![Exposure_Risk_Assessment_and_Management](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Exposure_Risk_Assessment_and_Management.JPG)
Occupational hygiene (United States: industrial hygiene (IH)) is the
anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control, and confirmation (ARECC) of protection from hazards at work that may result in injury, illness, or affect the well being of workers. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the categories
biological,
chemical
A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Some references add that chemical substance cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical separation methods, i.e., wi ...
,
physical
Physical may refer to:
*Physical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally co ...
,
ergonomic
Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Four primary goals of human factors learnin ...
and
psychosocial
The psychosocial approach looks at individuals in the context of the combined influence that psychological factors and the surrounding social environment have on their physical and mental wellness and their ability to function. This approach is ...
. The risk of a health effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the dose response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Occupational hygienists work closely with toxicologists (see
Toxicology
Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating expo ...
) for understanding chemical hazards, physicists (see
Physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which r ...
) for physical hazards, and physicians and microbiologists for biological hazards (see
Microbiology
Microbiology () is the scientific study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, prot ...
Tropical medicine Infection
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dise ...
). Environmental and occupational hygienists are considered experts in exposure science and exposure risk management. Depending on an individual's type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities.
The profession of occupational hygienist
The British Occupational Hygiene Society (BOHS) defines that "occupational hygiene is about the prevention of ill-health from work, through recognizing, evaluating and controlling the risks". The International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA) refers to occupational hygiene as ''the discipline of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and controlling
health
Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World Health Organiza ...
hazards in the working environment with the objective of protecting worker health and well-being and safeguarding the community at large.'' The term "occupational hygiene" (used in the UK and Commonwealth countries as well as much of Europe) is synonymous with ''industrial hygiene'' (used in the US, Latin America, and other countries that received initial technical support or training from US sources). The term "industrial hygiene" traditionally stems from industries with construction, mining or manufacturing, and "occupational hygiene" refers to all types of industry such as those listed for "industrial hygiene" as well as financial and support services industries and refers to "
work
Work may refer to:
* Work (human activity), intentional activity people perform to support themselves, others, or the community
** Manual labour, physical work done by humans
** House work, housework, or homemaking
** Working animal, an animal t ...
", "
workplace
A workplace is a location where someone works, for their employer or themselves, a place of employment. Such a place can range from a home office to a large office building or factory. For industrialized societies, the workplace is one of th ...
" and "place of work" in general. ''Environmental hygiene'' addresses similar issues to ''occupational hygiene'' but is likely to be about broad industry or broad issues affecting the local community, broader society, region or country.
The profession of occupational hygiene uses strict and rigorous scientific methodology and often requires professional judgment based on experience and education in determining the potential for hazardous exposure risks in workplace and environmental studies. These aspects of occupational hygiene can often be referred to as the "art" of occupational hygiene and is used in a similar sense to the "art" of
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...
. In fact "occupational hygiene" is both an aspect of
preventive medicine
Preventive healthcare, or prophylaxis, consists of measures taken for the purposes of disease prevention.Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental hea ...
and in particular
occupational medicine
Occupational medicine, until 1960 called industrial medicine, is the branch of medicine which is concerned with the maintenance of health in the workplace, including prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries, with secondary objectives ...
, in that its goal is to prevent industrial disease, using the science of
risk management,
exposure assessment
Exposure assessment is a branch of environmental science and occupational hygiene that focuses on the processes that take place at the interface between the environment containing the contaminant of interest and the organism being considered. ...
and
industrial safety
Occupational safety and health (OSH), also commonly referred to as occupational health and safety (OHS), occupational health, or occupational safety, is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at ...
. Ultimately professionals seek to implement "safe" systems, procedures or methods to be applied in the workplace or to the environment. Prevention of exposure to long working hours has been identified as a focus for occupational hygiene when a landmark
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
study estimated that this occupational hazard causes an estimated 745,000 occupational fatalities per year worldwide, the largest burden of disease attributed to any single occupational hazard.
Industrial Hygiene refers to the science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling workplaces to prevent illness or injuries to the workers (Geigle Safety Group, Inc., 2020). Industrial hygienists use various environmental monitoring and analytical methods to establish how workers are exposed. In turn, they employ techniques such as engineering and work practice controls to control any potential health hazards.
Anticipation involves identifying potential hazards in the workplace before they are introduced. The uncertainty of health hazards ranges from reasonable expectations to mere speculations. However, it implies that the industrial hygienist must understand the nature of changes in the processes, products, environments, and workforces of the workplaces and how they can affect workers' well-being.
