachal Sarmast or Sacho Sarmast ( sd, سچو سرمست (1739–1827), born Abdul Wahab Farooqi ( ur, عبد الوہاب فاروقی) was a prominent and a legendary Sindhi Sufi poet from Sindh (Mehran) in modern-day Pakistan. Biography Sach ...
became prominent throughout the land. In 1603 Shah Jahan visited the State of Sindh; at
Thatta Thatta ( sd, ٺٽو; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and ...
, he was generously welcomed by the locals after the death of his father Jahangir. Shah Jahan ordered the construction of the Shahjahan Mosque, which was completed during the early years of his rule under the supervision of
Mirza Ghazi Beg Mirza Ghazi Beg Tarkhan ( fa, میرزا غازى بیگ ترخان, r. 1599–1612 CE) of the Tarkhan dynasty in Sindh ruled from the capital city of Thatta. He was the most powerful Mughal governor who administered Sindh, during whose rule the ...
. During his reign, in 1659 in the Mughal Empire, Muhammad Salih Tahtawi of Thatta created a
seamless Seamless may refer to: * Seamless (company), an online food ordering company * "Seamless", a 2015 song by Sabrina Carpenter from '' Eyes Wide Open'' * "Seamless", a song by American Head Charge from the 1999 album ''Trepanation'' and the 2001 alb ...
celestial globe Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated. Th ...
with Arabic and Persian inscriptions using a wax casting method. Sindh was home to several wealthy merchant-rulers such as Mir Bejar of Sindh, whose great wealth had attracted the close ties with the Sultan bin Ahmad of
Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
.


Kalhora Nawabs dynasty

In the year 1701, the Kalhora Nawabs were authorized in a firman by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to administer subah Sindh. From 1752 to 1762,
Marathas The Marathi people ( Marathi: मराठी लोक) or Marathis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are indigenous to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language. Maharashtra was formed as a ...
collected
Chauth Chauth (from Sanskrit, meaning ''one fourth'') was a regular tax or tribute imposed from the early 18th century by the Maratha Empire in the Indian subcontinent. It was an annual tax nominally levied at 25% on revenue or produce, hence the name, ...
or tributes from Sindh, and was administered by 10,000 marathas Maratha power was decimated in the entire region after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. In 1762,
Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro (died 1772) sd, ميان غلام شاه ڪلهوڙو ) was the ruler of the Kalhora Dynasty from 1758 when he was appointed ruler of Sindh by tribal Chiefs of Kalhora replacing his brother Mian Muradyab Kalhoro. He was ...
brought stability in Sindh, he reorganized and killed all the
Maratha The Marathi people ( Marathi: मराठी लोक) or Marathis are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are indigenous to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language. Maharashtra was formed as ...
s and their prominent vassal the ''Rao of Kuch'' in the
Thar Desert The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, a ...
with the help of Durrani empire. However the Marathas briefly again invaded Sindh in 1772.


Sikh empire

After the Sikhs annexed
Multan Multan (; ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan, on the bank of the Chenab River. Multan is Pakistan's seventh largest city as per the 2017 census, and the major cultural, religious and economic centre of southern Punjab. Multan is one of the old ...
, the
Kalhora Dynasty The Kalhora dynasty ( sd, ڪلهوڙا راڄ, translit=Kalhora Raj) was a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Sindhi Kalhora origin based in the region of Sindh in what is now Pakistan. They claimed an Arab origin. The dynasty ruled Sindh and parts of the P ...
supported counterattacks against the Sikhs and defined their borders. In 1783 a firman was issued which designated Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur as the new ''
Nawab Nawab ( Balochi: نواب; ar, نواب; bn, নবাব/নওয়াব; hi, नवाब; Punjabi : ਨਵਾਬ; Persian, Punjabi , Sindhi, Urdu: ), also spelled Nawaab, Navaab, Navab, Nowab, Nabob, Nawaabshah, Nawabshah or Nobab, ...
of Sindh'', and mediated peace particularly after the Battle of Halani and the defeat of the ruling Kalhora by the Talpur Baloch tribes.


Talpurs

The
Talpur dynasty The Talpur dynasty ( sd, ٽالپردور) were rulers based in Sindh. Four branches of the dynasty were established following the defeat of the Kalhora dynasty at the Battle of Halani in 1783: one ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad, ...
was established by members of the
Talpur Talpur (, bal, تالپورء اۏبادگ) is a Saraiki-speaking Baloch sub-clan of the Hoth tribe settled in Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan in Pakistan. The tribe established the Talpur dynasty, which ruled between 1783 and 1843, while a bran ...
tribe. The
Talpur Talpur (, bal, تالپورء اۏبادگ) is a Saraiki-speaking Baloch sub-clan of the Hoth tribe settled in Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan in Pakistan. The tribe established the Talpur dynasty, which ruled between 1783 and 1843, while a bran ...
tribes migrated from Dera Ghazi Khan in Punjab to Sindh on the invitation of Kalhora to help them organize unruly Baloch tribes living in Sindh. Talpurs, who learned the Sindhi language, settled in northern Sindh. Very soon they united all the Baloch tribes of Sindh and formed a confederacy against the Kalhora Dynasty. Four branches of the dynasty were established following the defeat of the
Kalhora dynasty The Kalhora dynasty ( sd, ڪلهوڙا راڄ, translit=Kalhora Raj) was a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Sindhi Kalhora origin based in the region of Sindh in what is now Pakistan. They claimed an Arab origin. The dynasty ruled Sindh and parts of the P ...
at the Battle of Halani in 1743: one ruled lower Sindh from the city of
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...
, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of
Khairpur Khairpur( Sindhi and ur, ) is a city and the capital of the Khairpur District, in Pakistan's Sindh province. History The Talpur dynasty was established in 1783 by Mir Fateh Ali Khan, who declared himself the first ''Rais'', or ruler of Sindh ...
, a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas, and a fourth was based in
Tando Muhammad Khan Tando Muhammad Khan ( sd, ٽنڊو محمد خان; ur, ) is a city and headquarter of the Tando Muhammad Khan District located in Sindh, Pakistan. Is is named after Mir Muhammad Khan Talpur Shahwani. It is the 95th largest city of Pakistan, ...
. The Talpurs were ethnically Baloch, and
Shia Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, mo ...
by faith. They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the forces of the
East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and South ...
at the
Battle of Miani The Battle of Miani (or Battle of Meeanee, ) was a battle between forces of the Bombay Army of the East India Company, under the command of Charles Napier and the Baluch army of Talpur Amirs of Sindh, led by Mir Nasir Khan Talpur. The battle ...
and Dubbo. The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during the period colonial rule as the princely state of Khairpur, whose ruler elected to join the new
Dominion of Pakistan Between 14 August 1947 and 23 March 1956, Pakistan was an independent federal dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations, created by the passing of the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British parliament, which also created the Dominion of ...
in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated in the
West Pakistan West Pakistan ( ur, , translit=Mag̱ẖribī Pākistān, ; bn, পশ্চিম পাকিস্তান, translit=Pôścim Pakistan) was one of the two Provincial exclaves created during the One Unit Scheme in 1955 in Pakistan. It was ...
in 1955.


