Sefer (book)

''Sifrei Kodesh'' ( he, ספרי קודש, , Holy books), commonly referred to as ''sefarim'' ( he, ספרים, , books), or in its singular form, ''sefer'', are books of Jewish religious literature and are viewed by religious Jews as sacred. These are generally works of Torah literature, i.e. Tanakh, Midrash, Talmud, and all works of ''halakha'', Musar, Hasidism, Kabbalah, or ''machshavah'' ("Jewish Thought"). Historically, ''sifrei kodesh'' were generally written in Hebrew with some in Judeo-Aramaic or Arabic, although in recent years, thousands of titles in other languages, most notably English, were published. An alternative spelling for 'sefarim' is ''seforim''.

Terms

The term ''Sifrei Kodesh'' is Hebrew for "Holy Books", and includes all books that are considered holy in Rabbinic Judaism. This includes all Torah literature as well as Jewish prayer books.

Among Orthodox Jews the word ''sefer'' (plural ''s'farim'') is used for books of the Tanakh (Mishnah and Talmud) or any work of rabbinic literature. Works unrelated to Torah study are rarely called ''sefer'' by English-speaking Orthodox Jews. Among Hebrew-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, the differentiation between books related to Torah study and other books is made by referring to the former with traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation (SEY-fur) and to the latter with Modern Hebrew pronunciation (SEF-fer).

The term "Torah" has two meanings. It can refer solely to the Five Books of Moses. Traditionally, it is written on a parchment scroll, known as a '' Sefer Torah'', although it is also printed in book form, known as a ''Chumash'' (and in some cases a '' tikkun''). The term "Torah" can also include the Nevi'im and Ketuvim) and rabbinic texts, and such books are therefore sometimes also referred to as "Torah literature" ( he, ספרות תורנית, Sifrut Toranit).

The Hebrew Bible, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Separately, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim are also called ''Nakh''.

Commentaries

Numerous commentaries on the Tanakh have been written and published over the last thousand years. The most notable ones are ''Targum Onkelos'', a translation of the Torah into Judeo-Aramaic, written by Onkelos; and ''Rashi'', a commentary on the entire Tanakh written by Rashi. Both are traditionally printed in the Chumash alongside the biblical text. Other commentaries that are sometimes printed alongside the text in the Chumash are commentaries by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Rabbi Shabbethai Bass (the '' Siftei Chachamim''). Commentaries traditionally printed alongside the ''Nakh'' are ''Rashi'' as well as ''Metzudat David'' and ''Metzudat Zion'' by Rabbi David Altschuler.

In addition to the classic printings of Tanakh which don't include many more commentaries than ''Rashi'' and ''Targum Onkelos'', there is the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' edition which was first published in the early sixteenth century. Commentaries in the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' on the Torah are generally those of Abraham ibn Ezra (''Sefer ha-Yashar''), Nachmanides, Rabbi Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (the ''Keli Yakar''), Chaim ibn Attar, and the translation and commentary attributed to Rabbi Jonathan ben Uzziel, known as Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, all in addition to ''Rashi'' and ''Targum Onkelos''; while commentaries on ''Nakh'' are those of Rashi, Rabbi David Altschuler, Rabbi David Kimhi, Rabbi Joseph Kara, and on some volumes, Rabbi Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno (the ''Sforno'' or ''Sepornu'').

Among the numerous commentaries of Tanakh not published in the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' are the '' Meam Loez'', ''Malbim'', '' Ha'amek Davar'', '' Torah Temimah'', and '' The Hirsch Chumash''.

Other texts in ancient times

Aside from the Bible, there were several writings of Jewish religious significance in ancient times, known today as " the outer books". There are some other writings however that most agree were written more recently that have been claimed to be older. These include the '' Sefer Yetzirah'', which some say was written by Abraham; and the Book of Enoch, which some say was written by Enoch.