Recognition of engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are the primary means of reducing the workers` exposure to occupational hazards. Timely recognition of hazards minimizes the workers' exposure to the hazards by removing or reducing the hazard's source or isolating the workers from the hazards.
Evaluation of a worksite is a significant step that helps the industrial hygienists establish jobs and worksites that are a potential source of problems. During the evaluation, the industrial hygienist measures and identifies the problem tasks, exposures, and tasks. The most effective worksites assessment includes all the jobs, work activities, and operations. The industrial hygienists inspect research and evaluations of how given physical or chemical hazards affect the workers' health. If the workplace contains a health hazard, the industrial hygienist recommends appropriate corrective actions.
Control measures include removing toxic chemicals and replacing harmful toxic materials with less hazardous ones. It also involves confining work operations or enclosing work processes and installing general and local ventilation systems. Controls change how the task is performed. Some of the basic work practice controls include: following the laid procedures to reduce exposures while at the workplace, inspecting and maintaining processes regularly, and implementing reasonable workplace procedures.
Industrial hygiene in the United States started taking shape in the early 20th century. There before, many workers risked their lives daily to work in industrial settings such as manufacturing, mills, constructions, and mines. Currently, the statistics on work safety are usually measured by the number of injuries and deaths yearly. Before the 20th century, these kinds of statistics were hard to come by because it appeared no one cared enough to make tracking of the job injuries and deaths a priority.
The industrial hygiene profession gained respectability back in 1700 when
Bernardino Ramazzini
Bernardino Ramazzini (; 4 October 1633 – 5 November 1714) was an Italian physician.
Ramazzini, along with Francesco Torti, was an early proponent of the use of cinchona bark (from which quinine is derived) in the treatment of malaria. His m ...
published a comprehensive book on industrial medicine. The book was written in Italian and was known as De Morbis Artificum Diatriba, meaning “The Diseases of Workmen” (Geigle Safety Group, Inc., 2020). The book detailed the accurate description of the occupational diseases that most of his time workers suffered from. Ramazzini was critical to the industrial hygiene profession's future because he asserted that occupational diseases should be studied in the workplace environment and not in hospital wards.
Industrial hygiene received another boost in the early 20th century when Dr. Alice Hamilton led an effort to improve industrial hygiene. She began by observing industrial conditions first and then startled mine owners, factory managers, and other state officials with evidence that there was a correlation between workers` illnesses and their exposure to chemical toxins. She presented a definitive proposals for eliminating unhealthful working conditions. As a result, the US federal government also began investigating health conditions in the industry. In 1911, the states passed the first workers` compensation laws.
The social role of occupational hygiene
Occupational hygienists have been involved historically with changing the perception of society about the nature and extent of hazards and preventing exposures in the workplace and communities. Many occupational hygienists work day-to-day with industrial situations that require control or improvement to the workplace situation. However larger social issues affecting whole industries have occurred in the past e.g. since 1900,
asbestos
Asbestos () is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere b ...
exposures that have affected the lives of tens of thousands of people. Occupational hygienists have become more engaged in understanding and managing exposure risks to consumers from products with regulations such as REACh (
) enacted in 2006.
More recent issues affecting broader society are, for example in 1976, Legionnaires' disease or
legionellosis
Legionnaires' disease is a form of atypical pneumonia caused by any species of '' Legionella'' bacteria, quite often ''Legionella pneumophila''. Signs and symptoms include cough, shortness of breath, high fever, muscle pains, and headaches. Na ...
. More recently again in the 1990s,
radon
Radon is a chemical element with the symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a radioactive, colourless, odourless, tasteless noble gas. It occurs naturally in minute quantities as an intermediate step in the normal radioactive decay chains through ...
, and in the 2000s, the effects of
mold
A mold () or mould () is one of the structures certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not ...
from indoor air quality situations in the home and at work. In the later part of the 2000s, concern has been raised about the health effects of
nanoparticle
A nanoparticle or ultrafine particle is usually defined as a particle of matter that is between 1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in diameter. The term is sometimes used for larger particles, up to 500 nm, or fibers and tubes that are less than 1 ...
s.
Many of these issues have required the coordination over a number of years of a number of medical and paraprofessionals in detecting and then characterizing the nature of the issue, both in terms of the hazard and in terms of the risk to the workplace and ultimately to society. This has involved occupational hygienists in research, collection of data and to develop suitable and satisfactory control methodologies.
General activities
The occupational hygienist may be involved with the assessment and control of
physical
Physical may refer to:
*Physical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally co ...
,
chemical
A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Some references add that chemical substance cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical separation methods, i.e., wi ...
