In
Germanic paganism
Germanic paganism or Germanic religion refers to the traditional, culturally significant religion of the Germanic peoples. With a chronological range of at least one thousand years in an area covering Scandinavia, the British Isles, modern Germ ...
, a seeress is a woman said to have the ability to
foretell future events and
perform sorcery. They are also referred to with many other names meaning "prophetess", "staff bearer", "wise woman" and "sorceress", and they are frequently called ''witches'' or ''priestesses'' both in early sources and in modern scholarship.
They were an expression of the pre-Christian
shamanic
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiri ...
traditions of Europe, and they held an authoritative position in
Germanic society
The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and ear ...
. Mentions of Germanic seeresses occur as early as the Roman era, when, for example, they at times led armed resistance against Roman rule and acted as envoys to Rome. After the Roman Era, seeresses occur in records among the
North Germanic people, where they form a reoccurring motif in
Norse mythology
Norse, Nordic, or Scandinavian mythology is the body of myths belonging to the North Germanic peoples, stemming from Old Norse religion and continuing after the Christianization of Scandinavia, and into the Nordic folklore of the modern period ...
. Both the classical and the Norse accounts imply that they used wands, and describe them as sitting on raised platforms during
séance
A séance or seance (; ) is an attempt to communicate with spirits. The word ''séance'' comes from the French word for "session", from the Old French ''seoir'', "to sit". In French, the word's meaning is quite general: one may, for example, spea ...
s.
Ancient Roman and Greek literature records the name of several Germanic seeresses, including
Albruna
Albruna, ''Aurinia'' or ''Albrinia'' are some of the forms of the name of a probable Germanic seeress who would have lived in the late 1st century BC or in the early 1st century AD. She was mentioned by Tacitus in ''Germania'', after the seeress ...
,
Veleda
Veleda was seeress of the Bructeri, a Germanic people who achieved some prominence during the Batavian rebellion of AD 69–70, headed by the Romanized Batavian chieftain Gaius Julius Civilis, when she correctly predicted the initial su ...
,
Ganna, and, by way of an archaeological find,
Waluburg
Waluburg, 'magic staff protection' ( gr, Βαλουβουργ), was a second century Germanic seeress (sorceress, priestess) from the Semnonian tribe whose existence was revealed by the archaeological find of an ostracon, a pot shard of the ty ...
. Norse mythology mentions several seeresses, some of them by name, including Heimlaug völva,
Þorbjörg lítilvölva, Þordís spákona, and Þuríðr Sundafyllir. In North Germanic religion, the goddess
Freyja
In Norse paganism, Freyja (Old Norse "(the) Lady") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future). Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chario ...
has a particular association with seeresses, and there are indications that the Viking princess and
Rus' saint,
Olga of Kiev
Olga ( orv, Вольга, Volĭga; (); russian: Ольга (); uk, Ольга (). Old Norse: '; Lith: ''Alge''; Christian name: ''Elena''; c. 890–925 – 969) was a regent of Kievan Rus' for her son Sviatoslav from 945 until 960. Following ...
, was one such, serving as a "priestess of Freyja" among the Scandinavian elite in Kievan Rus' before they converted to Christianity.
Archaeologists have identified several graves that appear to be the remains of Scandinavian seeresses. These graves contain objects such as
wand
A wand is a thin, light-weight rod that is held with one hand, and is traditionally made of wood, but may also be made of other materials, such as metal or plastic.
Long versions of wands are often styled in forms of staves or sceptres, which ...
s, seeds with hallucinogenic and aphrodisiac properties, and a variety of items indicating high status.
Societal beliefs about the practices and abilities of seeresses would contribute to the development of the European concept of "witches", because their practices survived Christianization, although the practitioners became marginalized, and evolved into north European mediaeval witchcraft. Germanic seeresses are mentioned in popular culture in a variety of contexts. In
Germanic Heathenry
Heathenry, also termed Heathenism, contemporary Germanic Paganism, or Germanic Neopaganism, is a modern Pagan religion. Scholars of religious studies classify it as a new religious movement. Developed in Europe during the early 20th centu ...
, a modern practice of Germanic pagan religion, seeresses once again play a role.
Names and terminology
![Velléda jardin luxembourg](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Vell%C3%A9da_jardin_luxembourg.JPG)
Aside from the names of individuals, Roman era accounts do not contain information about how the early
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and ear ...
referred to them, but sixth century Goth scholar
Jordanes
Jordanes (), also written as Jordanis or Jornandes, was a 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat widely believed to be of Goths, Gothic descent who became a historian later in life. Late in life he wrote two works, one on Roman history (''Romana ...
reported in his ''
Getica
''De origine actibusque Getarum'' (''The Origin and Deeds of the Getae oths'), commonly abbreviated ''Getica'', written in Late Latin by Jordanes in or shortly after 551 AD, claims to be a summary of a voluminous account by Cassiodorus of th ...
'' that the early Goths had called their seeresses ''haliurunnae'' (Goth-Latin). The word also appears in Old English (OE), ''hellerune'' ("seeress" or "witch") and in Old High German (OHG) as ''hellirûna'' ("necromancy") and ''hellirunari'' ("necromancer"), and from these forms an earlier
Proto-Germanic
Proto-Germanic (abbreviated PGmc; also called Common Germanic) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages.
Proto-Germanic eventually developed from pre-Proto-Germanic into three Germanic branc ...
form *''χalja-rūnō(n)'' has been reconstructed, in which the first element is *''χaljō'', i.e.
''Hel'', the abode of the dead, and the second is *''rūnō'' ("mystery, secret"). At this time the word *''rūnō'' still referred to chanting and not to letters (''
rune
Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets native to the Germanic peoples. Runes were used to write various Germanic languages (with some exceptions) before they adopted the Latin alphabet, and for specialised ...
''), and in the sense "incantation" it was probably borrowed from Proto-Germanic into
Finnish
Finnish may refer to:
* Something or someone from, or related to Finland
* Culture of Finland
* Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland
* Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people
* Finnish cuisine
See also ...
where ''runo'' means "poem".
In OE, ''hellerune'' ("seeress" or "witch"), or ''helrūne'', has the synonym ''
hægtesse'', a term that is also found in Old Dutch, ''haghetisse'' ("witch") and in OHG ''hagazussa'', ''hagzussa'' or ''
hagzissa''. These West Germanic forms are probably derived from a Proto-Germanic word with positive connotations,
*''χaʒaz'', from which are also derived Old Norse (ON) ''hagr'' ("skillful") and Middle Hight German (MHG) ''be-hac'' ("of pleasure"). However, it is sometimes proposed that the first element is a term corresponding to Swedish ''hage'' ("wooded paddock") in the
sense
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of Stimulus (physiology), stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the cen ...
of "fence", i.e. PGmc *''χaʒōn'' ("pasture", "enclosure"), from whence also English ''
hedge
A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced shrubs and sometimes trees, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring properties. Hedges that are used to separate a road from adjoin ...
'' (through *''χaʒjaz''). In that case it would be etymologically related to ON ''túnriða'' and OHG ''zûnrite'' ("fence rider"), where ''tún''/''zûn'' does not refer to an enclosure but
metonymically
Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept.
Etymology
The words ''metonymy'' and ''metonym'' come from grc, μετωνυμία, 'a change of name ...
to the fence surrounding it. In the ''
Westrogothic law '', it was a punishable offence to accuse a woman of having ridden a fence-gate, in the appearance (''
hamr'') of a troll.
Kluge
Kluge (, ) is a German-derived surname. In German, capitalizing, and adding a final to, the adjective (meaning "clever"), creates a noun meaning "clever one". Although the adjective is a feminine form, the noun can be feminine, neuter or masc ...
reconstructs the PGmc form as
*''haga-tusjō'', where the last element *''tusjō'' could mean "spirit", from PIE *
''dhwes''-.
The various names in North Germanic sources may give the impression that there were two types of sorceress, the staff-bearers, or seeresses (''vǫlva''), and the women who were named for performing magic (''seiðkona''). However, there is little that the scholar could use to differentiate them, if such a distinction ever existed, and the two types of names are often used synonymously and about the same women.
The term ''vǫlva'' means "staff bearer" and is related etymologically to the names of the early Germanic seeresses ''
Ganna'', ''
Gambara'' and ''
Waluburg
Waluburg, 'magic staff protection' ( gr, Βαλουβουργ), was a second century Germanic seeress (sorceress, priestess) from the Semnonian tribe whose existence was revealed by the archaeological find of an ostracon, a pot shard of the ty ...
''. The use of
wand
A wand is a thin, light-weight rod that is held with one hand, and is traditionally made of wood, but may also be made of other materials, such as metal or plastic.
Long versions of wands are often styled in forms of staves or sceptres, which ...
s in divination and clairvoyance appears to have lived on from the classical era into the
Viking Age
The Viking Age () was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonizing, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. It followed the Migration Period and the Ger ...
. The name ''vǫlva'' and derivations of the name appear 23 times in the sources, and ''seiðkona'' ("seiðr woman/wife") appears eight times; the two terms are often used interchangeably. The second most common term is ''spákona'' ("prophecy woman/wife") with the variants ''spákerling'' ("old prophecy woman") and ''spámey'' ("prophecy maiden"), which appears 22 times, again interchangeably with ''vǫlva'' and ''seiðkona'' to refer to the same woman. There is also the name ''vísendakona'' ("wise woman" or "knowing woman"), which appears eight times in the sources.
Þorbiorg in ''
Eiríks saga rauða
The ''Saga of Erik the Red'', in non, Eiríks saga rauða (), is an Icelandic saga on the Norse exploration of North America. The original saga is thought to have been written in the 13th century. It is preserved in somewhat different versions ...
'' is called both a ''vísendakona'', ''vǫlva'' and a ''spákona''. It is possible that the names once had different meanings, but at the time of the saga's composition, they were no longer distinguished in meaning, just as the words ''sorceress'' and ''witch'' are interchangeable in modern popular language. There are also five instances of a group of rarer names having the element ''
galdr
A (plural ') or (plural ) refers to a spell or incantation in Old Norse and Old English respectively; these were usually performed in combination with certain rites.The article ''Galder'' in ''Nationalencyklopedin'' (1992)
Etymology
non, g ...