Modern period (1800–present)


Colonial period

In 1802, when Mir Ghulam Ali Khan Talpur succeeded as the Talpur
Nawab Nawab ( Balochi: نواب; ar, نواب; bn, নবাব/নওয়াব; hi, नवाब; Punjabi : ਨਵਾਬ; Persian, Punjabi , Sindhi, Urdu: ), also spelled Nawaab, Navaab, Navab, Nowab, Nabob, Nawaabshah, Nawabshah or Nobab, ...
, internal tensions broke out in the state. As a result, the following year the
Maratha Empire The Maratha Empire, also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, was an early modern Indian confederation that came to dominate much of the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century. Maratha rule formally began in 1674 with the coronation of Sh ...
declared war on Sindh and
Berar Subah The Berar Subah was one of the Subahs (imperial first-level provinces) of the Mughal Empire, the first to be added to the original twelve, in Dakhin (Deccan, central India) from 1596 to 1724. It bordered Golconda, Ahmandagar (both conquered 1 ...
, during which Arthur Wellesley took a leading role causing much early suspicion between the
Emir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
s of Sindh and the East India Company administration. The East India Company made its first contacts in the Sindhi port city of
Thatta Thatta ( sd, ٺٽو; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and ...
, which according to a report was:
"a city as large as London containing 50,000 houses which were made of stone and mortar with large
verandah A veranda or verandah is a roofed, open-air gallery or porch, attached to the outside of a building. A veranda is often partly enclosed by a railing and frequently extends across the front and sides of the structure. Although the form ''vera ...
s some three or four stories high ... the city has 3,000 looms ... the textiles of Sindh were the flower of the whole produce of the East, the international commerce of Sindh gave it a place among that of Nations, Thatta has 400 schools and 4,000
Dhow Dhow ( ar, داو, translit=dāwa; mr, script=Latn, dāw) is the generic name of a number of traditional sailing vessels with one or more masts with settee or sometimes lateen sails, used in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean region. Typically spo ...
s at its docks, the city is guarded by well armed Sepoys".
Bengal Presidency The Bengal Presidency, officially the Presidency of Fort William and later Bengal Province, was a subdivision of the British Empire in India. At the height of its territorial jurisdiction, it covered large parts of what is now South Asia and ...
forces under General Charles James Napier arrived in Sindh in the mid-19th century and captured Sindh in February 1843. The Baloch coalition led by
Talpur Talpur (, bal, تالپورء اۏبادگ) is a Saraiki-speaking Baloch sub-clan of the Hoth tribe settled in Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan in Pakistan. The tribe established the Talpur dynasty, which ruled between 1783 and 1843, while a bran ...
under
Mir Nasir Khan Talpur Mir Nasir Khan Talpur was the last Amir of the land that included Sindh and parts of present-day Balochistan and was one of the most active administrators after the decline of the Mughal Empire. He made Hyderabad the capital of his empire and cons ...
was defeated at the
Battle of Miani The Battle of Miani (or Battle of Meeanee, ) was a battle between forces of the Bombay Army of the East India Company, under the command of Charles Napier and the Baluch army of Talpur Amirs of Sindh, led by Mir Nasir Khan Talpur. The battle ...
during which 5,000 Talpur Baloch were killed in action. Shortly afterwards, Hoshu Sheedi commanded another army at the Battle of Dubbo, where 5,000 Baloch were also killed in action. The first
Agha Khan Aga Khan ( fa, آقاخان, ar, آغا خان; also transliterated as ''Aqa Khan'' and ''Agha Khan'') is a title held by the Imām of the Nizari Ismāʿīli Shias. Since 1957, the holder of the title has been the 49th Imām, Prince Shah Karim ...
, who was escaping persecution in
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
and looking for an ally, helped the East India Company in their capture of Sindh. As a result, he was granted a lifetime pension. A British journal by Thomas Postans mentions the Sindhi
Amirs Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cerem ...
as prisoners of war: "The Amirs as being the prisoners of 'Her Majesty'... they are maintained in strict seclusion; they are described as Broken-Hearted and Miserable men, maintaining much of the dignity of fallen greatness, and without any querulous or angry complaining at this unlivable source of sorrow, refusing to be comforted". Within weeks, Charles Napier and his forces occupied Sindh. After 1853, the Company administration divided Sindh into districts and later made it part of the Bombay Presidency. In the year 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned ''Narayan Jagannath Vaidya'' to replace the
Abjad An abjad (, ar, أبجد; also abgad) is a writing system in which only consonants are represented, leaving vowel sounds to be inferred by the reader. This contrasts with other alphabets, which provide graphemes for both consonants and vowels ...
used in Sindhi, with the ''
Khudabadi script Khudabadi (देवदेन/ Devden) was a script used to write the Sindhi language, generally used by some Sindhi Hindus even in the present-day. The script originates from Khudabad, a city in Sindh, and is named after it. It is also known as ...
''. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which twelve separate periods of
martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Marti ...
were imposed by the colonial government. During the period of Company rule,the city saw the rise of nationalist leaders such as
Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi Sayyid Sibghatullah Shah Al-Rashidi II (Sindhi: صبغت الله شاهه راشدي ), Pir Pagaro the sixth, was a spiritual leader of the Hur Movement during Sindh's war for its freedom. ''Hur'' (Arabic: حر meaning "free", "not slave" ...
, who pioneered the Sindhi Muslim Hur Movement. He was hanged on 20March 1943 in
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...
, Sindh. His burial place is unknown. During the colonial period, railways, printing presses and bridges were introduced in the province. Writers like
Mirza Kalich Beg Mirza Kalich Baig ( sd, مرزا قليچ بيگ) was a scholar within Sindhi literature. He was born on 4 October 1853 in Tando Thoro on the bank of Phuleli Canal in Hyderabad, British India (presently in Pakistan). Family chronicle The live ...
compiled and traced the literary history of Sindh. Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'', 39:4, 775, the mostly Muslim peasantry was oppressed by the Hindu moneylending class and also by the landed Muslim elite. Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.Ansari, p. 77. By 1936 Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency. Elections in 1937 resulted in local Sindhi Muslim parties winning the bulk of seats. By the mid-1940s the
Muslim League Muslim League may refer to: Political parties Subcontinent ; British India *All-India Muslim League, Mohammed Ali Jinah, led the demand for the partition of India resulting in the creation of Pakistan. **Punjab Muslim League, a branch of the organ ...
gained a foothold in the province and after winning over the support of local Sufi ''pirs'', it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.