,
biological or
environmental
A biophysical environment is a biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population, and consequently includes the factors that have an influence in their survival, development, and evolution. A biophysical environment can vary in scale f ...
hazards in the workplace or community that could cause
injury
An injury is any physiological damage to living tissue caused by immediate physical stress. An injury can occur intentionally or unintentionally and may be caused by blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, burning, toxic exposure, asphyxiation, o ...
or
disease
A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...
. Physical hazards may include
noise
Noise is unwanted sound considered unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, there is no distinction between noise and desired sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arise ...
,
temperature extreme
This is a list of weather records, a list of the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories. Many weather records are measured under specific conditions—such as surface temperature and wind speed—to keep consistency ...
s,
illumination extremes,
ionizing
Ionization, or Ionisation is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule i ...
or
non-ionizing
Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy per quantum ( photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules—that is, to completely remove an electron from an atom or mol ...
radiation
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes:
* ''electromagnetic radiation'', such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visi ...
, and
ergonomics
Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Four primary goals of human factors learnin ...
. Chemical hazards related to dangerous goods or hazardous substances are frequently investigated by occupational hygienists. Other related areas including
indoor air quality
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...
(IAQ) and
safety
Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected from harm or other danger. Safety can also refer to risk management, the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an acceptable level of risk.
Meanings
There are ...
may also receive the attention of the occupational hygienist. Biological hazards may stem from the potential for legionella exposure at work or the investigation of biological injury or effects at work, such as dermatitis may be investigated.
As part of the investigation process, the occupational hygienist may be called upon to communicate effectively regarding the nature of the hazard, the potential for risk, and the appropriate methods of control. Appropriate controls are selected from the
hierarchy of control
Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. : by elimination, substitution, engineering, administration and personal protective equipment (PPE) to control the hazard or eliminate the risk. Such controls may involve recommendations as simple as appropriate PPE such as a 'basic' particulate dust mask to occasionally designing dust extraction ventilation systems, work places or management systems to manage people and programs for the preservation of health and well-being of those who enter a workplace.
Examples of occupational hygiene include:
![Disposable_foam_earplugs](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Disposable_foam_earplugs.jpg)
* Analysis of physical hazards such as noise, which may require the use hearing protection
earplugs
An earplug is a device that is inserted in the ear canal to protect the user's ears from loud noises, intrusion of water, foreign bodies, dust or excessive wind. Since they reduce the sound volume, earplugs are often used to help prevent hearing ...
and/or
earmuffs
Earmuffs are clothing accessories or personal protective equipment designed to cover a person's ears for hearing protection or warmth. They consist of a thermoplastic or metal head-band that fits over the top or back of the head, and a cushion ...
to prevent hearing loss.
* Developing plans and procedures to protect against infectious disease exposure in the event of a
flu pandemic
An influenza pandemic is an epidemic of an influenza virus that spreads across a large region (either multiple continents or worldwide) and infects a large proportion of the population. There have been six major influenza epidemics in the las ...
.
* Monitoring the air for hazardous contaminants which may potentially lead to worker illness or death.
Workplace assessment methods
Although there are many aspects to occupational hygiene work the most known and sought after is in determining or estimating potential or actual
exposures to hazards. For many chemicals and physical hazards,
occupational exposure limits have been derived using toxicological, epidemiological and medical data allowing hygienists to reduce the risks of health effects by implementing the "Hierarchy of Hazard Controls". Several methods can be applied in assessing the workplace or environment for exposure to a known or suspected hazard. Occupational hygienists do not rely on the accuracy of the equipment or method used but in knowing with certainty and precision the limits of the equipment or method being used and the error or variance given by using that particular equipment or method. Well known methods for performing occupational exposure assessments can be found in "A Strategy for Assessing and Managing Occupational Exposures, Third Edition Edited by Joselito S. Ignacio and William H. Bullock".
The main steps outlined for assessing and managing occupational exposures:
* Basic Characterization (identify agents, hazards, people potentially exposed and existing exposure controls)
* Exposure Assessment (select occupational exposure limits, hazard bands, relevant toxicological data to determine if exposures are "acceptable", "unacceptable" or "uncertain")
* Exposure Controls (for "unacceptable" or "uncertain" exposures)
* Further Information Gathering (for "uncertain" exposures)
* Hazard Communication (for all exposures)
* Reassessment (as needed) / Management of Change
Basic characterization, hazard identification and walk-through surveys
The first step in understanding health risks related to exposures requires the collection of "basic characterization" information from available sources. A traditional method applied by occupational hygienists to initially survey a workplace or environment is used to determine both the types and possible exposures from hazards (e.g. noise, chemicals, radiation). The walk-through survey can be targeted or limited to particular hazards such as silica dust, or noise, to focus attention on control of all hazards to workers. A full walk-through survey is frequently used to provide information on establishing a framework for future investigations, prioritizing hazards, determining the requirements for measurement and establishing some immediate control of potential exposures. The
Health Hazard Evaluation Program
The Health Hazard Evaluation (HHE) program is a workplace health program administered by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH developed the HHE program to comply with a mandate in the Occupational Safety and He ...