'' ("incantation"), with the names ''galdrakonur'' ("galdr women"), ''galdrakerling'' ("old galdr woman") and ''galdrasnót'' ("galdr lady"). In addition there is the word ''galdrakind'' ("galdr creature") with negative connotations.
There is also the reconstructed word *''vitka'' which may be connected to the ''
Wecha
Rindr (Old Norse: ) or Rinda (Latin) (sometimes Anglicized Rind) is a female goddess in Norse mythology, alternatively described as a giantess or a human princess from the east. She was impregnated by Odin and gave birth to the avenger of Baldr's ...
'' in ''
Gesta Danorum
''Gesta Danorum'' ("Deeds of the Danes") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th-century author Saxo Grammaticus ("Saxo the Literate", literally "the Grammarian"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark an ...
, book III'' and refer to a kind of sorceress. It seems to be the feminine form of ''vitki'' ("
sorcerer"), and it is only attested from ''
Lokasenna
''Lokasenna'' (Old Norse: 'The Flyting of Loki', or 'Loki's Verbal Duel') is one of the poems of the '' Poetic Edda''. The poem presents flyting between the gods and Loki. It is written in the ljóðaháttr metre, typical for wisdom verse. ''Lo ...
'' 24, where
Loki
Loki is a god in Norse mythology. According to some sources, Loki is the son of Fárbauti (a jötunn) and Laufey (mentioned as a goddess), and the brother of Helblindi and Býleistr. Loki is married to Sigyn and they have two sons, Narfi or Na ...
accuses
Odin
Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
of having travelled around the world ''vitka líki'' (in the "guise of a vitka").
The personal name ''
Heiðr'' appears 66 times as a word for sorceress in the prose sources. It appears twice in the ''
Poetic Edda
The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic me ...
'', in ''
Hyndluljóð'' and in ''
Vǫluspá'', where it is a name assumed by
Gullveig
Gullveig (Old Norse: ) is a female figure in Norse mythology associated with the legendary conflict between the Æsir and Vanir. In the poem ''Völuspá'', she came to the hall of Odin ( Hár) where she is speared by the Æsir, burnt three time ...
in connection with the
War of the Gods
''War of the Gods'' is an album by soul singer Billy Paul. The album was produced by Gamble & Huff, Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff and arranged by Bobby Martin (producer), Bobby Martin and Lenny Pakula. Released in 1973, the album reached number 12 o ...
. In a study by McKinnell of
Norse saga
is a series of science fantasy role-playing video games by Square Enix. The series originated on the Game Boy in 1989 as the creation of Akitoshi Kawazu at Square. It has since continued across multiple platforms, from the Super NES to the Pl ...
s and ''
Landnámabók
(, "Book of Settlements"), often shortened to , is a medieval Icelandic written work which describes in considerable detail the settlement () of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th centuries CE.
is divided into five parts and over ...
'', there is only one instance of a woman named ''Heiðr'' who does not act as a seeress. The name has been connected to ''
heath
A heath () is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler ...
'' and ''
heathen'', but it has also been explained with meanings that connote "radiance and golden light, honour and payment".
Lastly, there is the term ''fjolkyngiskona'' that only meant "sorceress", and a number of derogatory names that correspond to "witch" with many negative connotations, and these terms include ''skass'' ("ogress"), ''flagð(kona)'' ("ogress"), ''gýgr'' ("ogress"), ''fála'' ("Giantess"), ''hála'' and ''fordæða'' ("evil doer").
The term shamanism
There has long been an academic debate on whether the seeresses' practice should be regarded as shamanism. However, this does not pertain to the concept of shamanism in a wider definition (see e.g. the definitions of the
OED
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') is the first and foundational historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a co ...
), but rather to what degree similarities can be found between what is preserved about them in Old Norse literature and the shamanism of northern Eurasia in a more restricted sense. The majority of scholars support the "shamanic interpretation, and the presence of ecstatic rituals" (e.g.
Ellis Davidson,
Ohlmarks,
Pálsson, Meulengracht Sørensen,
Turville-Petre and
de Vries
De Vries is one of the most common Dutch surnames. It indicates a geographical origin: "Vriesland" is an old spelling of the Dutch province of Friesland (Frisia). Hence, "de Vries" means "the Frisian". The name has been modified to "DeVries", "d ...
), while a minority is sceptic (e.g.
Bugge Bugge is a Norwegian surname and may refer to:
People
* Bugge Wesseltoft (born 1964), Norwegian jazz musician
* David Buggé (born 1956), English cricketer and banker
* Peder Olivarius Bugge (1764–1849), Norwegian bishop
* Sophus Bugge (1833 ...
, Dillmann,
Dumézil, Näsström and Schjødt), but there are divergent opinions within the two camps. Clive Tolley, who is among the sceptics, writes that if shamanism is defined as "tundra shamanism" as represented by the Sámi of Scandinavia and as defined by
Edward Vajda
Edward J. Vajda (Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, September 10, 1958 as Edward M. Johnson; changed his name in 1981) is a historical linguist at Western Washington University.
He is known for his work on the proposed Dené–Yeniseian language fam ...
, then the differences are too great. He allies himself with the position of Ohlmarks, who was familiar with a wide range shamanism and rejected it in 1939, in a debate with
Dag Strömbäck
Dag Alvar Strömbäck (13 August 1900 – 1 December 1978) was a Swedish philologist and ethnologist who was a professor at Uppsala University and a specialist in Old Norse studies.
Biography
Dag Strömbäck was born in :se:Järbo församling, Up ...
who found similarities with Sámi practices. However, Tolley concedes that if shamanism is defined in line with the words of
Åke Hultkrantz (1993) as "
..direct contact with spiritual beings and guardian spirits, together with the mediating role played by a shaman in a ritual setting
..The presence of guardian spirits during the trance and following shamanic actions
.. then it is correct to define their practices as "broadly shamanic". However, he considers that in this case shamanism also includes traditional practices from a large part of Europe, such as the
witchcraft of medieval Europe and the
practices of ancient Greece. An opposing view is held by
Neil Price, who has studied circumpolar shamanism, and argues that he finds enough similarities to define the North Germanic seeresses as shamans also in the stricter sense.
Role in society
Fate is central in Germanic literature and mythology, and men's destiny is extricably linked to supernatural women and seeresses. Morris comments that the importance of fate can not be overstressed, and the seeresses were feared and revered by gods and mortals alike. Even the god
Odin
Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
himself consulted them. The
Norns
The Norns ( non, norn , plural: ) are deities in Norse mythology responsible for shaping the course of human destinies.'' Nordisk familjebok'' (1907)
In the ''Völuspá'', the three primary Norns Urðr (Wyrd), Verðandi, and Skuld draw wate ...
are an example of the link between women and fate, which was elevated in Germanic society, and the association was incarnated by the seeresses.
The political role that the seeresses played was always present when the Romans were dealing with the Germanic tribes, and the Romans had to take their opinion into account. Ganna's political influence was so considerable that she was taken to Rome together with
Masyos, the king of her tribe, where they had an audience with the Roman emperor
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
and were treated with honours, after which they returned home.
The Roman historian
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
, who appears to have met Ganna and to have been informed by her of most of what we know of early Germanic religion, wrote:
Another telling account by Tacitus about their power was a statement by the
Batavian tribe to the Romans:
However, the seeresses do not appear to have been just any women, but were those who occupied a special office. Both
Mogk and Sundqvist have commented that although the seeresses were referred to as "priestesses" by the Romans, they probably should not be so labelled in a strict sense. As for the later North Germanic version, Näsström writes that the völva did not perform any sacrifices, but her roles as a prophetess and as a sorceress were still important aspects of the spiritual life of her society. Price comments that Katherine Morris has usefully defined these women:
Attestations
Germanic seeresses are first described by the Romans, who discuss the role seeresses played in Germanic society. A gap in the historical record occurs until the North Germanic record began over a millennium later, when the Old Norse sagas frequently mention seeresses among the North Germanic peoples. It is noteworthy that Veleda, who prophesied in a high tower in the first century, finds an echo in the thirteenth-century account of Þorbjörg lítilvölva who prophesied from a raised platform in ''Eiríks saga rauða''.
[Orchard (1997: 174).] Simek comments that the saga's account of Þorbjörg's raised platform and her wand conveys authentic practices from Germanic paganism.
[Simek 2007 ]993
Year 993 ( CMXCIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
* Spring – The 12-year-old King Otto III gives the Sword of Saints Cosmas and Damian ...
326).
Roman Era
![Lune Grand Palais - Velleda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Lune_Grand_Palais_-_Velleda._Effet_de_lune_-_Jules_Lenepveu_-_without_border.jpg)
In his ethnography of the ancient Germanic peoples, ''Germania'', Tacitus expounds on some of these points. In chapter eight, he reports the following about women in then-contemporary Germanic society and the role of seeresses:
:
A. R. Birley translation (1999):
:It is recorded that some armies that were already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by women pleading steadfastly, blocking their path with bared breasts, and reminding their men how near they themselves are to being taken captive. This they fear by a long way more desperately for their women than for themselves. Indeed, peoples who are ordered to include girls of noble family among their hostages are thereby placed under a more effective restraint. They even believe that there is something holy and an element of the prophetic in women, hence they neither scorn their advice nor ignore their predictions. Under the Deified Vespasian we witnessed how Veleda was long regarded by many of them as a divine being; and in former times, too, they revered Albruna and a number of other women, not through servile flattery nor as if they had to make goddesses out of them.[Birley (1999: 41).]
Writing also in the first century AD, Greek geographer and historian
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
records the following about the
Cimbri
The Cimbri (Greek Κίμβροι, ''Kímbroi''; Latin ''Cimbri'') were an ancient tribe in Europe. Ancient authors described them variously as a Celtic people (or Gaulish), Germanic people, or even Cimmerian. Several ancient sources indicate that ...