Modern period

Prior to its struggle for Pakistan during colonial period, in 1947 Sindh joined Pakistan after Muslim League's major
victory The term victory (from Latin ''victoria'') originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitutes ...
against Indian National Congress at first it was proposed that the eastern half of Sindh (Tharparkar Region or simply Thar) was to be carved out from Sindh and be given to India due to its majority Hindu population, but that plan was never made official and Sindh as a whole was acceded to Pakistan. When Sindh joined Pakistan in 1947 it comprised three polities: Karachi (Then Federal Capital of Pakistan), Sind Province (Inherited from British India) and
Khairpur Khairpur( Sindhi and ur, ) is a city and the capital of the Khairpur District, in Pakistan's Sindh province. History The Talpur dynasty was established in 1783 by Mir Fateh Ali Khan, who declared himself the first ''Rais'', or ruler of Sindh ...
(Princely State), in 1955 when One Unit Policy was implemented all of these 3 polities merged to form West Pakistan however in 1970 when One Unit Policy was abolished a single, united province of Sindh came into being with Karachi as its capital


Population


Demographics

Sindh has the second highest
Human Development Index The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index of life expectancy, education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of schooling upon entering the education system), and per capita income indicators, wh ...
out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628. The 2017 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 47.9 million. The major ethnic group of the province is the
Sindhis Sindhis ( sd, سنڌي Perso-Arabic: सिन्धी Devanagari; ) are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the province of Sindh in Pakistan. After the partition of British Indian empire in 1947, man ...
, but there is also a significant presence of other groups. Sindhis of Baloch origin make up about 30% of the total Sindhi population (although they speak Sindhi or Saraiki as their native tongue), while
Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' Muhajirs make up over 19% of the total population of the province, while Punjabi are 10% and
Pashtun Pashtuns (, , ; ps, پښتانه, ), also known as Pakhtuns or Pathans, are an Iranian ethnic group who are native to the geographic region of Pashtunistan in the present-day countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan. They were historically re ...
s represent 7%. In August 1947, before the partition of India, the total population of Sindh was 3,887,070 out of which 2,832,000 (around 73%) were Muslims, 1,015,000 (around 26%) were Hindus and the remaining were Sikhs and Jains.


Religion

Islam in Sindh has a long history, starting with the capture of Sindh by Muhammad Bin Qasim in 712 CE. Over time, the majority of the population in Sindh converted to Islam, especially in rural areas. Today, Muslims make up over 90% of the population, and are more dominant in urban than rural areas. Islam in Sindh has a strong Sufi ethos with numerous Muslim saints and mystics, such as the Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, having lived in Sindh historically. One popular legend which highlights the strong Sufi presence in Sindh is that 125,000 Sufi saints and mystics are buried on
Makli Hill Makli Necropolis ( ur, ; sd, مڪلي جو مقام) is one of the largest funerary sites in the world, spread over an area of 10 kilometres near the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The site houses approximately 500,000 to ...
near
Thatta Thatta ( sd, ٺٽو; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and ...
. The development of Sufism in Sindh was similar to the development of Sufism in other parts of the Muslim world. In the 16th century two Sufi tareeqat (orders) – Qadria and Naqshbandia – were introduced in Sindh. Sufism continues to play an important role in the daily lives of Sindhis. Sindh also has Pakistan's highest percentage of
Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
overall, which accounts 8.7% of the population, roughly around 4.2 million people, and 13.3% of the province's rural population as per 2017 Pakistani census report. These numbers also include the scheduled caste population, which stands at 1.7% of the total in Sindh (or 3.1% in rural areas), and is believed to have been under-reported, with some community members instead counted under the main Hindu category. Although, Pakistan Hindu Council claimed that there are 6,842,526 Hindus living in Sindh Province covering around 14.29% of the region's population. Umerkot district in the Thar Desert is Pakistan's only Hindu-majority district. The Shri Ramapir Temple in Tandoallahyar whose annual festival is the second largest Hindu pilgrimage in Pakistan is in Sindh. Sindh is also the only province in Pakistan to have a separate law for governing Hindu marriages. There are approximately 10,000 Sikhs in Sindh.


Languages

According to the 2017 census, the most widely spoken language in the province is Sindhi, the first language of % of the population. It is followed by
Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' Pashto Pashto (,; , ) is an Eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family. It is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani (). Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns, it is one of the two official langua ...
(%), Punjabi (%), Saraiki (%), Balochi (2%) and Hindko (). Other minority languages include Kutchi,
Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
, Aer, Bagri, Bhaya, Brahui,
Dhatki Dhatki (धाटकी; ڍاٽڪي), also known as Dhatti (धाटी; ڍاٽي) or Thari (थारी; ٿَري), is one of the Rajasthani languages of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family. Dhatki is closely related ...
, Ghera, Goaria, Gurgula, Jadgali, Jandavra, Jogi, Kabutra, Kachi Koli, Parkari Koli, Wadiyari Koli, Loarki, Marwari, Sansi, and Vaghri. Karachi city is Pakistan's most multiethnic city. Urdu-speakers form a plurality, while Pashtos are the second-largest group. Sindhis themselves are 8.1% of the population in Karachi, a number that has increased due to migration of rural Sindhis to the city for work.


Geography and nature

Sindh is in the western corner of South Asia, bordering the
Iranian plateau The Iranian plateau or Persian plateau is a geological feature in Western Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. It comprises part of the Eurasian Plate and is wedged between the Arabian Plate and the Indian Plate; situated between the Zagros ...
in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about from north to south and (extreme) or (average) from east to west, with an area of of Pakistani territory. Sindh is bounded by the
Thar Desert The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, a ...
to the east, the
Kirthar Mountains The Kirthar Mountains ( ur, كوه کھیرتھر; sd, کير ٿر جبل) are a mountain range that mark the boundary between the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan and Sindh, and which comprise much of the Kirthar National Park. The mountain ra ...
to the west and the
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel ...
and
Rann of Kutch The Rann of Kutch (alternately spelled as Kuchchh) is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located in Gujarat (primarily the Kutch district), India, and in Sindh, Pakistan. It is divided into ...
to the south. In the centre is a fertile plain along the Indus River. Sindh is divided into three main geographical regions: ''Siro'' ("upper country"), aka Upper Sindh, which is above
Sehwan Sehwan ( sd, سيوهڻ شريف, ur, ; also commonly referred to as Sehwan Sharif or ''Noble Sehwan'') is a historic city located in Jamshoro District of Sindh province in Pakistan and on the west bank of the Indus north-west of Hyderabad. The ...
; ''Vicholo'' ("middle country"), or Middle Sindh, from Sehwan to
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...
; and ''Lāṟu'' ("sloping, descending country"), or Lower Sindh, mostly consisting of the Indus Delta below Hyderabad.


Flora

The province is mostly arid with scant vegetation except for the irrigated Indus Valley. The dwarf palm, ''Acacia Rupestris'' (kher), and ''
Tecomella undulata ''Tecomella undulata'' is a tree species, locally known as rohida, found in Oman, and from southwest Iran to northwest India. It is the only species in the monotypic genus ''Tecomella''. It is a medium-sized tree that produces quality timber and ...
'' ( lohirro) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the Indus valley, the ''
Acacia nilotica ''Vachellia nilotica'', more commonly known as ''Acacia nilotica'', and by the vernacular names of gum arabic tree, babul, thorn mimosa, Egyptian acacia or thorny acacia, is a flowering tree in the family Fabaceae. It is native to Africa, the M ...
'' (babul) (babbur) is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks. The ''
Azadirachta indica ''Azadirachta indica'', commonly known as neem, nimtree or Indian lilac, is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus ''Azadirachta'', and is native to the Indian subcontinent and most of the countries in Afr ...
'' (neem) (nim), ''Zizyphys vulgaris'' (bir) (ber), ''Tamarix orientalis'' (jujuba lai) and '' Capparis aphylla'' (kirir) are among the more common trees. Mango, date palms and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the typical fruit-bearing trees. The coastal strip and the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the inshore Indus delta islands have forests of ''Avicennia tomentosa'' (timmer) and ''
Ceriops candolleana ''Ceriops tagal'', commonly known as spurred mangrove or Indian mangrove, is a mangrove tree species in the family Rhizophoraceae. It is a protected tree in South Africa. The specific epithet ' is a plant name from the Tagalog language. Descript ...
'' (chaunir) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lake and ponds, particularly in the lower Sindh region.