Works of ''Chazal''

As stated earlier, Jewish belief is that the Pentateuch is of Mosaic authorship, meaning that it was dictated by God to Moses. Later writings, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim, were, according to tradition, written by Jewish prophets. For over a thousand years, these books, known as ''Tanakh'', were more or less the sole writings of Judaism. However, there was much material that was not written down, and instead memorized. Known as the Oral Torah, it includes over five hundreds laws learned out from Talmudical hermeneutics as well as the laws given to Moses at Sinai ( he, הלכה למשה מסיני, Halakhah leMoshe miSinai). However, circa 200 C.E., much of the Oral Torah was written down, and is known as the Mishnah (the Zohar, a book chronicling the hidden parts of the Torah, was written down as well around this time by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai). Three hundred years later the Talmud was written, expounding on the Mishnah.

Mishnah

For generations, the Oral Torah had been transmitted by word of mouth, largely with the help of the Sanhedrin, the leading Jewish authority. However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, the Sanhedrin had been uprooted and much of the Oral Torah was being forgotten. Therefore, c. 188 CE, Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi, head of the exiled Sanhedrin, compiled the Mishnah, i.e. the teachings of the Oral Torah. Since the Maccabean Revolt however, much had already been lost, which led to many disagreements among the scholars, the ''Tannaim''. Therefore, the Mishnah includes their differing opinions. As Maimonides wrote in the introduction to his ''Mishneh Torah'':

A similar project was carried out by Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba and his student Rabbi Hoshaiah, known as the Tosefta. A collection of statements not included in the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Oshiya and Bar Kappara, known as Baraitot.

Talmud

Circa 349, the Sanhedrin, exiled from Jerusalem and sitting in Tiberias, wrote the Jerusalem Talmud, a mammoth work compiling the teachings of the rabbis of the recent generations, known as '' Amoraim'', as they expounded on the Mishnah. It is largely attributed to Rabbi Yochanan. However, the Jerusalem Talmud is generally overshadowed by the Babylonian Talmud, a similar yet much larger work, compiling the teachings of the ''Amoraim'', and completed in Babylonia circa 500. The teachings were largely legalistic in nature, stating ''halakha''. There were other teachings, known as aggadah, which incorporates narratives, parables, practical advice, remedies, and insights. The Babylonian Talmud, attributed to Rav Ashi and Ravina, was first printed in 1483 by Joshua Solomon Soncino. Soncino's layout of the Talmud, with the original Talmud text in the center of the page, with the commentary of Rashi on the outer margins and the commentary of Tosafot on the inner ones, was later imitated by Christian printer Daniel Bomberg, who printed the entire Talmud between the years 1519 and 1523, and by all subsequent major printings of the Talmud. Rabbi Moshe Shapiro, rabbi of Slavuta, Ukraine and owner of a printing press, published the Slavita Shas in the early 1800s. In 1886, the Romm Publishing House in Vilnius published the Vilna Shas, which has since been reprinted and remains the classic print of the Talmud.

In the past years, there have been numerous commentaries written on the Talmud. While the most commonly referenced commentaries are those of Rashi and Tosafot, and as mentioned, are printed in the margins of the Talmud, other famous commentaries (which often are recognized as Halakhic works as well) include the '' Piskei HaRosh'', '' Shitah Mekubetzet'', ''Maharsha'' (the ''Piskei Halachot'' and ''Piskei Aggadot''), the '' Pnei Yehoshua'', the ''Mordechai'', the '' Chiddushia HaRitva'', the '' Meiri'', the Maharshal's ''Chochmas Shlomo'' and ''Yam Shel Shlomo'', the '' Meir Einei Chachmamim'', the '' Kehillos Yaakov'', the '' Shaarei Yosher'', and the '' Birkat Shmuel'', as well as many published ''shiurim'' (classes) given on the Talmud, including those of Rabbi Nochum Partzovitz (''Chiddushei Reb Nochum'' and ''Shiurei Reb Nochum''), Rabbi Shmuel Rozovsky (''Shiurei Reb Shmuel'' and ''Chiddushei Reb Shmuel''), Rabbi Reuven Grozovsky (''Chiddushei Rev Reuven''), Rabbi Elchonon Wasserman (''Kovetz Shiurim'' and ''Kovetz He'aros''), Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik (''Chiddushei HaGrach al HaShas''), Rabbi Naftoli Trop (''Chiddushei HaGranat''), and Rabbi Aryeh Leib Malin (''Chiddushei Reb Aryeh Leib'').