from the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, ) is the United States federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness. NIOSH is part of the C ...
is an example of an industrial hygiene walk-through survey. Other sources of basic characterization information include worker interviews, observing exposure tasks, material safety data sheets, workforce scheduling, production data, equipment and maintenance schedules to identify potential exposure agents and people possibly exposed.
The information that needs to be gathered from sources should apply to the specific type of work from which the hazards can come from. As mentioned previously, examples of these sources include interviews with people who have worked in the field of the hazard, history and analysis of past incidents, and official reports of work and the hazards encountered. Of these, the personnel interviews may be the most critical in identifying undocumented practices, events, releases, hazards and other relevant information. Once the information is gathered from a collection of sources, it is recommended for these to be digitally archived (to allow for quick searching) and to have a physical set of the same information in order for it to be more accessible. One innovative way to display the complex historical hazard information is with a historical hazards identification map, which distills the hazard information into an easy to use graphical format.
Sampling
An occupational hygienist may use one or a number of commercially available electronic measuring devices to measure noise, vibration, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, dust, solvents, gases, and so on. Each device is often specifically designed to measure a specific or particular type of contaminant. Electronic devices need to be calibrated before and after use to ensure the accuracy of the measurements taken and often require a system of certifying the precision of the instrument.
Collecting occupational exposure data is resource- and time-intensive, and can be used for different purposes, including evaluating compliance with government regulations and for planning preventive interventions. The usability of occupational exposure data is influenced by these factors:
* Data storage (e.g. use of electronic and centralized databases with retention of all records)
* Standardization of data collection
* Collaboration between researchers, safety and health professionals and insurers
In 2018, in an effort to standardize industrial hygiene data collection among workers compensation insurers and to determine the feasibility of pooling collected IH data, IH air and noise survey forms were collected. Data fields were evaluated for importance and a study list of core fields was developed, and submitted to an expert panel for review before finalization. The final core study list was compared to recommendations published by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a professional association of industrial hygienists and practitioners of related professions, with headquarters in Cincinnati, Ohio. One of its goals is to advance worker pr ...
(ACGIH) and the
American Industrial Hygiene Association The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) is a 501(c)6 non-profit organization, whose mission is "Creating knowledge to protect worker health." The American Industrial Hygiene Association works to provide information and resources to Ind ...
(AIHA). Data fields essential to standardizing IH data collection were identified and verified. The "essential" data fields are available and could contribute to improved data quality and its management if incorporated into IH data management systems.
Canada and several European countries have been working to establish occupational exposure databases with standardized data elements and improved data quality. These databases include MEGA, COLCHIC, and CWED.
Dust sampling
Nuisance dust is considered to be the total dust in air including inhalable and respirable fractions.
Various dust sampling methods exist that are internationally recognised. Inhalable dust is determined using the modern equivalent of the
Institute of Occupational Medicine The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) was founded in 1969 by the National Coal Board (NCB) as an independent charity in the UK and retains this charitable purpose and status today. The "Institute" has a subsidiary, IOM Consulting Limited, whi ...
(IOM) MRE 113A monitor (see section on workplace exposure, measurement & modelling). Inhalable dust is considered to be dust of less than 100 micrometers aerodynamic equivalent diameter (AED) that enters through the nose and or mouth. See
Lungs
The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and most other animals, including some snails and a small number of fish. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side ...
Respirable dust is sampled using a cyclone dust sampler design to sample for a specific fraction of dust AED at a set flow rate. The respirable dust fraction is dust that enters the 'deep lung' and is considered to be less than 10 micrometers AED.
Nuisance, inhalable and respirable dust fractions are all sampled using a constant volumetric pump for a specific sampling period. By knowing the mass of the sample collected and the volume of air sampled, a concentration for the fraction sampled can be given in milligrams (mg) per metre cubed (m
3). From such samples, the amount of inhalable or respirable dust can be determined and compared to the relevant
occupational exposure limit
An occupational exposure limit is an upper limit on the acceptable concentration of a hazardous substance in workplace air for a particular material or class of materials. It is typically set by competent national authorities and enforced by legi ...
s.