Fauna

Among the wild animals, the
Sindh ibex The Sindh ibex or Sindhi wild goat (''Capra aegagrus blythi'') is a vulnerable subspecies of wild goat endemic to southern Pakistan. Description Sindh ibex are rather stocky animals with thick-set bodies and strong limbs terminating in broad ...
(sareh),
blackbuck The blackbuck (''Antilope cervicapra''), also known as the Indian antelope, is an antelope native to India and Nepal. It inhabits grassy plains and lightly forested areas with perennial water sources. It stands up to high at the shoulder. Ma ...
, wild sheep (
Urial The urial ( ; ''Ovis vignei''), also known as the arkars or shapo, is a wild sheep native to Central and South Asia. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Characteristics Urial males have large horns, curling outwards from the to ...
or gadh) and
wild bear The brown bear (''Ursus arctos'') is a large bear species found across Eurasia and North America. In North America, the populations of brown bears are called grizzly bears, while the subspecies that inhabits the Kodiak Islands of Alaska is kno ...
are found in the western rocky range. The leopard is now rare and the Asiatic cheetah extinct. The Pirrang (large tiger cat or fishing cat) of the eastern desert region is also disappearing.
Deer Deer or true deer are hoofed ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups of deer are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the red deer, and the fallow deer; and the Capreolinae, including the re ...
occur in the lower rocky plains and in the eastern region, as do the Striped hyena (charakh),
jackal Jackals are medium-sized canids native to Africa and Eurasia. While the word "jackal" has historically been used for many canines of the subtribe canina, in modern use it most commonly refers to three species: the closely related black-backed ...
,
fox Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail (or ''brush''). Twelve sp ...
, porcupine, common gray mongoose and
hedgehog A hedgehog is a spiny mammal of the subfamily Erinaceinae, in the eulipotyphlan family Erinaceidae. There are seventeen species of hedgehog in five genera found throughout parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in New Zealand by introductio ...
. The Sindhi phekari, red lynx or Caracal cat, is found in some areas. Phartho (hog deer) and wild bear occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. There are bats, lizards and reptiles, including the cobra, lundi (viper) and the mysterious Sindh
krait ''Bungarus'' is a genus of venomous elapid snakes, the kraits ("krait" is pronounced , rhyming with "kite"), found in South and Southeast Asia. The genus ''Bungarus'' has 16 species. Distribution Kraits are found in tropical Asia, from near Ira ...
of the Thar region, which is supposed to suck the victim's breath in his sleep. Some unusual sightings of Asian cheetah occurred in 2003 near the
Balochistan Balochistan ( ; bal, بلۏچستان; also romanised as Baluchistan and Baluchestan) is a historical region in Western and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. ...
border in
Kirthar Mountains The Kirthar Mountains ( ur, كوه کھیرتھر; sd, کير ٿر جبل) are a mountain range that mark the boundary between the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan and Sindh, and which comprise much of the Kirthar National Park. The mountain ra ...
. The rare houbara bustard find Sindh's warm climate suitable to rest and mate. Unfortunately, it is hunted by locals and foreigners. Crocodiles are rare and inhabit only the backwaters of the Indus, eastern Nara channel and Karachi backwater. Besides a large variety of marine fish, the plumbeous dolphin, the beaked dolphin, rorqual or blue whale and skates frequent the seas along the Sindh coast. The Pallo (Sable fish), a marine fish, ascends the Indus annually from February to April to spawn. The
Indus river dolphin The Indus river dolphin (''Platanista minor''), also known as the ''bhulan'' in Urdu and Sindhi, is a species of toothed whale in the family Platanistidae. It is endemic to the Indus River Basin of Pakistan and northwestern India. This dolphin ...
is among the most endangered species in Pakistan and is found in the part of the Indus river in northern Sindh.
Hog deer ''Axis'' is a genus of deer occurring in South and Southeast Asia. As presently defined by most authorities, four species are placed in the genus. Three of the four species are called hog deer. The genus name is a word mentioned in Pliny the Eld ...
and
wild bear The brown bear (''Ursus arctos'') is a large bear species found across Eurasia and North America. In North America, the populations of brown bears are called grizzly bears, while the subspecies that inhabits the Kodiak Islands of Alaska is kno ...
occur, particularly in the central inundation belt. Although Sindh has a semi arid climate, through its coastal and riverine forests, its huge fresh water lakes and mountains and deserts, Sindh supports a large amount of varied wildlife. Due to the semi-arid climate of Sindh the left out forests support an average population of jackals and snakes. The
national parks A national park is a natural park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national governments. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individua ...
established by the Government of Pakistan in collaboration with many organizations such as
World Wide Fund for Nature The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wor ...
and Sindh Wildlife Department support a huge variety of animals and birds. The Kirthar National Park in the Kirthar range spreads over more than 3000 km2 of desert, stunted tree forests and a lake. The KNP supports
Sindh ibex The Sindh ibex or Sindhi wild goat (''Capra aegagrus blythi'') is a vulnerable subspecies of wild goat endemic to southern Pakistan. Description Sindh ibex are rather stocky animals with thick-set bodies and strong limbs terminating in broad ...
,
wild sheep ''Ovis'' is a genus of mammals, part of the Caprinae subfamily of the ruminant family Bovidae. Its seven highly sociable species are known as sheep or ovines. Domestic sheep are members of the genus, and are thought to be descended from the wil ...
(urial) and
black bear Black bear or Blackbear may refer to: Animals * American black bear (''Ursus americanus''), a North American bear species * Asian black bear (''Ursus thibetanus''), an Asian bear species Music * Black Bear (band), a Canadian First Nations group ...
along with the rare leopard. There are also occasional sightings of The Sindhi phekari, ped lynx or Caracal cat. There is a project to introduce
tiger The tiger (''Panthera tigris'') is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus ''Panthera''. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ...
s and
Asian elephant The Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus''), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is the only living species of the genus ''Elephas'' and is distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west, Nepal in the no ...
s too in KNP near the huge Hub Dam Lake. Between July and November when the
monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal osci ...
winds blow onshore from the ocean, giant
olive ridley The olive ridley sea turtle (''Lepidochelys olivacea''), also known commonly as the Pacific ridley sea turtle, is a species of turtle in the family Cheloniidae. The species is the second-smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in th ...
turtles lay their eggs along the seaward side. The turtles are protected species. After the mothers lay and leave them buried under the sands the SWD and WWF officials take the eggs and protect them until they are hatched to keep them from predators.