Kabbalah

The term Kabbalah refers to the "hidden parts of the Torah," often described as "Jewish metaphysics." Kabbalistic works show how every physical thing is a metaphor for a spiritual concept. The primary Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, was written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, a Tanna who lived in the second century, although it was lost for many years. However, it was discovered in Spain in the thirteenth century and transcribed by hand numerous times, leading to changes between the texts. Between 1558 and 1560, it was printed in Mantua based on ten different manuscripts in order to glean the correct text. A separate printing took place in Cremona around the same time, using only six manuscripts, leading to differences in the two printings.

The Zohar was largely expounded on by Rabbi Yitzchak Luria (known as the Arizal) and his teachings were summarized in the book ''Etz Chaim'' by his chief student, Rabbi Chaim Vital.

''Halakha''

Jewish law, known in Hebrew as ''Halakha'', was transcribed first in the Mishnah and later in the Talmud, with the differing opinions spread out over sixty three tractates. However, later rabbis — namely the Geonim of the Early Middle Ages, the Rishonim of the High and Late Middle Ages, and the Acharonim of modern times — wrote more conclusive works. Many of these works are responsa (''she'eilot u'teshuvot'' in Hebrew), printed questions and answers.

The Geonim, the leaders of Jewry in the Early Middle Ages primarily in Babylonia, were not prolific writers like later generations. However, among their few writings is the famed ''Sheiltot D'Rav Achai'' written by Rabbi Achai Gaon.

The Rishonim, the leading rabbis of the Middle Ages after the Geonim, have left many written Halakhic works, including the ''Piskei HaRosh'' of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel and the ''Sefer HaHalakhot'' of Rabbi Yitzchak Alfasi, both of which are often published in the back of the Talmud; and the ''Arba'ah Turim'', also known as the ''Tur'', of Rabbi Yaakov ben Asher, a four volume work written in attempt to organize Jewish law.

Rambam

Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, known as Maimonides or as the Rambam, was a Rishon who lived in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt in the second half of the twelfth century. The author of several books, his most famous is a halakhic work, ''Mishneh Torah'', also known as the ''Yad HaChazakah'' or simply as the ''Rambam'', which is fourteen volumes long. Although when it was first written, ''Mishne Torah'' received much backlash from contemporary Jewish leaders, it soon became recognized by world Jewry as authentic Torah literature, with many commentaries written on it, including the '' Ohr Somayach'', '' Tzofnath Paneach'' and the writings of the Soloveitchik dynasty, including '' Chiddushei Rabbeinu Chaim'' by Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik; works by his sons, ''Chiddushei HaGram HaLevi'' of Rabbi Moshe Soloveitchik and ''Chiddushei Maran Ryz HaLevi'' of Rabbi Yitzchak Zev Soloveitchik; and by his grandson Rabbi Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik, titled '' Chiddushei Rabbeinu Meshulam Dovid Halevi''. A student of Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik, Rabbi Isser Zalman Meltzer wrote his own commentary on the Rambam, titled ''Even HaEzel''.

Halakhic works of Acharonim

Likely the most monumental Halakhic work ever written, Rabbi Yoseph Karo completed the ''Shulchan Aruch'' (or ''Code of Jewish Law'', sometimes shortened to ''Codes'') in 1565 in Safed. It was a condensation of his previous Halakhic work, '' Beit Yosef'', which was written as commentary on the ''Arba'ah Turim''. Like the ''Tur'', it was divided into four sections: ''Orach Chayim'', ''Yoreh De'ah'', ''Even Ha'ezer'', and ''Choshen Mishpat''. The ''Mapah'', a commentary on ''Shulchan Aruch'' by Rabbi Moshe Isserles (the Rema) is generally printed together with the ''Shulchan Aruch'' in the center of the page, albeit in a different font, with the commentaries of ''Turei Zahav'' of Rabbi David HaLevi Segal and ''Magen Avraham'' of Rabbi Avraham Gombiner or ''Siftei Kohen'' of Rabbi Shabbatai HaKohen printed in the margins. Major commentaries written on the Shulchan Aruch include the '' Ketzos Hachoshen'', '' Avnei Milu'im'', and the '' Nesivos Hamishpat''.