, a Germanic people, in chapter 2.3 of volume seven of his encyclopedia ''
Geographica
The ''Geographica'' (Ancient Greek: Γεωγραφικά ''Geōgraphiká''), or ''Geography'', is an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge, consisting of 17 'books', written in Ancient Greek, Greek and attributed to Strabo, an educated citizen ...
'':
:
Horace Leonard Jones translation (1924):
:Writers report a custom of the Cimbri to this effect: Their wives, who would accompany them on their expeditions, were attended by priestesses who were seers; these were grey-haired, clad in white, with flaxen cloaks fastened on with clasps, girt with girdles of bronze, and bare-footed; now sword in hand these priestesses would meet with the prisoners of war throughout the camp, and having first crowned them with wreaths would lead them to a brazen vessel of about twenty amphora
An amphora (; grc, ἀμφορεύς, ''amphoreús''; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storag ...
e; and they had a raised platform which the priestess would mount, and then, bending over the kettle, would cut the throat of each prisoner after he had been lifted up; and from the blood that poured forth into the vessel some of the priestesses would draw a prophecy, while still others would split open the body and from an inspection of the entrails would utter a prophecy of victory for their own people; and during the battles they would beat on the hides that were stretched over the wicker-bodies of the wagons and in this way produce an unearthly noise.[Jones (1924: 169-172).]
Writing in the second century
CE, Roman historian
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
describes in chapter 50 of his ''
Roman History'' an encounter between
Nero Claudius Drusus
Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (38–9 BC), also called Drusus the Elder, was a Roman politician and military commander. He was a patrician Claudian on his birth father's side but his maternal grandmother was from a plebeian family. He was the ...
and a woman with supernatural abilities among the
Cherusci
The Cherusci were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the plains and forests of northwestern Germany in the area of the Weser River and present-day Hanover during the first centuries BC and AD. Roman sources reported they considered themsel ...
, a Germanic people. According to Diorites Cassius, the woman foresees Drusus's death, and he dies soon thereafter:
:
Herbert Baldwin Foster and Earnest Cary translation (1917):
:The events related happened in the consulship of Iullus Antonius
Iullus Antonius (43–2 BC) was a Roman magnate and poet. A son of Mark Antony and Fulvia, he was spared by the emperor Augustus after the civil wars of the Republic, and was married to the emperor's niece. He was later condemned as one of the l ...
and Fabius Maximus
Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, surnamed Cunctator ( 280 – 203 BC), was a Roman statesman and general of the third century BC. He was consul five times (233, 228, 215, 214, and 209 BC) and was appointed dictator in 221 and 217 BC. He was ...
. In the following year Drusus became consul with Titus Crispinus, and omens occurred that were anything but favourable to him. Many buildings were destroyed by storm and by thunderbolts, among them any temples; even that of Jupiter Capitolinus
The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The triad held a central place in t ...
and the gods worshipped with him was injured. Drusus, however, paid no heed to any of these things, but invaded the country of the Chatti
The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe
whose homeland was near the upper Weser (''Visurgis''). They lived in central and northern Hesse and southern Lower Saxony, along the upper reaches of that river and in the va ...
and advanced as far as that of the Suebi, conquering with difficulty the territory traversed and defeating the forces that attacked him only after considerable bloodshed. From there he proceeded to the country of the Cherusci, and crossing the Visurgis, advanced as far as the Albis
The Albis is a chain of hills in the Canton of Zürich, Switzerland, stretching for some 19 km from Sihlbrugg in the south to Waldegg near Zürich in the north. The chain forms, among others, the border between the Affoltern and Horgen di ...
, pillaging everything on his way.
:
:The Albis rises in the Vandalic Mountains, and empties, a mighty river, into the northern ocean. Drusus undertook to cross this river, but failing in the attempt, set up trophies and withdrew. For a woman of superhuman size met him and said: "Whither, pray, art thou hastening, insatiable Drusus? It is not fated that thou shalt look upon all these lands. But depart; for the end alike of thy labours and of thy life is already at hand".
:
:It is indeed marvellous that such a voice should have come to any man from the Deity, yet I cannot discredit the tale; for Drusus immediately departed, and as he was returning in haste, died on the way of some disease before reaching the Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, so ...
. And I find confirmation of the story in these incidents: wolves were prowling about the camp and howling just before his death; two youths were seen riding through the midst of the camp; a sound as of women lamenting was heard; and there were shooting stars in the sky. So much for these events.[Cary (1917: 378-381).]
Albruna
Veleda
In the first and second centuries
CE, Greek and Roman authors—such as Greek historian
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
, Roman senator
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
, and Roman historian
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
—wrote about the ancient Germanic peoples, and made note of the role of seeresses in Germanic society. Tacitus mentions Germanic seeresses in book 4 of his first century CE ''
Histories''.
:The legionary commander Munius Lupercus was sent along with other presents to Veleda, an unmarried woman who enjoyed wide influence over the tribe of the Bructeri
The Bructeri (from Latin; Greek: Βρούκτεροι, ''Broukteroi'', or Βουσάκτεροι, ''Bousakteroi''; Old English: ''Boruhtware'') were a Germanic tribe*
*
in Roman imperial times, located in northwestern Germany, in present-day Nort ...
. The Germans traditionally regard many of the female sex as prophetic, and indeed, by an excess of superstition, as divine. This was a case in point. Veleda's prestige stood high, for she had foretold the German successes and the extermination of the legions. But Lupercus was put to death before he reached her.[Wellesley (1964 ]972
Year 972 ( CMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Spring – Emperor John I Tzimiskes divides the Bulgarian territories, recent ...
247).
Ganna
A seeress named ''Ganna'' is mentioned by the Roman historiographer
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
in the early 3rd century. The context is the campaign east of the Rhine by Emperor
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
in the 80s of the 1st century CE. Ganna belonged to a tribe called the ''
Semnones'' who were settled east of the river
Elbe
The Elbe (; cs, Labe ; nds, Ilv or ''Elv''; Upper and dsb, Łobjo) is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. It rises in the Giant Mountains of the northern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia (western half of the Czech Repu ...
, and she appears to have been active in the second half of the 1st century, after Veleda's time. Ganna's political influence was considerable enough that she was taken to Rome together with
Masyos, the king of her tribe, where they had an audience with the Roman emperor and were treated with honours, after which they returned home. This probably happened in 86 AD, the year after his final war with the
Chatti
The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe
whose homeland was near the upper Weser (''Visurgis''). They lived in central and northern Hesse and southern Lower Saxony, along the upper reaches of that river and in the va ...
, when he made a treaty with the
Cherusci
The Cherusci were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the plains and forests of northwestern Germany in the area of the Weser River and present-day Hanover during the first centuries BC and AD. Roman sources reported they considered themsel ...
, who were settled between the rivers
Weser
The Weser () is a river of Lower Saxony in north-west Germany. It begins at Hannoversch Münden through the confluence of the Werra and Fulda. It passes through the Hanseatic city of Bremen. Its mouth is further north against the ports o ...
and the
Elbe
The Elbe (; cs, Labe ; nds, Ilv or ''Elv''; Upper and dsb, Łobjo) is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. It rises in the Giant Mountains of the northern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia (western half of the Czech Repu ...
.
During their stay in Rome, Ganna and Masyos appear also to have met with the Roman historian
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
who reports that he discussed the Semnoni religious practices with informants from that tribe, who considered themselves the noblest of the Suebi.
Bruce Lincoln
Bruce Lincoln (born 1948) is Caroline E. Haskell Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus of the History of Religions in the Divinity School of the University of Chicago, where he also holds positions in the Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Co ...
(1986) discusses Tacitus' meeting with Ganna and what the Roman historian learnt of the mythological traditions of the early Germanic tribes, and of the Semnoni's ancestral relationships with the other tribes from ''Ing'' (
Yngvi
Old Norse Yngvi , Old High German Ing/Ingwi and Old English Ingƿine are names that relate to a theonym which appears to have been the older name for the god Freyr. Proto-Germanic *Ingwaz was the legendary ancestor of the Ingaevones, or more acc ...
), ''Ist'' and ''Irmin'' (
Odin
Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
), the sons of
Mannus
Mannus, according to the Roman writer Tacitus, was a figure in the creation myths of the Germanic tribes. Tacitus is the only source of these myths.
Tacitus wrote that Mannus was the son of Tuisto and the progenitor of the three Germanic tribe ...
, the son of
Tuisto
According to Tacitus's '' Germania'' (AD 98), Tuisto (or Tuisco) is the legendary divine ancestor of the Germanic peoples. The figure remains the subject of some scholarly discussion, largely focused upon etymological connections and comparisons ...
. The Semnoni reenacted the "horrific origins" of their nation with a human sacrifice, with each victim representing Tuisto (the "twin") and being cut up to repeat the "acts of creation", which can be compared to how Odin and his brothers cut up the body of the primordial giant
Ymir
In Norse mythology, Ymir (, ), also called Aurgelmir, Brimir, or Bláinn, is the ancestor of all jötnar. Ymir is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional material, in the ''Prose Edda'', writ ...
(the "twin") to form the world in
Norse mythology
Norse, Nordic, or Scandinavian mythology is the body of myths belonging to the North Germanic peoples, stemming from Old Norse religion and continuing after the Christianization of Scandinavia, and into the Nordic folklore of the modern period ...
.
Rudolf Simek
Rudolf Simek (born 21 February 1954) is an Austrian philologist and religious studies scholar who is Professor and Chair of Ancient German studies, German and Scandinavian studies, Nordic Studies at the University of Bonn. Simek specializes in G ...
notes that Tacitus also learnt that the Semnoni performed their rites at a
holy grove
Sacred groves or sacred woods are groves of trees and have special religious importance within a particular culture. Sacred groves feature in various cultures throughout the world. They were important features of the mythological landscape and ...
that was the cradle of the tribe's inception, and that could only be entered when they were fettered. The god who was worshiped was probably Odin, and being fettered may have been an imitation of
Odin's self-sacrifice. This grove has for a long time been identified with the
Grove of Fetters
A grove of Fetters (Old Norse: ''Fjöturlundr'') is mentioned in the Eddic poem "Helgakviða Hundingsbana II":
: Helgi obtained Sigrún, and they had sons. Helgi lived not to be old. Dag, the son of Högni, sacrificed to Odin, for vengeance for ...