Climate

Sindh lies in a
tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
to subtropical region; it is hot in the summer and mild to warm in winter. Temperatures frequently rise above between May and August, and the minimum average temperature of occurs during December and January in the northern and higher elevated regions. The annual rainfall averages about seven inches, falling mainly during July and August. The southwest monsoon wind begins in mid-February and continues until the end of September, whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January. Sindh lies between the two
monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal osci ...
s—the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon, deflected towards it by the
Himalayan mountains The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
—and escapes the influence of both. The region's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice a year, caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season. Sindh is divided into three climatic regions: Siro (the upper region, centred on
Jacobabad Jacobabad ( ur, and sd, جيڪب آباد; formerly Khanger or Khangarh) is a city in Sindh, Pakistan, serving as both the capital city of Jacobabad District and the administrative center of Jacobabad Taluka, an administrative tehsil, subdi ...
), Wicholo (the middle region, centred on
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...
), and Lar (the lower region, centred on
Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...
). The
thermal equator The thermal equator (also known as "the heat equator") is a belt encircling Earth, defined by the set of locations having the highest mean annual temperature at each longitude around the globe. Because local temperatures are sensitive to the geogr ...
passes through upper Sindh, where the air is generally very dry. Central Sindh's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh. Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during the summer. Central Sindh's maximum temperature typically reaches . Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter, with lower
rainfall Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water f ...
than Central Sindh. Lower Sindh's maximum temperature reaches about . In the Kirthar range at and higher at
Gorakh Hill , native_name = , nickname = Gorakh , settlement_type = , image_skyline = Image:Gorakh hilltop.jpg , imagesize = , image_alt ...
and other peaks in
Dadu District Dadu District ( sd, ضلعو دادو), ( ur, ) is a district of Sindh Province, Pakistan. With headquarters the city of Dadu, the district was created in 1931 by merging Kotri and Mahal Kohistan (later Jamshoro) tehsils from Karachi District a ...
, temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall is received in the winters.


Major cities


Government


Sindh province

The Provincial Assembly of Sindh is a
unicameral Unicameralism (from ''uni''- "one" + Latin ''camera'' "chamber") is a type of legislature, which consists of one house or assembly, that legislates and votes as one. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multi ...
and consists of 168 seats, of which 5% are reserved for non-Muslims and 17% for women. The provincial capital of Sindh is
Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...
. The
provincial government A state government is the government that controls a subdivision of a country in a federal form of government, which shares political power with the federal or national government. A state government may have some level of political autonomy, ...
is led by
Chief Minister A chief minister is an elected or appointed head of government of – in most instances – a sub-national entity, for instance an administrative subdivision or federal constituent entity. Examples include a state (and sometimes a union terri ...
who is directly elected by the popular and landslide votes; the
Governor A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
serves as a ceremonial representative nominated and appointed by the President of Pakistan. The administrative boss of the province who is in charge of the bureaucracy is the Chief Secretary Sindh, who is appointed by the
Prime Minister of Pakistan The prime minister of Pakistan ( ur, , romanized: Wazīr ē Aʿẓam , ) is the head of government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and his chosen cabinet, despite the president of Pa ...
. Most of the influential Sindhi tribes in the province are involved in Pakistan's politics. In addition, Sindh's politics leans towards the
left-wing Left-wing politics describes the range of political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy. Left-wing politics typically involve a concern for those in soci ...
and its political culture serves as a dominant place for the left-wing spectrum in the country. The province's trend towards the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and away from the Pakistan Muslim League (N) can be seen in nationwide
general elections A general election is a political voting election where generally all or most members of a given political body are chosen. These are usually held for a nation, state, or territory's primary legislative body, and are different from by-elections ( ...
, in which Sindh is a stronghold of the PPP. The PML(N) has a limited support due to its centre-right agenda. In metropolitan cities such as
Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...
and
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...
, the MQM (another party of the left with the support of ''Muhajirs'') has a considerable vote bank and support. Minor leftist parties such as the People's Movement also found support in rural areas of the province.


Divisions

In 2008, after the public elections, the new government decided to restore the structure of Divisions of all provinces. In Sindh after the lapse of the Local Governments Bodies term in 2010 the Divisional Commissioners system was to be restored. In July 2011, following excessive violence in the city of Karachi and after the political split between the ruling PPP and the majority party in Sindh, the MQM and after the resignation of the MQM Governor of Sindh, PPP and the Government of Sindh decided to restore the commissionerate system in the province. As a consequence, the five divisions of Sindh were restored – namely Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Mirpurkhas and Larkana with their respective districts. Subsequently, two new divisions have been added in Sindh, Banbore and Nawab Shah/Shaheed Benazirabad division. Karachi district has been de-merged into its five original constituent districts:
Karachi East Karachi East District ( ur, ) is an administrative district of Karachi Division in Sindh, Pakistan. Map of Karachi Division History The district was established in 1972. The district was abolished in 2000, and was divided into four ...
,
Karachi West Karachi West District ( ur, ) is an administrative district of Karachi Division in Sindh, Pakistan. History The District was abolished in 2000 and divided into five towns namely: * Lyari Town *Kemari Town, * SITE Town, * Baldia Town ...
,
Karachi Central Karachi Central District ( ur, ) is an administrative district of Karachi Division in Sindh, Pakistan. History The District was abolished in 2000 and divided into four towns namely Liaquatabad Town, North Nazimabad Town, Gulberg Town and ...
, Karachi South and
Malir Malir Town ( sd, ملير ٽائون, ur, ) lies in the northern part of the city that was named after the Malir River. History Administrative status 2000 The federal government under introduced local government reforms in the year 2 ...
. Recently Korangi has been upgraded to the status of the sixth district of Karachi. These six districts form the Karachi Division now. In 2020, the
Kemari District Keamari District ( sd, ڪياماڙي ضلعو, ur, is an administrative district of Karachi Division in Sindh, Pakistan. History Keamari District was created after splitting Karachi West District in 2020. Demographics At the time of the 2 ...
was created after splitting
Karachi West District Karachi West District ( ur, ) is an administrative district of Karachi Division in Sindh, Pakistan. History The District was abolished in 2000 and divided into five towns namely: * Lyari Town *Kemari Town, * SITE Town, * Baldia Tow ...
. Currently the Sindh government is planning to divide the
Tharparkar district Tharparkar (Dhatki/ sd, ٿرپارڪر, ur, ), also known as Thar, is a district in Sindh province in Pakistan headquartered at Mithi. Before Indian independence it was known as the Thar and Parkar district. The district is the largest in Sin ...
into Tharparkar and Chhachro district.


Districts


Lower-level subdivisions

In Sindh,
taluka A tehsil (, also known as tahsil, taluka, or taluk) is a local unit of administrative division in some countries of South Asia. It is a subdistrict of the area within a district including the designated populated place that serves as its administr ...
s are equivalent to the
tehsil A tehsil (, also known as tahsil, taluka, or taluk) is a local unit of administrative division in some countries of South Asia. It is a subdistrict of the area within a district including the designated populated place that serves as its administ ...
s used elsewhere in the country,
supervisory tapa Supervision is an act or instance of directing, managing, or oversight. Etymology The English noun "supervision" derives from the two Latin words "super" (above) and "videre" (see, observe). Spelling The spelling is "Supervision" in Standard E ...
s correspond with the kanungo circles used elsewhere, tapas correspond with the patwar circles used in other provinces, and dehs are equivalent to the mouzas used elsewhere.