Many later Halakhic works were based on ''Shulchan Aruch''. These include Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi's '' Shulchan Aruch HaRav'', Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein's ''Aruch HaShulchan'', Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried's '' Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'', and Rabbi Avraham Danzig's ''Chayei Adam'' and ''Chochmas Adam'' (only on ''Orach Chayim'' and ''Yoreh De'ah''). '' Mishnah Berurah'', a six-volume work expounding on ''Orach Chayim'', was published between 1884 and 1907 and is followed by most Litvishe Jews almost exclusively. Comparative Sephardic works are ''Kaf HaChaim'' and ''Yalkut Yosef''. The ''Ben Ish Hai'', by Rabbi Yosef Hayyim, is based on the sermons he delivered, and therefore includes ''halakha'' as well as Kabbalah and explanations on the Torah.

Many Halakhic works of the Acharonim are responsa. These include the ''Igros Moshe'' of Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, the ''Noda B'Yehudah'' of Rabbi Yechezkel Landau, ''She'eilot U'teshuvot Rabbi Akiva Eiger'' of Rabbi Akiva Eiger, ''Beis HaLevi'' by Rabbi Yosef Dov Soloveitchik, ''Shevet HaLevi'' of Rabbi Shmuel Wosner, and ''Tzitz Eliezer'' of Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg. Another notable Halakhic work is the ''Chofetz Chaim'', dealing with the laws of proper speech, and written by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan.

Hasidism

Also known as ''chasidus'', Hasidism is an Orthodox Jewish movement originating in Eastern Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, founded by the Baal Shem Tov. Describing Hasidic thought, Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan writes:

The first Hasidic book to be published, ''Toldot Yaakov Yosef'' by Rabbi Jacob Joseph of Polonne, Yaakov Yosef of Pollonye and interlaced with quotations from the Baal Shem Tov, was published in 1780. Later Hasidic works include ''Noam Elimelech'' by Rabbi Elimelech of Lizensk, ''Bnei Yissaschar'' by Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech Spira, ''Kedushat Levi'' by Rabbi Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev, and ''Tanya (Judaism), Tanya'' by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi.

Musar

While the study of musar (spiritual and Interpersonal relationship, interpersonal self-improvement) always existed in Jewish circles, it became more widespread with the start of Musar movement in the nineteenth century. The classic musar library of ''Yonah Gerondi#Works, Shaarei Teshuvah'', ''Chovot HaLevavot'', ''Jehiel ben Jekuthiel Anav#Maalot HaMiddot, Maalot HaMiddot'', ''Orchot Tzaddikim'', ''Mesillat Yesharim'', and ''Derech Hashem'' was later expanded with the writings of rabbis and mashgiach ruchani, mashgiachs after the Musar movement began. Later works include Rabbi Israel Salanter, Yisrael Salanter's ''Or Yisrael'', Rabbi Simcha Zissel Ziv's ''Chochmah U'Mussar'', Rabbi Yosef Yozel Horowitz's ''Madreigas HaAdam'', Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler's ''Michtav MeEliyahu'', Rabbi Yeruchom Levovitz's ''Daas Chochmah U'Mussar'' and ''Daas Torah'', Rabbi Chaim Shmuelevitz's ''Sichos Musar'', and Rabbi Shlomo Wolbe's ''Alei Shur''.

See also

* Ancient Hebrew writings
* Rabbinic literature

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General bibliography

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Sifrei Kodesh,
Jewish texts,
Hebrew-language literature
Hebrew words and phrases
Orthodox Judaism