, where
the hero was sacrificed to Odin in the
Eddic poem
The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic med ...
, ''
Helgakviða Hundingsbana II
"Völsungakviða in forna" or "Helgakviða Hundingsbana II" ("The Second Lay of Helgi Hundingsbane") is an Old Norse poem found in the ''Poetic Edda''. It constitutes one of the Helgi lays together with ''Helgakviða Hundingsbana I'' and ''Helgakv ...
''.
It is notable that Ganna is not referred to as a ''sibylla'', but as a ''theiázousa'' in Greek, which means "someone making prophesies". Her name ''Ganna'' is usually interpreted as Proto-Germanic ''Gan-no'' and compared with Old Norse ''gandr'' in the meaning "magical staff" (for the meanings of ''gan''- and ''gandr'', see the
section on magical ''Projection''); Ganna would mean the "one who carries the magical staff" or "she who controls the magical staff or something similar". Her name is thus grouped with other seeresses with staff names, like Gambara ("wand-bearer") and Waluburg from ''walu''-, "staff" (ON ''vǫlr''), and the same word is found in the name of North Germanic seeresses, the ''vǫlur''.
Simek analyses ''gandr'' as a "magic staff" and the "insignia of her calling", but in a later work he adds that it meant "magic object or being" and instead of referring to a wand as her tool or insignia, her name may instead have been a reference to her function among the Germanic tribes (like Veleda's name). Sundqvist suggests that the name may have referred instead to her abilities, like de Vries who connects her name directly to the
ablaut grade ''ginn''- ("magical ability"), also treated further down in the
section on magical ''Projection''.
Waluburg
![Nile First Cataract R03](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Nile_First_Cataract_R03.jpg)
Dating from the second century CE, an
ostracon
An ostracon (Greek: ''ostrakon'', plural ''ostraka'') is a piece of pottery, usually broken off from a vase or other earthenware vessel. In an archaeological or epigraphical context, ''ostraca'' refer to sherds or even small pieces of ston ...
with a Greek inscription reading ''Waluburg. Se
oni Sibylla'' (Greek 'Waluburg,
sibyl
The sibyls (, singular ) were prophetesses or oracles in Ancient Greece.
The sibyls prophesied at holy sites.
A sibyl at Delphi has been dated to as early as the eleventh century BC by PausaniasPausanias 10.12.1 when he described local traditi ...
from the
Semnones') was discovered in the early twentieth century on
Elephantine, an
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
ian island. The name occurs among a list of Roman and Graeco-Egyptian soldier names, perhaps indicating its use as a
payroll
A payroll is the list of employees of some company that is entitled to receive payments as well as other work benefits and the amounts that each should receive. Along with the amounts that each employee should receive for time worked or tasks pe ...
.
The first element *- is probably Proto-Germanic * 'staff', which could be a reference to the seeresses' insignia, the magic staff, and which connects her name semantically to that of her fellow tribeswoman, the seeress
Ganna, who probably taught her
the craft and who had an audience with emperor
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
in Rome. In the same way, her name may also be connected to the name of another Germanic seeress,
Gambara, which can be interpreted as 'staff bearer' (* or *), see . The staffs are also reflected in the North Germanic word for seeress, 'staff bearer'. In North Germanic accounts, the seeresses were always equipped with a staff, a ''vǫlr'', from the same Proto-Germanic root *.
Schubart proposes that she may have been a war prisoner accompanying a Roman soldier in his career that led to him being stationed in Egypt at the
first cataract
The Cataracts of the Nile are shallow lengths (or whitewater rapids) of the Nile river, between Khartoum and Aswan, where the surface of the water is broken by many small boulders and stones jutting out of the river bed, as well as many rocky ...
.
Simek considers her to have been deported by the Roman authorities, and he writes that it is uncertain how she arrived at Elephantine, but it is not surprising considering the significant and obvious influence that the Germanic seeresses wielded politically.
Clement of Alexandria
Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria ( grc , Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; – ), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and ...
who lived in Egypt at the same time as Waluburg, and the earlier
Plutarch
Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
, mentioned that the Germanic seeresses also could predict the future while studying the eddies, the whirling and the splashing of currents, and Schubart suggests that this is the reason why Waluburg found herself at the swirling waters of the First Cataract of the Nile.
Early Middle Ages
Gambara
![Frigg and Odin in Grímnismál by Frølich](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Frigg_and_Odin_in_Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l_by_Fr%C3%B8lich.jpg)
The ''
Origo Gentis Langobardorum'' (''Origin of the Lombard/Langobard people''), a seventh-century Latin account, and the ''
Historia Langobardorum
The ''History of the Lombards'' or the ''History of the Langobards'' ( la, Historia Langobardorum) is the chief work by Paul the Deacon, written in the late 8th century. This incomplete history in six books was written after 787 and at any rate ...
'' (''History of the Lombard/Langobards''), from the 8th c., relate the legend that before, or after, the
Langobard people, then known as the Winnili, emigrated from
Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion#Europe, subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, ...
, led by the brothers Ibor and Agio, their neighbours, the Vandals, demanded that they pay tribute, but their mother Gambara advised them not to. Before the battle, the Vandals called on
Odin
Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
(''Godan'') to give them victory, but Gambara invoked Odin's wife
Frigg
Frigg (; Old Norse: ) is a goddess, one of the Æsir, in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about her, she is associated with marriage, prophecy, clairvoyance and motherhood, and dwells in the wet ...
(''Frea'') instead. Frigg advised them to trick Odin, by having the Winnili women spread their hair in front of their faces so as to look bearded and stand before the window from which Odin looked down on Earth. Odin was embarrassed and asked who the "long-beards" (''longobarbae'') were, and thus naming them he became their godfather and had to grant them victory.
Gambara is called ''phitonissa'' in Latin which means "priestess" or "sorceress", and in the ''
Chronicum Gothanum'', she is also specifically called ''sibylla'', i.e. "seeress".
Pohl
Pohl is a German surname of several possible origins.Pohl Name Meaning
Hauck Hauck is a Germans, German patronymic family name, derived from the Germanic given name and surname Hugo (name), Hugo, meaning "Bright in Mind and Spirit" or "intelligence".:fr:Albert Dauzat, ''Les noms et prénoms de France'', éditions Larousse, 1 ...
argues that the legend goes back to a time when the early Lombards primarily worshiped the mother goddess Freyja, as part of the Scandinavian
Vanir
In Norse mythology, the Vanir (; Old Norse: , singular Vanr ) are a group of gods associated with fertility, wisdom, and the ability to see the future. The Vanir are one of two groups of gods (the other being the Æsir) and are the namesake of the ...
worship, and he adds that a Lombard counterpart of
Uppsala
Uppsala (, or all ending in , ; archaically spelled ''Upsala'') is the county seat of Uppsala County and the List of urban areas in Sweden by population, fourth-largest city in Sweden, after Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö. It had 177,074 inha ...
has been discovered in
Žuráň
Žuráň is a small hill (268 metres) near the village of Podolí in the Czech Republic.
The hill became famous because 2 December 1805 Napoleon Bonaparte led his famous battle of Austerlitz from its peak. Therefore, peak of Žuráň was proclai ...
, near
Brno
Brno ( , ; german: Brünn ) is a city in the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. Located at the confluence of the Svitava and Svratka rivers, Brno has about 380,000 inhabitants, making it the second-largest city in the Czech Republic ...
in the modern day
Czech republic
The Czech Republic, or simply Czechia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Historically known as Bohemia, it is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the southeast. The ...
.
In Lombard, Odin and Frigg were called ''Godan'' and ''Frea'', while they were called ''Uodan'' and ''Friia'' in Old High German and ''Woden'' and ''Frig'' in Old English. The window from which Odin looked down on earth recalls the ''
Hliðskjálf
In Norse mythology, Hliðskjálf is the high seat of the god Odin allowing him to see into all realms.
''Poetic Edda''
In ''Grímnismál'', Odin and Frigg are both sitting in Hliðskjálf when they see their foster sons Agnarr and Geirröð ...
'' of Norse mythology, from where he could see everything, and where Frigg also conspires against Odin in the poem ''
Grímnismál
''Grímnismál'' (Old Norse: ; 'The Lay of Grímnir') is one of the mythological poems of the ''Poetic Edda''. It is preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript and the AM 748 I 4to fragment. It is spoken through the voice of ''Grímnir'', one of ...
'', in a parallel with the Lombard myth. Frigg's infidelity and connection with prophecy normally belong to Freyja, and her association with magic (''seiðr''), but there are many similarities between them, and
Freyja and Frigg may originally have been the same goddess. Scholars may identify Frea as Frigg/Freyja, or simply as Freyja.
Haliurunas
![Invasions of the Roman Empire 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png)
''
Getica
''De origine actibusque Getarum'' (''The Origin and Deeds of the Getae oths'), commonly abbreviated ''Getica'', written in Late Latin by Jordanes in or shortly after 551 AD, claims to be a summary of a voluminous account by Cassiodorus of th ...
'', a 6th century work on the history of the Goths, reports that the early Goths had called their seeresses ''haliurunas'' (or ''haliurunnae'', etc.) (Goth-Latin). They were in the words of Wolfram "women who enganged in magic with the world of the dead", and they were banished from their tribe by Filimer who was the last pre-
Amal dynasty
The Amali – also called Amals, Amalings or Amalungs – were a leading dynasty of the Goths, a Germanic people who confronted the Roman Empire during the decline of the Western Roman Empire. They eventually became the royal house of the Ostrogot ...
king of the migrating Goths. They found refuge in the wilderness where they were impregnated by unclean spirits from the Steppe, and engendered the Huns, which
Pohl
Pohl is a German surname of several possible origins.Pohl Name Meaning
Sarmatians
The Sarmatians (; grc, Σαρμαται, Sarmatai; Latin: ) were a large confederation of Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Eastern Iranian languages, Eastern Iranian peoples, Iranian Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic peoples of classical ant ...
as presented by
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...