Economy


Education

The following is a chart of the education market of Sindh estimated by the government in 1998: Major public and private educational institutes in Sindh include: * Adamjee Government Science College * Aga Khan University *
APIIT The Asia Pacific Institute of Information Technology (abbreviated as APIIT) ( ur, ) is an educational organisation specializing in providing education and training programs in computing and information technology. Founded by Datuk Dr Parmjit ...
* Applied Economics Research Centre * Bahria University *
Baqai Medical University Baqai Medical University ( ur, ) is a higher education institution located on M-9, Super Highway, Karachi, Pakistan. Recognised university It was founded in 1989 and is ranked number 7 in the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan rankings ...
* Chandka Medical College Larkana * Cadet College Petaro * College of Digital Sciences *
College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan The College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan ( ur, , abbreviated as CPSP) is a regulatory college established in 1962 by a special act of the Parliament of Pakistan to oversee the postgraduate medical education and professional development. I ...
*
COMMECS Institute of Business and Emerging Sciences Commecs College ( ur, ) is a higher secondary intermediate school in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Commecs College is a not-for-profit, co-educational institution founded in 1993 by COMMECS, the alumni of the Govt. College of Commerce & Economic ...
* D. J. Science College * Dawood University of Engineering & Technology *
Defence Authority Degree College for Men Defence Authority Degree College The Defence Authority Degree College for Boys & Girls, also known as DADC, is a co-education degree college located at D.H.A., Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. DHA Degree College started functioning in the then ''SKBZ Hi ...
* Dow International Medical College *
Dow University of Health Sciences The Dow University of Health Sciences (DUHS) is a public medical university located in the Urban metropolitan area of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. It was founded by Sir Hugh Dow, the then Governor of Sindh, in 1945. The university comprises two ...
* Fatima Jinnah Dental College *
Federal Urdu University The Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology ( ur, ); alternatively known as FUUAST) is a public university primarily located at Islamabad, Pakistan. The university has two satellite campuses; the central campus is located in Is ...
* GBELS Dourai Mahar Taluka Daur Distt: Shaheed Benazirabad *
Ghulam Muhammad Mahar Medical College Sukkur Ghulam Muhammad Mahar Medical College ( غلام محمد مہر میڈیکل کالج) or GMMMC in short is the sixth public sector Medical college under the Government of Sindh where 100 meritorious students of tagged districts, including S ...
* Government College for Men Nazimabad * Government College Hyderabad * Government College of Commerce & Economics *
Government College of Technology, Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...
* Government Degree College Matiari * Government High School Ranipur *
Government Islamia Science College Sukkur Sukkur (; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh along the western bank of the Indus River, directly across from the historic city of Rohri. Sukkur is the third largest city in Sindh after Karachi and Hyderabad, and 14th largest ci ...
* Government Muslim Science College Hyderabad *
Government National College (Karachi) Government National College, Karachi is a college in Karachi, Pakistan. Government National College ( ur, ) is the biggest college of Karachi being run under one roof, with all the three faculties of science, arts and commerce up to degree leve ...
* Greenwich University (Karachi) *
Hamdard University Hamdard University ( ur, ) is a private research university with campuses in Karachi and Islamabad, Pakistan.Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry The International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), also known as the Hussain Ebrahim Jamal Research Institute of Chemistry and Dr Panjwani for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research, is a federally funded national research in ...
* Imperial Science College Nawabshah * Indus Valley Institute of Art and Architecture *
Institute of Business Administration, Karachi The Institute of Business Administration (IBA), Karachi; (انسٹيٹيوٹ آف بزنس ايڈمنسٹريشن) is a public university in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Academics Admission * * * Admission to IBA KARACHI is based on En ...
* Institute of Business Administration, Sukkar *
Institute of Business Management The Institute of Business Management (IoBM) is a private university and business school in Karachi, Pakistan. IoBM is composed of four colleges, the College of Business Management (CBM), the College of Economics and Social Development (CESD), th ...
* Institute of Industrial Electronics Engineering *
Institute of Sindhology Institute of Sindhology ( sd, سنڌولوجي) is one of the major resources on the history of Sindh. It was the first research institution of its kind, and brought Sindhology to the forefront of international research. Sindhology refers to knowl ...
*
Iqra University Iqra University, ( ur, ) is a Private University primarily with its main campus located in Defence Area of Karachi, Pakistan. It has additional campuses in other parts of the city, in Islamabad and Quetta. Iqra University was ranked as the num ...
* Islamia Science College (Karachi) * Isra University Hyderabad * Jinnah Medical & Dental College *
Jinnah Polytechnic Institute The Jinnah Polytechnic Institute (JPI) is a private polytechnic institute located in Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan. Academics Diploma of Associate Engineering (DAE) programs The college offers 3-year Diploma of Associate Engineering (DAE) progr ...
*
Jinnah Post Graduate Medical Centre The Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Centre (J.P.M.C., also known as ''Jinnah Hospital, Karachi'') is located at ''Rafiqui Shaheed Road'' in Karachi Cantonment area of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Centre In 2015, approximately ...
*
Jinnah University for Women The Jinnah University for Women (JUW) ( ur, ) is a private research university in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. It is an all-woman university and is the first women's university in the country. Established as a post-graduate college, its status as ...
* KANUPP Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering *
Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology (KIET) ( ur, ) was established in 1997. KIET received recognition by the Higher Education Commission (formerly named UGC) vide letter no. 15-22/UGC-SEC/97/1291 dated 1 August 1998. HEC ranks KIET a ...
*
Karachi School of Business and Leadership The Karachi School of Business and Leadership (KSBL) is a premier and HEC recognized independent degree awarding business school located in the heart of Karachi, Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur ...
*
Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences The Liaquat University of Medical and Health Sciences (LUMHS) ( sd, لياقت يونيورسٽي آف ميڊيڪل اينڊ هيلٿ سائنسز) is a public medical university located in Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan. Ever since it started as a ...
*
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology Mehran University of Engineering & Technology ( sd, انجنيئرڱ ۽ ٽيڪنيڀياس جي جامعہ مهراڻ) (Often referred as Mehran University or MUET) is a public research university located in Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan focuse ...
*
Mohammad Ali Jinnah University } The Mohammad Ali Jinnah University ( ur, ), abbreviated as MAJU) is a private university located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Established in 1998, the university offers undergraduate and post-graduate programs with a strong emphasis on busi ...
*