By use of inhalable, respirable or other suitable sampler (7 hole, 5 hole, et cetera), these dust sampling methods can also used to determine metal exposure in the air. This requires collection of the sample on a methyl-cellulose ester (MCE) filter and acid digestion of the collection media in the laboratory followed by measuring metal concentration though an atomic absorption (or emission) spectrophotometry. Both the UK Health and Safety Laboratory and NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods have specific methodologies for a broad range of metals in air found in industrial processing (smelting, foundries, et cetera).
A further method exists for the determination of asbestos, fibreglass, synthetic mineral fibre and ceramic mineral fibre dust in air. This is the membrane filter method (MFM) and requires the collection of the dust on a grided filter for estimation of exposure by the counting of 'conforming' fibres in 100 fields through a microscope. Results are quantified on the basis of number of fibres per millilitre of air (f/ml). Many countries strictly regulate the methodology applied to the MFM.
Chemical sampling
Two types of chemically absorbent tubes are used to sample for a wide range of chemical substances. Traditionally a chemical absorbent 'tube' (a glass or stainless steel tube of between 2 and 10 mm internal diameter) filled with very fine absorbent silica (hydrophilic) or carbon, such as coconut charcoal (lypophylic), is used in a sampling line where air is drawn through the absorbent material for between four hours (minimum workplace sample) to 24 hours (environmental sample) period. The hydrophilic material readily absorbs water-soluble chemical and the lypophylic material absorbs non water-soluble materials. The absorbent material is then chemically or physically extracted and measurements performed using various gas chromatograph or mass spectrometry methods. These absorbent tube methods have the advantage of being usable for a wide range of potential contaminates. However, they are relatively expensive methods, are time consuming and require significant expertise in sampling and chemical analysis. A frequent complaint of workers is in having to wear the sampling pump (up to 1 kg) for several days of work to provide adequate data for the required statistical certainty determination of the exposure.
In the last few decades, advances have been made in 'passive' badge technology. These samplers can now be purchased to measure one chemical (e.g. formaldehyde) or a chemical type (e.g. ketones) or a broad spectrum of chemicals (e.g. solvents). They are relatively easy to set up and use. However, considerable cost can still be incurred in analysis of the 'badge'. They weigh 20 to 30 grams and workers do not complain about their presence. Unfortunately 'badges' may not exist for all types of workplace sampling that may be required, and the charcoal or silica method may sometimes have to be applied.
From the sampling method, results are expressed in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m
3) or parts per million (PPM) and compared to the relevant
occupational exposure limit
An occupational exposure limit is an upper limit on the acceptable concentration of a hazardous substance in workplace air for a particular material or class of materials. It is typically set by competent national authorities and enforced by legi ...
s.
It is a critical part of the exposure determination that the method of sampling for the specific contaminate exposure is directly linked to the exposure standard used. Many countries regulate both the exposure standard, the method used to determine the exposure and the methods to be used for chemical or other analysis of the samples collected.
Noise sampling
Two types of noise are
Environmental Noise
Environmental noise is an accumulation of noise pollution that occurs outside. This noise can be caused by transport, industrial, and recreational activities.
Noise is frequently described as 'unwanted sound'. Within this context, environmenta ...
, which is unwanted sound that occurs outdoors, and
Occupational Noise
Occupational noise is the amount of acoustic energy received by an employee's auditory system when they are working in the industry. Occupational noise, or industrial noise, is often a term used in occupational safety and health, as sustained expos ...
, the sound that is received by employees while they are in the workplace. Environmental noise can originate from various sources depending on the activity, location, and time. Environmental noise can be generated from transportation such as road, rail, and air traffic, or construction and building services, and even domestic and leisure activities.
There is a legal limit on noise that the Environmental Noise is 70 dB(A) over 24-hours of average exposure. Similarly, the limit of Occupational Noise is 85 dB(A) pe
NIOSH or 90 dB(A) pe
OSHAfor an 8-hour work period. In order to enforce these limits, these are the methods to measure noise, including Sound Level Meter (SLM), Sound Level Meter App, Integrating Sound Level Meter (ISLM), Impulse Sound Level Meter (Impulse SLM), Noise Dosimeter, and Personal Sound Exposure Meter (PSEM).
*
Sound Level Meter (SLM) measures the sound level at a single point of time and consequently requires multiple measurements to be taken at different times of the day. The SLM is primarily used for measuring relatively stable sound levels; there is increased difficulty in measuring the average sound exposure if the noise levels vary greatly.