. The account serves as an explanation for the origins of the Huns.
The account may be based on a historic event when Filimer banished his seeresses as scapegoats for a defeat when their prophesy had proved wrong, They may also have represented the conservative faction and resisted change. This change may have been the rise of the
Amal clan
The Amali – also called Amals, Amalings or Amalungs – were a leading dynasty of the Goths, a Germanic people who confronted the Roman Empire during the decline of the Western Roman Empire. They eventually became the royal house of the Ostrogo ...
and their claims of ancestry from the ''anses'' (the
Aesir clan of gods). As in the case of the early Lombards, this would have taken place after a decisive victory that saved a tribe whose existence had been threatened by enemies.
Odin
Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
was still a new god, and the Goths worshiped instead the "old" god
Gaut
is an early Germanic name, from a Proto-Germanic ''gautaz'', which represents a mythical ancestor or national god in the origin myth of the Geats.
Etymology
''Gautaz'' may be connected to the name of the Swedish river Göta älv at the city ...
who was made the Scandinavian great-grandfather of Amal, the founder of the new ruling clan.
Wagner argues that the demonization of both the women and the Huns shows that the account was written in a Christian context. Morris (1991) comments that it was a precedent for future Christian tradition, where demonic women have intercourse with the Devil or with demons. In the Anglo-Saxon ''
Leechbook'' from the 10th century, there is a prescription for a salve against "women with whom the Devil has sexual intercourse," and in the 11th century, there appeared the idea that witches and heretics had sexual orgies during their meetings at night.
North Germanic corpus
Few records of myths among the Germanic peoples survive to modern times. The North Germanic record is an exception, containing the vast majority of material that survives about the mythology of the Germanic peoples. These sources mention numerous seeresses among the North Germanic peoples, including the following:
''
Eiríks saga rauða
The ''Saga of Erik the Red'', in non, Eiríks saga rauða (), is an Icelandic saga on the Norse exploration of North America. The original saga is thought to have been written in the 13th century. It is preserved in somewhat different versions ...
'' provides a particularly detailed account of the appearance and activities of a seeress. For example, regarding the seeress
Þorbjörg Lítilvölva:
A high seat was set for her, complete with a cushion. This was to be stuffed with chicken feathers.
When she arrived one evening, along with the man who had been sent to fetch her, she was wearing a black mantle with a strap, which was adorned with precious stones right down to the hem. About her neck she wore a string of glass beads and on her head a hood of black lambskin lined with white catskin. She bore a staff with a knob at the top, adorned with brass set with stones on top. About her waist she had a linked charm belt with a large purse. In it she kept the charms which she needed for her predictions. She wore calfskin boots lined with fur, with long, sturdy laces and large pewter knobs on the ends. On her hands she wore gloves of catskin, white and lined with fur.
When she entered, everyone was supposed to offer her respectful greetings, and she responded by according to how the person appealed to her. Farmer Thorkel took the wise woman by the hand and led her to the seat which had been prepared for her. He then asked her to survey his flock, servants and buildings. She had little to say about all of it.
That evening tables were set up and food prepared for the seeress. A porridge of kid’s milk was made for her and as meat she was given the hearts of all the animals available there. She had a spoon of brass and a knife with an ivory shaft, its two halves clasped with bronze bands, and the point of which had broken off.
Olga of Kiev
There are indications that the Viking princess and Russian saint
Olga of Kiev
Olga ( orv, Вольга, Volĭga; (); russian: Ольга (); uk, Ольга (). Old Norse: '; Lith: ''Alge''; Christian name: ''Elena''; c. 890–925 – 969) was a regent of Kievan Rus' for her son Sviatoslav from 945 until 960. Following ...
may have served as a Völva, and as a "priestess of Freyja", before converting to Christianity. In the ''Primary Chronicle'', she is described by the noblemen as the "wisest of all women", where ''wise'' has several meanings and her reputation as being ''wise'' goes back to her pre-conversion years. Her wisdom is also reported by ''
Óláfs saga Tryggvassonar'', where she is called ''Allogia'' and mistaken for
Vladimir the Great
Vladimir I Sviatoslavich or Volodymyr I Sviatoslavych ( orv, Володимѣръ Свѧтославичь, ''Volodiměrъ Svętoslavičь'';, ''Uladzimir'', russian: Владимир, ''Vladimir'', uk, Володимир, ''Volodymyr''. Se ...
's old mother, although she was his grand-mother. There she is described as "very wise" and her main function at the court was as a prophetess, one whose predictions also came true. When the king of
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of ...
celebrated
Yule
Yule, actually Yuletide ("Yule time") is a festival observed by the historical Germanic peoples, later undergoing Christianised reformulation resulting in the now better-known Christmastide. The earliest references to Yule are by way of indig ...
, he asked her to predict the future and to do so she was carried to him on a chair which recalls the elevated platforms of the seeresses. Although he may not have a transmitted a historical event,
Oddr Snorrason
Oddr Snorrason whose name is also sometimes Anglicized as Odd Snorrason was a 12th-century Icelandic Benedictine monk at the Þingeyraklaustur monastery (''Þingeyrarklaustur''). The monastery was founded in 1133 and was the first in Iceland.
Work ...
, who wrote the saga in the 12th c., clearly identified Olga as a völva.
Olga is strongly associated with birds in the sources, which also was true of the goddess Freyja, the goddess of magic (seiðr). The goddess was popular among Scandinavian women in general, and especially among aristocratic women who profited from corollary authority and power. Older scholarship believed that the aristocratic Norse women passively waited at home for their husbands, but the modern view is that they actively took part in warfare from home with seiðr, a magic reflected in the Norse poem ''
Darraðarljóð
''Darraðarljóð'' is a skaldic poem in Old Norse found in chapter 157 of ''Njáls saga''. The song, which is seen in a vision by a man named Dorrud, the song consists of 11 stanzas, and within it twelve :valkyries weave and choose who is to be s ...
''.
[Harrison & Svensson (2007: 69).] Consequently, Olga may have been regarded as a high priestess of Freyja, a status which would not only have appealed to her Scandinavian kinsmen but also to her Slavic subjects who would have identified Freyja with the Slavic goddess
Mokosh
Mokosh ( orv, Мóкошь) is a Slavic goddess mentioned in the Primary Chronicle, protector of women's work and women's destiny. She watches over spinning and weaving, shearing of sheep, and protects women in childbirth. Mokosh is the Mother G ...
, who was represented as the only goddess among the six raised idols in Kiev.
In 2008, a Scandinavian
chamber grave called N°6 was excavated in
Pskov, where Olga was born. It was a
syncretic
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
grave containing elements from
Norse paganism
Old Norse religion, also known as Norse paganism, is the most common name for a branch of Germanic religion which developed during the Proto-Norse period, when the North Germanic peoples separated into a distinct branch of the Germanic peop ...
and from
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
; it has been dated to c. 960. It contained an object called a ''jartegn'', a token given to officials by Scandinavian kings and Rus' rulers, indicating that the buried man had political influence. On the
front
Front may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Films
* ''The Front'' (1943 film), a 1943 Soviet drama film
* ''The Front'', 1976 film
Music
* The Front (band), an American rock band signed to Columbia Records and active in the 1980s and e ...
side it has a
bident
A bident is a two-pronged implement resembling a pitchfork. In Greek mythology, the bident is a weapon associated with Hades (Pluto), the ruler of the underworld.
Likewise, the three-pronged trident is the implement of his brother Poseidon ( Ne ...
, which later evolved into a trident and was a symbol of the
Rurik dynasty
The Rurik dynasty ( be, Ру́рыкавічы, Rúrykavichy; russian: Рю́риковичи, Ryúrikovichi, ; uk, Рю́риковичі, Riúrykovychi, ; literally "sons/scions of Rurik"), also known as the Rurikid dynasty or Rurikids, was ...
. Above the bident there is a key, and keys were a symbol of the Scandinavian mistress, as Scandinavian women carried the keys of the homestead; Kovalev (2012) argues that the key was also a symbol of Freyja. According to Kovalev, during her regency, before
Sviatoslav I came of age, Olga may have chosen to add the key to the seal of the ruler of Kievan Rus', the key being a symbol whose significance would have been understood all over northern Europe, not only as the symbol of a woman who has authority, but also as a symbol of guardianship. On the reverse side the ''jartegn'' has the image of a falcon, a bird not only associated with the Swedish and Rus' elite of the Viking Age, but also especially associated with the goddesses Freyja and
Frigg
Frigg (; Old Norse: ) is a goddess, one of the Æsir, in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about her, she is associated with marriage, prophecy, clairvoyance and motherhood, and dwells in the wet ...
, who can transform themselves into falcons.). The falcon also appears to wear a cloak of the type worn by Scandinavian women. There is a cross above the falcon; coins bearing the falcon and the cross are dated to Olga's time in the 950s and the 960s. Images of women with a bird's head have also been found on the Norwegian 9th c.
Oseberg tapestry fragments, and the women have been identified as priestesses of Freyja wearing bird masks. Several scholars consider the woman who was buried with the tapestry to have been a völva.
Archaeological Record
The archaeological record for Viking Age society features a variety of graves that are identified as those of North Germanic seeresses. A notable example occurs at
Fyrkat
Fyrkat is a former Viking ring castle in Denmark, dating from c. 980 AD. It is located near the town of Hobro, some distance from the present end of the Mariager Fjord in Northern Jutland. The fortress is built on a narrow piece of land, with a s ...
, in the northern
Jutland
Jutland ( da, Jylland ; german: Jütland ; ang, Ēota land ), known anciently as the Cimbric or Cimbrian Peninsula ( la, Cimbricus Chersonesus; da, den Kimbriske Halvø, links=no or ; german: Kimbrische Halbinsel, links=no), is a peninsula of ...
region of
Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark
...
. Fyrkat is the site of a former
Viking Age ring fortress; the cemetery section of the site contains, among about 30 others, the grave of a woman buried within a horse-drawn carriage and wearing a red and blue dress embroidered with gold thread, all signs of high status. While the grave contains items commonly found in female Viking Age graves such as scissors and spindle whorls, it also contains a variety of other rare and exotic items. For example, the woman wore silver toe rings (otherwise unknown in the Scandinavian record) and her burial contained two bronze bowls originating from Central Asia.