National Academy of Performing Arts The National Academy of Performing Arts ( ur, ; abbreviated as NAPA) is a performing arts school located at Hindu Gymkhana in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. NAPA was established in 2005 as an institution to conserve and teach performing arts and ...
* National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences * National University of Modern Languages *
National University of Sciences and Technology The National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST) ( ur, , Qaumī Jāmi'ā barā'e Sāins va Ṭaiknālōjī) is a multi-campus public research university having its main campus in Islamabad, Pakistan. The university offers undergraduat ...
*
NED University of Engineering and Technology The NED University of Engineering & Technology is a public university located in the urban area of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. It is one of the oldest and best engineering universities in Pakistan, acknowledged for its best teaching practices a ...
* Ojha Institute of Chest Diseases * PAF Institute of Aviation Technology * TES Public School, Daur *
Pakistan Navy Engineering College The Pakistan Navy Engineering College (PNEC), ( ur, ) also called PNS Jauhar, is a military college operated by the Pakistan Navy. Located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan, it is also a constituent college of the National University of Sciences and ...
* Pakistan Shipowners' College * Pakistan Steel Cadet College * Peoples Medical College for Girls Nawabshah * PIA Training Centre Karachi * Provincial Institute of Teachers Education Nawabshah * Public School Hyderabad *
Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology The Quaid e Awam University of Engineering, Sciences & Technology ( sd, قائد عوام یونیورسٹی آف انجینئرنگ، سائنس اینڈ ٹیکنالوجی, translit=) often referred as 'QUEST' is a public technical and resear ...
,
Nawabshah Nawabshah ( sd, نوابشاھ, ur, ) is a tehsil and headquarters of the Shaheed Benazirabad District of Sindh province, Pakistan. This city is situated in the middle of Sindh province. It is the 27th largest city in Pakistan. Nawabshah Teh ...
*
Rana Liaquat Ali Khan Government College of Home Economics The Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan Government College of Home Economics (also known as RLAK CHE) ( ur, ) is an all-girls college, established in 1952 in Karachi, province of Sindh, Pakistan. RLAK-CHE is a professional-level college offering numerous h ...
* Saint Patrick's College, Karachi *
Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai University Shah Abdul Latif University ( ur, , sd, شاه عبداللطيف يونيورسٽي; abbreviated as SALU), is a public research university located in rural Khairpur of Sindh, Pakistan. The university is named after the mystic poet and ...
*
Shaheed Benazir Bhutto Medical College Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Medical College ( ur, , or SMBBMC) is a medical school in Lyari, Karachi, Pakistan, that opened in March 2011. The Principal of the college is Dr. Anjum Rehman. The college was opened with financial support from t ...
*
Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology SZABIST is a private institute with multiple campuses in the residential and commercial areas of Pakistan especially in the heart of Pakistan, Karachi, Islamabad, and United Arab Emirates. Its main campus is located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. O ...
*
Sindh Agriculture University ) , latin_name = , image = Tandojam.JPG , caption = Sindh Agriculture University. , motto = Sustainable Agriculture for Food Security , established = March 1, 1977 , type = Public Sector Uni ...
*
Sindh Medical College Jinnah Sindh Medical University (), formerly known as ''Sindh Medical College'', is a medical university in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. It gained university status in June 2012. History Jinnah Sindh Medical University, formerly known as Sindh Med ...
* Superior College of Science Hyderabad *
Sindh Muslim Law College The Sindh Muslim Government Law College (Urdu: سنده مسلم گورنمنٹس لا کالج) or S. M. Law College (Urdu: ایس ایم لاء کالج) is one of the oldest law schools of Pakistan, situated in Karachi, Sindh. The college has ...
*
Sir Syed Government Girls College Sir Syed Government Girls College ( ur, ) is located in Nazimabad at Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Sir Syed Girls College is adjacent to 1st Chowrangi, Altaf Ali Barelvi Road, Nazimabad, Karachi and is under the supervision of Government of Sindh. ...
*
Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology ( ur, ) (known as "SSUET") is a Private university, private research university located in the urban area of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. The university is honored in the name of notable 19th-cen ...
* St. Joseph's College * Sukkur Institute of Science & Technology *
Textile Institute of Pakistan The Textile Institute of Pakistan (TIP) ( ur, ) is a private institute in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. The Institute was established by the All Pakistan Textile Mills Association (APTMA) in 1994 to create textile professionals to support Pakist ...
*
University of Karachi The University of Karachi ( sd, ; informally Karachi University, KU, or UoK) is a public research university located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Established in June 1951 by an act of Parliament and as a successor to the University of Sindh (wh ...
*
University of Sindh The University of Sindh ( ur, ; sd, سنڌ يونيورسٽي; informally known as Sindh University) is a public research university in Pakistan located in the city of Jamshoro. It is one of the oldest universities in Pakistan and was certifi ...
* Usman Institute of Technology *
Ziauddin Medical University The Ziauddin University ( ur, ); abbreviated as ZU) is a private university located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Sindh has a rich heritage of traditional handicraft that has evolved over the centuries. Perhaps the most professed exposition of Sindhi culture is in the handicrafts of Hala, a town some 30 kilometres from
Hyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...
. Hala's artisans manufacture high-quality and impressively priced wooden handicrafts, textiles, paintings, handmade paper products, and blue pottery. Lacquered wood works known as Jandi, painting on wood, tiles, and pottery known as Kashi, hand weaved textiles including ''
khadi Khadi (, ), derived from khaddar, is a hand-spun and woven natural fibre cloth promoted by Mahatma Gandhi as ''swadeshi'' (self-sufficiency) for the freedom struggle of the Indian subcontinent, and the term is used throughout India, Pakistan ...
'', ''susi'', and ''
ajrak Ajrak ( sd, اجرڪ), also known as Ajrakh, is a unique form of blockprinting found mostly in Sindh, Pakistan and Ajrakhpur, Kutch district, India. These shawls display special designs and patterns made using block printing by stamps. Over the ...
s'' are synonymous with Sindhi culture preserved in Hala's handicraft. The work of Sindhi artisans was sold in ancient markets of Damascus, Baghdad, Basra, Istanbul, Cairo and Samarkand. Referring to the lacquer work on wood locally known as Jandi, T. Posten (an English traveller who visited Sindh in the early 19th century) asserted that the articles of Hala could be compared with exquisite specimens of China. Technological improvements such as the spinning wheel ( charkha) and treadle (pai-chah) in the weaver's loom were gradually introduced and the processes of designing, dyeing and printing by block were refined. The refined, lightweight, colourful, washable fabrics from Hala became a luxury for people used to the woollens and linens of the age. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan, play an important role to promote the culture of Sindh. They provide training to women artisans in Sindh so they get a source of income. They promote their products under the name of "Crafts Forever". Many women in rural Sindh are skilled in the production of caps. Sindhi caps are manufactured commercially on a small scale at New Saeedabad and Hala New. Sindhi people began celebrating Sindhi Topi Day on 6 December 2009, to preserve the historical culture of Sindh by wearing Ajrak and Sindhi topi.