Sound Level Meter Appis a program that can be downloaded to a mobile device. It receives noise through the phone’s built-in or external microphone and displays the sound level measurement from the app’s sound level meters and noise dosimeters.
* Integrating Sound Level Meter (ISLM) measures the equivalent sound levels within the measurement period. Because the ISLM measures noise in a particular area, it is difficult to measure a worker’s personal exposure as they move throughout a workspace.
* Impulse Sound Level Meter (Impulse SLM) measures the peak of each sound impulse. The most optimal conditions to measure the peaks occur when there is little background noise.
*
Noise Dosimeter
A noise dosimeter (American English) or noise dosemeter (British English) is a specialized sound level meter intended specifically to measure the noise exposure of a person integrated over a period of time; usually to comply with Health and Safet ...
collects the sound level for a given point in time, as well as different sound levels across time. The noise dosimeter can measure personal exposure levels and can be used in the areas with a high risk of fire.
* Personal Sound Exposure Meter (PSEM) is worn by employees while they work. The advantage of the PSEM is that it eliminates the need for noise assessors to follow up with workers when the assessors measure the noise levels of the work areas.
Excessive noise can lead to Occupational Hearing Loss. 12% of workers report having hearing difficulties, making this the third most common chronic disease in the U.S. Among these workers, 24% have hearing difficulties caused by occupational noise, with 8% affected by tinnitus, and 4% having both hearing difficulties and tinnitus.
Ototoxic
Ototoxicity is the property of being toxic to the ear (''oto-''), specifically the cochlea or auditory nerve and sometimes the vestibular system, for example, as a side effect of a drug. The effects of ototoxicity can be reversible and temporary, ...
chemicals including solvents, metals, compounds, asphyxiants, nitriles, and pharmaceuticals, may contribute further to hearing loss.
Exposure management and controls
The
hierarchy of control
Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. defines the approach used to reduce exposure risks protecting workers and communities. These methods include
elimination,
substitution,
engineering controls
Engineering controls are strategies designed to protect workers from hazardous conditions by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard or by removing a hazardous substance through air ventilation. Engineering controls involve a physi ...
(isolation or ventilation),
administrative controls
Administrative controls are training, procedure, policy, or shift designs that lessen the threat of a hazard to an individual. Administrative controls typically change the behavior of people (e.g., factory workers) rather than removing the actu ...
and
personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, elec ...
. Occupational hygienists, engineers, maintenance, management and employees should all be consulted for selecting and designing the most effective and efficient controls based on the hierarchy of control.
Professional societies
The development of industrial hygiene societies originated in the United States, beginning with the first convening of members for the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a professional association of industrial hygienists and practitioners of related professions, with headquarters in Cincinnati, Ohio. One of its goals is to advance worker pr ...
in 1938, and the formation of the
American Industrial Hygiene Association The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) is a 501(c)6 non-profit organization, whose mission is "Creating knowledge to protect worker health." The American Industrial Hygiene Association works to provide information and resources to Ind ...
in 1939. In the United Kingdom, the
British Occupational Hygiene Society
The British Occupational Hygiene Society (BOHS) is a Chartered, science-based, charitable body that provides information and expertise about workplace health risks or occupational hygiene. As of 2020, its chief executive officer is Kevin Bampton. ...
started in 1953. Through the years, professional occupational societies have formed in many different countries, leading to the formation of th
International Occupational Hygiene Associationin 1987, in order to promote and develop occupational hygiene worldwide through the member organizations.
The IOHA has grown to 29 member organizations, representing over 20,000 occupational hygienists worldwide, with representation from countries present in every continent.
Peer-reviewed literature
There are several academic journals specifically focused on publishing studies and research in the occupational health field. The ''Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene'' (JOEH) has been published jointly since 2004 by the
American Industrial Hygiene Association The American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) is a 501(c)6 non-profit organization, whose mission is "Creating knowledge to protect worker health." The American Industrial Hygiene Association works to provide information and resources to Ind ...
and the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a professional association of industrial hygienists and practitioners of related professions, with headquarters in Cincinnati, Ohio. One of its goals is to advance worker pr ...
, replacing the former ''American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal'' and ''Applied Occupational & Environmental Hygiene'' journals.
Another seminal occupational hygiene journal would be ''The Annals of Occupational Hygiene,'' published by the
British Occupational Hygiene Society
The British Occupational Hygiene Society (BOHS) is a Chartered, science-based, charitable body that provides information and expertise about workplace health risks or occupational hygiene. As of 2020, its chief executive officer is Kevin Bampton. ...
since 1958.
Further,
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health maintains a searchable bibliographic database (NIOSHTIC-2) of occupational safety and health publications, documents, grant reports, and other communication products.