National Museum of Denmark
The National Museum of Denmark (Nationalmuseet) in Copenhagen is Denmark's largest museum of cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures, alike. The museum's main building is located a short distance from Strøget ...
website. Undated. "A seeress from Fyrkat?"
Online
Last accessed August 21, 2019.
The grave also contained a small purse with seeds from
henbane
''Hyoscyamus niger'', commonly known as henbane, black henbane, or stinking nightshade, is a poisonous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae. It is native to temperate Europe and Siberia, and naturalised in Great Britain and Ireland.
...
, a poisonous plant, inside it, and a partially disintegrated metal wand, used by seeresses in the Old Norse record. According to the
National Museum of Denmark
The National Museum of Denmark (Nationalmuseet) in Copenhagen is Denmark's largest museum of cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures, alike. The museum's main building is located a short distance from Strøget ...
:
:If these seeds are thrown onto a fire, a mildly hallucinogenic smoke is produced. Taken in the right quantities, they can produce hallucinations and euphoric states. Henbane was often used by the witches of later periods. It could be used as a "witch's salve" to produce a psychedelic effect, if the magic practitioners rubbed it into their skin. Did the woman from Fyrkat do this? In her belt buckle was white lead, which was sometimes used as an ingredient in skin ointment.
Henbane's aphrodisiac properties may have also been relevant to its use by the seeress.
National Museum of Denmark
The National Museum of Denmark (Nationalmuseet) in Copenhagen is Denmark's largest museum of cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures, alike. The museum's main building is located a short distance from Strøget ...
website. Undated. "The magic wands of Viking seeresses?"
Online
Last accessed August 21, 2019. At the feet of the corpse was a small box, called a box brooch and originating from the Swedish island of
Gotland, which contained
owl
Owls are birds from the order Strigiformes (), which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers a ...
pellets and bird bones. The grave also contained amulets shaped like a chair, potentially a reflection of the long-standing association of seeresses and chairs (as described in Strabo's ''Geographica'' from the first century CE, discussed above).
![Finds from a priestess' grave](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Finds_from_a_priestess%27_grave.jpg)
A
ship setting
The stone ship or ship setting was an early burial custom in Scandinavia, Northern Germany, and the Baltic states. The grave or cremation burial was surrounded by slabs or stones in the shape of a boat or ship. The ships vary in size and were ...
grave in
Köpingsvik, a location on the Swedish island of
Öland
Öland (, ; ; sometimes written ''Øland'' in other Scandinavian languages, and often ''Oland'' internationally; la, Oelandia) is the second-largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area ...
, also appears to have contained a seeress. The woman was buried wrapped in
bear
Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Nor ...
fur with a variety of notable grave goods: the grave contained a bronze-ornamented staff with a small house atop it, a jug made in Central Asia, and a bronze cauldron
smithed in Western Europe. The grave contained animals and humans, perhaps sacrificed.
The
Oseberg ship burial also may have contained a seeress. The ship contained the remains of two people, one a woman of elevated status and the other possibly a
slave
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. Along with a variety of other objects, the grave contained a purse containing
cannabis
''Cannabis'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', '' C. indica'', and '' C. ruderalis''. Alternatively ...
seeds and a wooden wand.
Another notable grave containing what has been identified as the remains of a seeress was excavated by archaeologists in
Hagebyhöga in
Östergötland, Sweden. The grave contained female human remains interred with an iron wand or staff, a carriage, horses, and Arabic bronze jugs. The grave also contained a small silver figurine of a woman with a large necklace, which has been interpreted by archaeologists as representing the goddess
Freyja
In Norse paganism, Freyja (Old Norse "(the) Lady") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future). Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chario ...
, a deity strongly associated with seiðr, death, and sex.
Activities
In Scandinavian sources, seeresses work as diviners using a practice called
seiðr on a ritual platform called ''seiðhjallr'' (see below), which is associated with
shamanism
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a Spirit world (Spiritualism), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as tranc ...
. They also take part in other activities, but they do not appear to perform sacrifices. They are described as ritual specialists travelling from settlement to settlement, sometimes with a group of followers, and late sources tell that they received payment for their services.
Sitting out
Chanting
In the Roman era, the Germanic word for chanting was similar to the reconstructed Proto-Germanic form *''ʒalđran'', which later evolved into Old Norse ''galdr'' ("song, charm; witchcraft, sorcery"), OHG ''galtar'' ("incantation, charm") and Old English ''ʒealdor'' with the same meaning, also rendered as ''galdor'' ("sound, song, incantation, spell, enchantment"). It is derived from *''ʒalanan'', which became ON ''gala'' ("to crow, sing"), OHG ''galan'' ("to incantate") and OE ''ʒalan'' ("to sing"). It is related to the English ''
nightingale
The common nightingale, rufous nightingale or simply nightingale (''Luscinia megarhynchos''), is a small passerine bird best known for its powerful and beautiful song. It was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, but is no ...
'' and ''yell'', to Latin ''gallus'' ("cock") and it appears in ON ''gylfra'' ("witch"). The many uses of chanting are revealed in the words that are derived from ''galdr'', such as ''galdrabók'' ("book of magic"), ''galdrasmiðja'' ("objects used for magic"), ''galdravél'' ("a magic device"), ''galdrahríð'' ("magic storm"), ''galdrastafir'' ("magical characters") and ''valgaldr'' (a kind of Odinic necromancy). The modern Swedish word ''galen'' ("crazy", literally "having been chanted") is derived from the word for this practice.
Other names for the songs are ''varðlok(k)ur'' and ''seiðlæti'', where the latter simply means "seiðr songs". The former term is more complex, and scholars such as
Cleasby and
Vigfússon, Tolley,
Strömbäck and Price have derived it from ''vǫrðr'' ("guard, protector"). Several scholars have also compared it to the Scotting dialect word ''
warlock
A warlock is a male practitioner of witchcraft.
Etymology and terminology
The most commonly accepted etymology derives '' warlock'' from the Old English '' wǣrloga'', which meant "breaker of oaths" or "deceiver" and was given special applicati ...
'', and scholars such as Cleasby, Vigfússon and Strömbäck consider it to be the origin of the Scottish word. Katherine Morris translates the word as "warlock-song".
In ''Eiríks saga rauða'', the songs are said to be sung or spoken by the seeresses' followers, but at the same time there is only one woman who knows them and sings them. Price argues that since the name appears with two spellings (depending on the manuscript), it is possible to interpret the name in two ways, either by referring to ''loka'' ("fastening") or ''lokka'' ("lure"). He interprets the spelling ''varðlokkur'' as meaning "to lure the spirits", and ''varðlokur'' as meaning "locking the spirits under the seeress' power". In this way the term can be simultaneously interpreted as attracting the spirits and locking them under the summoner's power, and probably also securing them as protection against hostile entities. In the poem ''
Grógaldr
''Grógaldr'' or ''The Spell of Gróa'' is the first of two poems, now commonly published under the title '' Svipdagsmál'' found in several 17th-century paper manuscripts with ''Fjölsvinnsmál''. In at least three of these manuscripts, the poems ...
'', ''urðarlokkur'', the
norn
Norn may refer to:
*Norn language, an extinct North Germanic language that was spoken in Northern Isles of Scotland
*Norns, beings from Norse mythology
*Norn Iron, the local pronunciation of Northern Ireland
* Norn iron works, an old industrial c ...
of fate
Urðr
Urðr (Old Norse "fate"Orchard (1997:169).) is one of the Norns in Norse mythology. Along with Verðandi (possibly "happening" or "present"Orchard (1997:174).) and Skuld (possibly "debt" or "future"Orchard (1997:151).), Urðr makes up a trio o ...
's ''lokkur'', are said to protect a person on all sides, and they are also likely bound to that individual. Tolley points out that the form ''urðarlok(k)ur'' for these protective spells is probably a
reinterperation of an older ''vǫrðlokur'' ("ward spells"), or more likely another possible form with the same meaning, ''varðarlokur'' ("spells of warding").
The chants appear to have been sung with a high pitch, and they are reported to have been pleasing to the ear. In the ''
Laxdœla saga'', the sweetness of a chant (''seiðlæti'') lures a boy to his death, as intended, and a pleasing sound would also have been understood as attracting spirits to the summoner. Price suggests that the nearest equivalent to these high pitched and pleasing chants are the
traditional Swedish herding calls (''lockrop'' in modern Swedish, which still contains the linguistic element ''lokk''-).
Projection
While the ''varðlok(k)ur'' (mentioned above) attracted protective spirits that provided information to the enchantress, there were animal spirits that were sent out to collect information for her, and to perform other tasks. Consequently, the task of the sorceress was to control spirits, and the name that appears to have been used for these spirits and for several other aspects in sorcery is ''gandr'' (pl. ''gandir''); the relationship between the extended meanings of ''gandr'' is complex and a matter of discussion among scholars. The original meaning appears to be "something which is connected with the soul of the magician and can be sent out from him or her in sleep or
extasy".
According to
de Vries
De Vries is one of the most common Dutch surnames. It indicates a geographical origin: "Vriesland" is an old spelling of the Dutch province of Friesland (Frisia). Hence, "de Vries" means "the Frisian". The name has been modified to "DeVries", "d ...
, the origin of ''gandr'' is a word ''gan''- meaning "magic", of which there was an
ablaut grade ''gin''- (in English there is still a semantic relationship between the ablaut grades ''swam'' and ''swim'', and ''sat'' and ''sit'') that may be found in the name of the primordial chasm ''
Ginnungagap
In Norse mythology, Ginnungagap ( old Norse: ; "gaping abyss", "yawning void") is the primordial void mentioned in the Gylfaginning, the Eddaic text recording Norse cosmogony.
Etymology
''Ginnunga-'' is usually interpreted as deriving from a ver ...