Tourism

File:Sukkur bridge hdr.jpg, Sukkur Bridge File:Gorakh Hill Morning.jpg, Gorakh Hill Station File:FaizMahal.jpg, Faiz Mahal,
Khairpur Khairpur( Sindhi and ur, ) is a city and the capital of the Khairpur District, in Pakistan's Sindh province. History The Talpur dynasty was established in 1783 by Mir Fateh Ali Khan, who declared himself the first ''Rais'', or ruler of Sindh ...
File:Rani Kort Wall & Forte View.jpg,
Ranikot Fort Ranikot Fort ( sd, راڻي ڪوٽ) (also known as Rannikot) is a historical Talpur fort near Sann, Jamshoro District, Sindh. in Pakistan .Ranikot Fort is also known as The Great Wall of Sindh and is believed to be the world's largest fort, wit ...
, one of the largest forts in the world File:PK Chaukhandi Necropolis near Karachi asv2020-02 img09.jpg,
Chaukhandi tombs The Chaukhandi ( ur, ; sd, چوڪُنڊي ) tombs form an early Islamic cemetery situated east of Karachi, Sindh province of Pakistan. The tombs are notable for their elaborate sandstone carvings. The tombs are similar in style to the elabo ...
File:Bhodesar temple, Nagarparkar.JPG, Remains of
9th century The 9th century was a period from 801 ( DCCCI) through 900 ( CM) in accordance with the Julian calendar. The Carolingian Renaissance and the Viking raids occurred within this period. In the Middle East, the House of Wisdom was founded in Abba ...
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
in Bhodesar near
Nagarparkar Nagarparkar ( ur, , sd, ننگرپارڪر), is a tehsil in at the base of the Karoonjhar Mountains in Tharparkar District in Sindh province of Pakistan. The historic Churrio Jabal Durga Mata Temple is situated here. The taluka is located at a ...
. File:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg, Excavated ruins of
Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Qasim fort File:Detail of Kot Diji Fort.jpg,
Kot Diji The ancient site at Kot Diji ( sd, ڪوٽ ڏیجي; ur, کوٹ ڈیجی) was the forerunner of the Indus Civilization. The occupation of this site is attested already at 3300 BCE. The remains consist of two parts; the citadel area on high ground ...
File:Bakirwarolake.jpg, Bakri Waro Lake, Khairpur File:PK Karachi asv2020-02 img32 National Museum.jpg,
National Museum of Pakistan The National Museum of Pakistan ( ur, ) is located in Karachi, Pakistan. History The National Museum of Pakistan was established in Frere Hall on 17 April 1950, replacing the defunct Victoria Museum. Frere Hall itself was built in 1865 as a ...
File:PK Kirthar NP asv2020-02 img18.jpg, Kirthar National Park File:Karoonjhar Mountains.jpg, alt=Karoonjhar Mountains, Tharparkar,
Karoonjhar Mountains Karoonjhar Mountains (, ) are located in south-eastern edge of the Tharparkar district in Sindh, Pakistan. The range is approximately 19 kilometers long and reaches a height of 305 meters, and contains vaste deposits of granite and Chinese ...
,
Tharparkar Tharparkar (Dhatki/ sd, ٿرپارڪر, ur, ), also known as Thar, is a district in Sindh province in Pakistan headquartered at Mithi. Before Indian independence it was known as the Thar and Parkar district. The district is the largest in Si ...
File:Shahjahan mosque.jpg,
Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta The Shah Jahan Mosque ( ur, , sd, مسجد شاهجهاني،, fa, مسجد شاه‌جهان), also known as the Jamia Masjid of Thatta ( ur, , sd, شاھجھاني مسجد ٺٽو), is a 17th-century building that serves as the central mo ...
File:Mausoleum of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai 05.jpg, Tomb of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai File:Keenjhar Lake view 1.jpg,
Keenjhar Lake Keenjhar Lake ( sd, ڪینجھر ڍنڍ) commonly called Malik Lake ( ur, کلری Malik , sd, Maik ڍنڍ ) is located in Thatta District of Sindh the province of Pakistan. It is situated about from the city of Thatta. It is the largest fre ...
File:Shrine Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Shareed, Pakistan.jpg,
Lal Shahbaz Qalandar Hazrat Sayyid Usman Marwandi, (1177 - 19 February 1274) popularly known as Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (), was a Sufi saint and poet of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. Lal Shahbaz Qalandar was born in Marwand, Sistan to a family from Baghdad ...


See also

* Arab Sind * Bagh Prints *
Brahma from Mirpur-Khas The Brahma from Mirpur Khas is a famous bronze image of Brahma made in Sindh, in modern Pakistan, dated to the 5th or 6th century, during the Gupta period. It is the earliest known metallic image of Brahma and the only known representative of t ...
*
Debal Debal (Urdu, Arabic, sd, ) was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, and later Thatta. Etymology In Arabic history books, most notably in the early ...
*
Institute of Sindhology Institute of Sindhology ( sd, سنڌولوجي) is one of the major resources on the history of Sindh. It was the first research institution of its kind, and brought Sindhology to the forefront of international research. Sindhology refers to knowl ...
* List of cities in Sindh *
List of cities in Sindh by population The following list sorts all cities in the Pakistani province of Sindh with a population of more than 500,000 according to the 2017 Census. As of March 15, 2017, 40 cities fulfill this criterion and are listed here. This list refers only to the p ...
* List of cultural heritage sites in Sindh *
List of medical schools in Sindh United Medical and Dental College, In Pakistan, a medical school is more often referred to as a medical college. A medical college is affiliated with a university as a department which usually has a separate campus. The medical schools in provin ...
*
List of districts of Pakistan The Districts of Pakistan ( ur, ); are the third-order administrative divisions of Pakistan, below provinces and divisions, but forming the first-tier of local government. In total, there are 169 districts in Pakistan including the Capital T ...
* List of Sindhi people *
Sindhi clothing Both Sindhi women and men wear the shalwar qameez or the kurta with pyjama. Women wear sari or ghagra. However, before the adoption of the Shalwar kameez and the kurta, the sari as well as other articles of clothing, Sindhis had their own traditi ...
* Provincial Highways of Sindh *
Sindh cricket team Sindh cricket team is a domestic cricket team in Pakistan representing Sindh province. It competes in domestic first-class, List A and T20 cricket competitions, namely the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy, Pakistan Cup and National T20 Cup. The team is ...
*
Mansura, Sindh Mansura ( ar, المنصورة, al-manṣūra, the triumphant ity}), referred to as Brahmanabad ( ur, برہمن آباد ; sd, برهمڻ آباد, barhamaṇabād) in later centuries, was the historic capital of the Muslim Caliphate in Sin ...
*
Mohenjodaro Mohenjo-daro (; sd, موئن جو دڙو'', ''meaning 'Mound of the Dead Men';Muhajir Sooba The Muhajir Province Movement (meaning 'Immigrant Province') is a political movement in Pakistan which seeks to represent the Muhajir people of Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakis ...
*
Sind Division The Sind Division was the name an administrative division of the British Raj located in Sindh. History The territory was annexed by the Bombay Presidency of British India on 17 February 1843, following a British Indian conquest led by then Major ...
*
Sindhu Kingdom Sindhu Kingdom or simply Sindhu was an ancient kingdom on the Indian subcontinent. It stretched the banks of river Sindhu (Indus). It was mentioned in the epic ''Mahabharata'' and in the ''Harivamsa Purana,'' often alongside the Sauvira Kingdom ...
* Sufism in Sindh *
Tomb paintings of Sindh Tomb paintings of Sindh are found mainly in the Shahdadkot tehsil of Qamber-Shahdadkot in Sindh, Pakistan. During the Kalhora period (1680–1784 AD) wall paintings became common. They often depicted folk tales, scenes from rustic life, the triba ...


References

111 Asad Umar takes charge as Chief Secretary on 5 August 2018.


Bibliography

* Ansari, Sarah F.D. (1992) ''Sufi saints and state power: the pirs of Sind, 1843–1947'', No. 50. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. . * *


External links


Sindh Transport Department official website

Government of Sindh
* Guide o
Sindh


* {{Authority control Provinces of Pakistan States and territories established in 1970 1970 establishments in Pakistan Sindhi-speaking countries and territories Populated places established in the 7th millennium BC 7th-millennium BC establishments