Occupational hygiene as a career
Examples of occupational hygiene careers include:
* Compliance officer on behalf of regulatory agency
* Professional working on behalf of company for the protection of the workforce
* Consultant working on behalf of companies
* Researcher performing laboratory or field occupational hygiene work
Education
The basis of the technical knowledge of occupational hygiene is from competent training in the following areas of science and management:
* Basic Sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics (Statistics), Physics);
* Occupational Diseases (Illness, injury and health surveillance (biostatistics, epidemiology, toxicology));
* Health Hazards (Biological, Chemical and Physical hazards, Ergonomics and Human Factors);
* Working Environments (Mining, Industrial, Manufacturing, transport and storage, service industries and offices);
* Programme Management Principles (professional and business ethics, work site and incident investigation methods, exposure guidelines,
Occupational exposure limit
An occupational exposure limit is an upper limit on the acceptable concentration of a hazardous substance in workplace air for a particular material or class of materials. It is typically set by competent national authorities and enforced by legi ...
s, jurisdictional based regulations, hazard identification, risk assessment and
risk communication, data management, fire evacuation and other emergency responses);
* Sampling, measurement and evaluation practices (instrumentation, sampling protocols, methods or techniques, analytical chemistry);
* Hazard Controls (elimination, substitution, engineering, administrative, PPE and Air Conditioning and Extraction Ventilation);
* Environment (air pollution, hazardous waste).
However, it is not rote knowledge that identifies a competent occupational hygienist. There is an "art" to applying the technical principles in a manner that provides a reasonable solution for workplace and environmental issues. In effect an experienced "mentor", who has experience in occupational hygiene is required to show a new occupational hygienist how to apply the learned scientific and management knowledge in the workplace and to the environment issue to satisfactorily resolve the problem.
To be a professional occupational hygienist, experience in as wide a practice as possible is required to demonstrate knowledge in areas of occupational hygiene. This is difficult for "specialists" or those who practice in narrow subject areas. Limiting experience to individual subject like asbestos remediation, confined spaces, indoor air quality, or lead abatement, or learning only through a textbook or “review course” can be a disadvantage when required to demonstrate competence in other areas of occupational hygiene.
Information presented in Wikipedia can be considered to be only an outline of the requirements for professional occupational hygiene training. This is because the actual requirements in any country, state or region may vary due to educational resources available, industry demand or regulatory mandated requirements.
During 2010, the Occupational Hygiene Training Association (OHTA) through sponsorship provided by the IOHA initiated a training scheme for those with an interest in or those requiring training in occupational hygiene. These training modules can be downloaded and used freely. The available subject modules (Basic Principles in Occupational Hygiene, Health Effects of Hazardous Substances, Measurement of Hazardous Substances, Thermal Environment, Noise, Asbestos, Control, Ergonomics) are aimed at the ‘foundation’ and ‘intermediate’ levels in Occupational Hygiene. Although the modules can be used freely without supervision, attendance at an accredited training course is encouraged. These training modules are available fro
OH Learning.com
Academic programs offering industrial hygiene bachelor's or master's degrees in United States may apply to the
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to have their program accredited. As of October 1, 2006, 27 institutions have accredited their industrial hygiene programs. Accreditation is not available for Doctoral programs.
In the U.S., the training of IH professionals is supported by
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH, ) is the United States federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness. NIOSH is part of the C ...
through their
NIOSH Education and Research Centers
NIOSH Education and Research Centers are multidisciplinary centers supported by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health for education and research in the field of occupational health. Through the centers, NIOSH supports academic ...
.
Professional credentials
Australia
In 2005, the Australian Institute of Occupational Hygiene (AIOH) has accredited professional occupational hygienist through a certification scheme. Occupational Hygienists in Australian certified through this scheme are entitled to use the phrase Certified Occupational Hygienist (COH) as part of their qualifications.
Hong Kong
Registered Professional Hygienist Registration & Examination Board (RPH R&EB) is set up by the Council of the Hong Kong Institute of Occupational & Environmental Hygiene (HKIOEH) with an aim to enhance the professional development of Occupational Hygienists and to provide a path for persons who reach professional maturity in the field of occupational hygiene to obtain qualification recognised by peer professionals. Under HKIOEH, RPH R&EB operates the registration program of Registered Professional Hygienist (RPH) and qualifying examination in a standard meeting the practice as recognised by the National Accreditation recognition (NAR) Committee of the International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA).