'' ("space filled with magic powers"), and on the migration age
Björketorp and
Stentoften runestones, it appears in the sense "magically powerful" in
Proto-Norse
Proto-Norse (also called Ancient Nordic, Ancient Scandinavian, Ancient Norse, Primitive Norse, Proto-Nordic, Proto-Scandinavian and Proto-North Germanic) was an Indo-European language spoken in Scandinavia that is thought to have evolved as a ...
''ginnarunaʀ'' ("powerful runes"). It was also used as an intensifier in the compounds ''ginnregin'' ("great powers", i.e. the gods) and ''ginnheilagr'' ("extremely holy"). As a noun it meant "falsehood" and "deception", while the verb ''ginna'' meant "to dupe or to fool someone".
The ''gan''- ablaut grade was combined with the suffix -''đra''-, the same as in ''galdr'', from ''gala'', "chant" (see
section on ''Chanting'', above). Tolley argues that the original meaning cannot have included "staff", but rather that it would have meant "sorcerer spirit" from which would have been derived the additional meanings "wand", "wolf" and "serpent" (
Jörmungandr
In Norse mythology, Jörmungandr ( non, Jǫrmungandr, lit=the Vast gand, see Etymology), also known as the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent ( non, Miðgarðsormr), is an unfathomably large sea serpent or worm who dwells in the world sea, encir ...
). The "sorcerer's spirit" (''gandr'') could be summoned or sent out to gather information; this spirit is in animal form, but possibly not always. The extension to the meanings "wolf" and "serpent" is due to the fact that spirits had animal form, and the term ''gandreið'' originally meant the ride of a sorcerer on a spirit in animal form such as that of a wolf. Supernatural creatures could also use wolves as steeds; later the term came to refer to the sorcerer riding on a staff.
In Old Norse sources, the noun ''gandreið'' and the verb ''renna gand'' (or ''renna gǫndum'') can refer to going out to gather information in a
non-corporeal sense, but it can also refer to magically flying on a staff in a physical sense. Price disagrees with Tolley's argument that "staff" was not part of the original meaning of ''gandr'' and suggests that the staff/wand (''gandr'' or ''gǫndull'') was part of the ritual of summoning and releasing the ''gandir'' ("spirits") for the purpose of clairvoyance or prophesy, and sometimes in order to harm people. The use of the staff may have implied
sexual magic
Sex magic (sometimes spelled sex magick) is any type of sexual activity used in magical, ritualistic or otherwise religious and spiritual pursuits. One practice of sex magic is using sexual arousal or orgasm with visualization of a desired re ...
and sexual acts while it was used, and the staff was possibly also ridden in order to hurt enemies.
Some examples of aggressive projection are also preserved in
Old English poems, such as the "
Nine Herbs Charm
The "Nine Herbs Charm" is an Old English charm recorded in the tenth-century CEGordon (1962:92–93). Anglo-Saxon medical compilation known as ''Lacnunga'', which survives on the manuscript, Harley MS 585, in the British Library, at London.Macleo ...
", "
Against a Dwarf
Three Anglo-Saxon metrical charms "Against a dwarf" ( ang, Ƿið dƿeorh) are contained within in the Lacnunga, which seek to heal an afflicted person by ridding them of a dwarf.
Charms Remedies LXXXVIIc and LXXXVIIIc
The remedies LXXXVIIc and L ...
" and "''
Wið færstice "Wið færstice" is an Old English medical text surviving in the collection known now as ''Lacnunga'' in the British Library. ''Wið fǣrstiċe'' means 'against a sudden/violent stabbing pain'; and according to Felix Grendon, whose collection of An ...
''". Especially the last poem contains many Germanic pagan elements that are also found in Old Norse sources, such as sorceresses (''hægtessan''),
elves
An elf () is a type of humanoid supernatural being in Germanic mythology and folklore. Elves appear especially in North Germanic mythology. They are subsequently mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's Icelandic Prose Edda. He distinguishes " ...
(''ylfa''),
Æsir
The Æsir (Old Norse: ) are the gods of the principal pantheon in Norse religion. They include Odin, Frigg, Höðr, Thor, and Baldr. The second Norse pantheon is the Vanir. In Norse mythology, the two pantheons wage war against each other, res ...
gods (''esa''), the magic of smiths, and the presence of women that are like Valkyries.
During the eighth decade of the first century, the
Semnoni
The Semnones were a Germanic and specifically a Suevian people, who were settled between the Elbe and the Oder in the 1st century when they were described by Tacitus in '' Germania'':
"The Semnones give themselves out to be the most ancient and ...
an seeress Ganna succeeded the
Bructeri
The Bructeri (from Latin; Greek: Βρούκτεροι, ''Broukteroi'', or Βουσάκτεροι, ''Bousakteroi''; Old English: ''Boruhtware'') were a Germanic tribe*
*
in Roman imperial times, located in northwestern Germany, in present-day Nort ...
an seeress Veleda as the leader of an alliance of Germanic tribes when the latter had been captured and deported by the Romans. Her name "Ganna" is usually linked to the ON word ''gandr'' –
Simek comments that instead of being a reference to a wand as her tool or insignia, her name may be a reference to her function among the Germanic tribes (like Veleda's name). Sundqvist also comments that the name may have referred instead to her abilities, like de Vries who connects her name directly to the grade ''gin(n)''- (see above).
Prophesying
There are two ways in which the seeress conveys the acquired information to the audience. One of them is by having a seizure during the trance and gasping for air with a wide open mouth (''Hrólfs saga kraka'' and ''Hauks þáttr hábrókar''). She delivers her prophesy during the trance, and it may be said that a song appears from elsewhere in her mouth (''Ǫrvar-Odds saga'' and ''Hrólfs saga kraka''). In ''Hrólfs saga kraka'', it is in the beginning of the trance that she breathes in, and Tolley considers that this may represent a breathing in of spirits rather than her letting out her soul. Price comments that as far as textual criticism is concerned, this detail can not have been borrowed from those of the neighbouring Fenno-Ugric peoples, because the closest practitioners are the
Yukaghir people
The Yukaghirs, or Yukagirs ( (), russian: юкаги́ры) are a Siberian ethnic group people in the Russian Far East, living in the basin of the Kolyma River.
Geographic distribution
The Tundra Yukaghirs live in the Lower Kolyma region ...
on the other side of Eurasia, whose practices were inaccessible for the saga writers.
The other situation occurs when the seeress has returned from her trance and tells about it while awake (''Eiríks saga rauða'' and ''Vatnsdœla saga'').
Attributes
Wands
Platforms
There appears to be a continuity between elements such as the first century
Bructeri
The Bructeri (from Latin; Greek: Βρούκτεροι, ''Broukteroi'', or Βουσάκτεροι, ''Bousakteroi''; Old English: ''Boruhtware'') were a Germanic tribe*
*
in Roman imperial times, located in northwestern Germany, in present-day Nort ...
an seeress Veleda's tower and the ''seiðhjallr'' that played an important role in Scandinavian sources. The word ''seiðhjallr'' means "incantation scaffold", for performing magic.
Hallucinogens
The notion of ecstatic experience induced or complemented by the use of intoxicants in the context of Nordic pagan religion is not new, and there have been several attempts to reconstruct such practices. Little evidence to confirm the Viking Age ingestion of hallucinogens such as psilocybin mushrooms or other entheogens has been found, with the exception of two archaeological finds:
Several hundred seeds of henbane were found in grave 4 at Fyrkat. Their presence in the grave is likely significant, and the herb's
deliriant
Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics and dissociatives such as LSD and ketamine, respectively, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as oppose ...
properties suggest aspects of the rituals that might have been performed with it. There are many medieval accounts describing henbane's use as an ingredient in witches' ointments, used when a sorceress wished to change physical form. Henbane contains the psychoactive drug
scopolamine, and when consumed as a tea, or when its juice is made into a topical salve and rubbed into the skin, especially around the armpits and chest, hallucinations can be experienced. A strong sensation of flight is often felt, which remains vivid for several hours. ''Bilsenkraut'', the German name of henbane, is derived from the Indo-European ''bhelena''; according to some sources, it originally meant "plant of madness". The proto-Germanic ''bil'' seems to have meant "vision, hallucination" or "magical power."
Four seeds of the mind-altering plant
cannabis sativa
''Cannabis sativa'' is an annual herbaceous flowering plant indigenous to Eastern Asia, but now of cosmopolitan distribution due to widespread cultivation. It has been cultivated throughout recorded history, used as a source of industrial fibe ...
were found in the Oseberg ship burial, among the piles of pillows thrown into the prow of the ship when the grave was robbed. A single seed of cannabis was also found embedded in a clump of decayed leather, bound by a thin woollen cord, apparently the remains of a small leather pouch with a draw-string; it is possible that all the seeds were originally contained in this bag. The pouch was too small to hold enough seeds for planting, suggesting that they might have had symbolic significance, and could have been connected with the higher status woman's religious functions.
Cats
![Oseberg Wagon detail 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Oseberg_Wagon_detail_2.jpg)
All over the world cats are often linked to magical practices, and the goddess Freyja, who was the first divinity reported to have practiced magic, was associated with cats. Cats and catskins appear to have been important symbols for the seeresses. In ''
Eiríks saga rauða
The ''Saga of Erik the Red'', in non, Eiríks saga rauða (), is an Icelandic saga on the Norse exploration of North America. The original saga is thought to have been written in the 13th century. It is preserved in somewhat different versions ...
'', the account of
Þorbjörg lítilvölva tells that her ritual dress had a black lambskin hood that was lined with white catskin and on her hands she wore catskin gloves.
Ellis Davidson argues that the catskin represents the seeresses' helping animal spirits (see the section on
magical ''projection'', above), and Price connects these cat spirits with the cats that pull Freyja's wagon.
The most opulent female grave from the Viking Age is the extremely rich Oseberg ship burial from the first half of the 9th c. that contained two women. Although previously considered to be the grave of a queen, several scholars, such as
Stine Ingstad,
Neil Price and Leszek Gardeła note that the finds indicate that it was instead the grave of a seeress. In addition to a staff and cannabis it contained a chest with catskins, and a wagon that had one end decorated with nine cats (
a significant number), animals sacred to Freyja , which suggests that it was a reference to the goddess whose wagon is pulled by cats, according to ''
Gylfaginning
''Gylfaginning'' (Old Norse: 'The Beguiling of Gylfi' or 'The Deluding of Gylfi'; c. 20,000 words; 13th century Old Norse pronunciation ) is the first part of the 13th century ''Prose Edda'' after the Prologue. The ''Gylfaginning'' deals with t ...
'' and ''
Skáldskaparmál
''Skáldskaparmál'' (Old Norse: 'The Language of Poetry'; c. 50,000 words; ; ) is the second part of the ''Prose Edda''.
The section consists of a dialogue between Ægir, the divine personification of the sea, and Bragi, the god of poetry, in ...
''. About 50 graves from
Medelpad
Medelpad ( or ) is a historical province or ''landskap'' in the north of Sweden. It borders Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Ångermanland and the Gulf of Bothnia.
The province is a part of Norrland and as such considered to be Northern ...
, the
Mälaren Valley
The Mälaren Valley ( sv, Mälardalen), occasionally referred to as Stockholm-Mälaren Region (''Stockholm-mälarregionen''), is the easternmost part of Svealand, the catchment area of Lake Mälaren and the surrounding municipalities. The term is ...
and
Gotland, most of which are identified as the graves of wealthy women, contain
lynx skins; it has been argued that these powerful women had a special connection with the goddess Freyja.
Christianity
The seeresses rarely appear in the earliest Scandinavian written sources, such as runestones and skaldic poetry, and they do not appear in place names which suggests a marginal position in society; older research has cast them in a negative light.
Simek comments that all our sources on Germanic seeresses have passed through the filter of Roman and Christian interpretations. The Romans interpreted them as similar to their
augur
An augur was a priest and official in the classical Roman world. His main role was the practice of augury, the interpretation of the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds. Determinations were based upon whether they were flying i ...
s, while the Christian writers considered them to be "more or less witches". In sources from the Christian era, their rituals are described as suspicious and sometimes evil. This attitude can even be seen in some Eddic lays, and in the ''
Ynglinga saga
''Ynglinga saga'' ( ) is a Kings' saga, originally written in Old Norse by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson about 1225. It is the first section of his ''Heimskringla''. It was first translated into English and published in 184 ...
'',
Snorri Sturluson writes that their practice was so evil that "manly men considered it to shameful to practise it, and so it was taught to priestesses". It is possible that the Christian scribes wanted to minimize and deprecate them and their rites and turn them into an oddity.
Price
A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services. In some situations, the price of production has a different name. If the product is a "good" in the c ...
comments that the associations with Freyja and the Vanir gods lingered for a long time in Christian medieval Scandinavia, but the Viking Age views were replaced by negative views influenced by Christian attitudes towards female sexuality as something dangerous that had to be contained. This was related to the same fears that later led to
witchcraft hysteria, manifested as what Ellis Davidson referred to as “the sinister light which played round
reyja’scult for the story-tellers of a Christian age”.
Modern archaeological finds, however, do not confirm that the North Germanic seeresses had a marginal position at the bottom of society as depicted by older scholarship and Christian sources, but instead they suggest the contrary. The seeresses have been cast in a new light by a recent detailed analysis of ''
Landnámabók
(, "Book of Settlements"), often shortened to , is a medieval Icelandic written work which describes in considerable detail the settlement () of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th centuries CE.
is divided into five parts and over ...
'', the ''
Íslendingasögur
The sagas of Icelanders ( is, Íslendingasögur, ), also known as family sagas, are one genre of Icelandic sagas. They are prose narratives mostly based on historical events that mostly took place in Iceland in the ninth, tenth, and early e ...
'' and the ''
Íslendingaþættir'', which point out that the practitioners of magic were respected and well integrated in society. They were often connected to the highest echelons of society, they were free and they owned land. In a Norwegian setting they usually belong to Norwegian families, and in Iceland they do not live in caves or on islands, but in settlements with other people. Nor are they described as perverted or as sexual deviants. Moreover, archaeological studies from Norway and Sweden, such as that of the Oseberg burial, show that they belonged to the highest elite and were part of aristocratic society.
Late Middle Ages
The seeresss tradition did not disappear, at least not during the Middle Ages. Mitchell writes in his book ''Witchcraft and Magic in the Nordic Middle Ages'' (2011) that not even the most triumphalist Christian, nor even the most sceptic scholar, can deny the continued survival of the practices of these women. However, it is also clear that during centuries of transmission, their practices changed through external influences, and evolved. Attitudes also changed and sorcery was increasingly considered to be witchcraft during the Middle Ages, and by the 15th century society appears no longer to have distinguished between sorcesses and healers such as midwives and wise women. The witch was inherently evil, she could fly to the sabbath and have intercourse with the devil, and she ate infants.
Witch-hunts
![Malleus maleficarum, Köln 1520, Titelseite](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg)
The ''
Malleus Maleficarum
The ''Malleus Maleficarum'', usually translated as the ''Hammer of Witches'', is the best known treatise on witchcraft. It was written by the German Catholic clergyman Heinrich Kramer (under his Latinized name ''Henricus Institor'') and first ...
'' extended the concept of "witch" to more women, and concepts that used to be separate – folklore and witchcraft - merged with the concept of heresy. Morris argues that without this book there would probably never have been witch-hunts, and that the printing press helped spread the notion of diabolical witchcraft from the ecclesiastical elite to a larger part of the population. This was also the time of the revival of "high magic" during the renaissance, but the Church did not separate the two and persecuted both the "low magic" and "high magic" as heresy. About eighty per cent of those accused of witchcraft were women, and the accusations included Devil worship, having sex with the Devil, sex both oral and anal, incest and cannibalism of infants. Morris comments that the accusations reveal more about the inquisitors than about the women who were accused. The accusations were characterized by ecclesiastical attitudes towards female sexuality, and it is notable that the practices they were accused of were preventive to procreation. Morris argues that the evolution from Germanic pagan seeresses to witches during the witch-hunts is a case study in how attitudes towards magic were affected by the change of religion.
Modern influence
![Faroe stamp 428 The Prophet](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Faroe_stamp_428_The_Prophet.jpg)
The concept of the Germanic seeress has had influence in a variety of areas of popular culture. For example, in 1965, the Icelandic scholar
Sigurður Nordal Sigurður Nordal (14 September 1886 – 21 September 1974) was an Icelandic scholar, writer, and ambassador. He was influential in forming the theory of the Icelandic sagas as works of literature composed by individual authors.
Education
Nor ...
coined the
Icelandic language
Icelandic (; is, íslenska, link=no ) is a North Germanic language spoken by about 314,000 people, the vast majority of whom live in Iceland, where it is the national language. Due to being a West Scandinavian language, it is most closely re ...
term for
computer
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to Execution (computing), carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations (computation) automatically. Modern digital electronic computers can perform generic sets of operations known as C ...
—''
tölva''— by
blending the words ''tala'' (number) and ''völva''.
[Zhang (2015).]
The seeress Veleda has inspired a number of artworks, including German writer
Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué
Friedrich Heinrich Karl de la Motte, Baron Fouqué (); (12 February 1777 – 23 January 1843) was a German writer of the Romantic style.
Biography
He was born at Brandenburg an der Havel, of a family of French Huguenot origin, as evidenced in ...
's 1818 novel ''Welleda und Ganna'', an 1844 marble statue by French sculptor Hippolyte Maindron, an illustration, ''Veleda, die Prophetin der Brukterer'', by K. Sigrist, and Polish-American composer
Eduard Sobolewski's 1836 opera ''Velleda''.
[Simek (2007 ]993
Year 993 ( CMXCIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
* Spring – The 12-year-old King Otto III gives the Sword of Saints Cosmas and Damian ...
357).
Practitioners of
Germanic Heathenry
Heathenry, also termed Heathenism, contemporary Germanic Paganism, or Germanic Neopaganism, is a modern Pagan religion. Scholars of religious studies classify it as a new religious movement. Developed in Europe during the early 20th centu ...
, the modern revival of Germanic paganism, seek to revive the concept of the Germanic seeress.
[For discussion regarding examples of modern-day seeresses in Germanic Heathenry, see for example discussion throughout Blain 2002.]
See also
*
Göndul, a name meaning 'wand-wielder' applied to a valkyrie in the Old Norse corpus and later appearing in a 14th-century charm used as evidence in a Norwegian witchcraft trial
*
Norse cosmology
Norse cosmology is the study of the cosmos (cosmology) as perceived by the ancient North Germanic peoples. The topic encompasses concepts from Norse mythology, such as notions of time and space, cosmogony, personifications, anthropogeny, and e ...
, the cosmology of the North Germanic peoples
Notes
Sources
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* Birley, A. R. 1999. Trans. ''Tacitus, Agricola Germany''.
Oxford World's Classics
Oxford World's Classics is an imprint of Oxford University Press. First established in 1901 by Grant Richards (publisher), Grant Richards and purchased by OUP in 1906, this imprint publishes primarily dramatic and classic literature for student ...
.
* Cary, Earnest. 1917. Trans. ''Dio's Roman History'', vol. 6.
Harvard University Press
Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retirem ...
Available at Archive.org
* Cary, Earnest. 1927. Trans. ''Dio's Roman History'', vol. 8. Harvard University Press.
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* Harrison, Dick & Svensson Kristina. (2007). ''Vikingaliv''. Natur och Kultur.
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* Jones, Horace Leonard. 1924. Trans. ''The Geography of Strabo'', vol. 3. Harvard University Press
Available at Archive.org
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* Wellesley, Kenneth. 1972
964 Trans. ''Tacitus, the Histories''.
Penguin Classics
Penguin Classics is an imprint of Penguin Books under which classic works of literature are published in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and Korean among other languages. Literary critics see books in this series as important members of the Western ...
.
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* Zhang, Sarah. 2019. "Icelandic Has the Best Words for Technology". ''
Gizmodo'', 5 July 2015
Online Last accessed August 21, 2019.
External links
{{völvas
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