United States
Practitioners who successfully meet specific education and work-experience requirements and pass a written examination administered by th
American Board of Industrial Hygiene(ABIH) are authorized to use the term Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) or Certified Associate Industrial Hygienist (CAIH). Both of these terms have been codified into law in many states in the United States to identify minimum qualifications of individuals having oversight over certain activities that may affect employee and general public health.
After the initial certification, the CIH or CAIH maintains their certification by meeting on-going requirements for ethical behavior, education, and professional activities (e.g., active practice, technical committees, publishing, teaching).
ABIH certification examinations are offered during a spring and fall testing window each year at more than 400 locations worldwide.
The CIH designation is the most well known and recognized industrial hygiene designation throughout the world. There are approximately 6800 CIHs in the world making ABIH the largest industrial hygiene certification organization. The CAIH certification program was discontinued in 2006. Those who were certified as a CAIH retain their certification through ongoing certification maintenance. People who are currently certified by the ABIH can be found in
public roster
The ABIH is a recognized certification board by the International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA). The CIH certification has been accredited internationally by the International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC 17024) (see ANSI). In the United States, the CIH has been accredited by the Council of Engineering and Scientific Specialty Boards
ESB
The Association of Professional Industrial Hygienists, Inc. (APIH) was established in 1994 to offer credentialing to industrial hygienists who meet the education and experience requirements found in Tennessee Code Annotated, Title 62, Chapter 40.
APIH adopted the Tennessee Code as its basis for credentialing because it was the first legal definition in the United States of an industrial hygienist in terms of education and experience. The APIH Registration Committee investigates and verifies, through electronic means or correspondence, both educational and experience accomplishments claimed by each applicant for registration. The Committee determines the appropriate level of registration, Registered Industrial Hygienist or Registered Professional Industrial Hygienist, and then authorizes the registration certificate to be issued.
Canada
In Canada, a practitioner who successfully completes a written test and an interview administered by th
Canadian Registration Board of Occupational Hygienistscan be recognized as a Registered Occupational Hygienist (ROH) or Registered Occupational Hygiene Technician (ROHT). There is also designation to be recognized as a Canadian Registered Safety Professional (CRSP).
United Kingdom
The Faculty of Occupational Hygiene, part of the British Occupational Hygiene Society, represents the interests of professional occupational hygienists.
Membership of the Faculty of Occupational Hygiene is confined to BOHS members who hold a recognized professional qualification in occupational hygiene.
There are three grades of Faculty membership:
* Licentiate (LFOH) holders will have obtained the BOHS Certificate of Operational Competence in Occupational Hygiene and have at least three years’ practical experience in the field.
* Members (MFOH) are normally holders of the Diploma of Professional Competence in Occupational Hygiene and have at least five years’ experience at a senior level.
* Fellows (FFOH) are senior members of the profession who have made a distinct contribution to the advancement of occupational hygiene.
All Faculty members participate in a Continuous Professional Development (CPD) scheme designed to maintain a high level of current awareness and knowledge in occupational hygiene.
India
The Indian Society of Industrial hygiene was formed in 1981 at Chennai, India. Subsequently, its secretariat was shifted to Kanpur. The society has registered about 400 members, about 90 of whom are life members. The society publishes a newsletter, "Industrial Hygiene Link". The current address of the secretary of the society is Shyam Singh Gautam, Secretary, Indian Society of Industrial Hygiene, 11, Shakti Nagar, Rama Devi, Kanpur 2008005 Mobile number 8005187037.
See also
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Occupational Health Science (journal)''
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References
Further reading
World Health Organization Occupational Health Publications [1">ttp://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/ampro/cinterfor/sid/servicio/encyclo/index.htm [1/nowiki>]
UK HSElineCanada hazard information(Partly commercial)
(US) NIOSH Pocket Guide(US) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry(US) National Library of Medicine Toxicology Data Network
(US) National Toxicology ProgramInternational Agency for Research on Cancer(by subscription only)
ChemfinderInchem* Many larger businesses maintain their own product and chemical information.
* There are also many subscription services available (CHEMINFO, OSH, CHEMpendium, Chem Alert, Chemwatch, Infosafe, RightAnswer.com's TOMES Plus, OSH Update, OSH-ROM, et cetera).
External links
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ttps://www.acgih.org/ American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists(ACGIH)
American Industrial Hygiene AssociationGovernment of Hong Kong Occupational Safety and Health Council, Air Contaminants in the WorkplaceView a PowerPoint Presentation Explaining What Industrial Hygiene Is - developed and made available by AIHAThe National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM)*
ttp://www.iso.org/iso/home.htm International Organization for Standardization (ISO)br>
International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA)Masobode Health Consultants (MHC)
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Industrial hygiene
Occupational safety and health