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''Ruta graveolens'', commonly known as rue, common rue or herb-of-grace, is a species of '' Ruta'' grown as an
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that ...
and herb. It is native to the Balkan Peninsula. It is grown throughout the world in
garden A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate bot ...
s, especially for its bluish leaves, and sometimes for its tolerance of hot and dry
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt Dirt is an unclean matter, especially when in contact with a person's clothes, skin, or possessions. In such cases, they are said to become dirty. Common types of dirt include: * Debri ...
conditions. It is also cultivated as a culinary herb, and to a lesser extent as an insect repellent and incense.


Etymology

The specific epithet ''graveolens'' refers to the strong-smelling leaves.J. D. Douglas and Merrill C. Tenney


Description

Rue is a woody,
perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wid ...
shrub. Its leaves are oblong, blue green and arranged pinnate; they release a strong aroma when they are bruised. The flowers are small with 4 to 5 dull yellow petals in clusters. They bear brown seed capsules when pollinated.


Uses


Traditional use

In the ancient Roman world, the naturalists
Pedanius Dioscorides Pedanius Dioscorides ( grc-gre, Πεδάνιος Διοσκουρίδης, ; 40–90 AD), “the father of pharmacognosy”, was a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author of '' De materia medica'' (, On Medical Material) —a 5-vo ...
and
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
recommended that rue be combined with the poisonous shrub
oleander ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), most commonly known as oleander or nerium, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the only species currently classified in the ge ...
to be drunk as an antidote to venomous snake bites. The refined oil of rue is an
emmenagogue Emmenagogues (also spelled ''emmenagogs'') are herbs which stimulate blood flow in the pelvic area and uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, in ...
and was cited by the Roman historian
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
and Soranus as an abortifacient (inducing abortion).


Culinary use

Rue has a culinary use, but since it is bitter and gastric discomfort may be experienced by some individuals, it is used sparingly. Although used more extensively in former times, it is not a herb that is typically found in modern cuisine. It is a component of berbere, the characteristic Ethiopian-Eritrean spice mixture, and as such is encountered in their cuisine. Also in
Ethiopia Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
, fresh rue is dipped in coffee before drinking it. Due to small amounts of toxins it contains, it must be used in small amounts, and should be avoided by pregnant women or women who have liver issues. It has a variety of other culinary uses: * It was used extensively in ancient Near Eastern and Roman cuisine (according to Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq and
Apicius ''Apicius'', also known as ''De re culinaria'' or ''De re coquinaria'' (''On the Subject of Cooking'') is a collection of Roman cookery recipes. It is thought to have been compiled in the fifth century AD. Its language is in many ways closer ...
). * Rue is used as a traditional flavouring in Greece and other Mediterranean countries. * In Istria (a region spanning Croatia and
Slovenia Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, an ...
), and in Northern Italy, it is used to give a special flavour to grappa/ raki and most of the time a little branch of the plant can be found in the bottle. This is called ''grappa alla ruta''. * Seeds can be used for porridge. * The bitter leaf can be added to eggs, cheese, fish, or mixed with damson plums and wine to produce a meat sauce. * In Italy in Friuli Venezia-Giulia, the young branches of the plant are dipped in a batter, deep-fried in oil, and consumed with salt or sugar. They are also used on their own to aromatise a specific type of omelette. * Used in Old World
beer Beer is one of the oldest and the most widely consumed type of alcoholic drink in the world, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from ce ...
s as
flavouring A flavoring (or flavouring), also known as flavor (or flavour) or flavorant, is a food additive used to improve the taste or smell of food. It changes the perceptual impression of food as determined primarily by the chemoreceptors of the gus ...
ingredient.


Other

Rue is also grown as an
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that ...
, both as a low hedge and so the leaves can be used in
nosegay A nosegay, posy, or tussie-mussie is a small flower bouquet, typically given as a gift. They have existed in some form since at least medieval times, when they were carried or worn around the head or bodice. Doilies are traditionally used to bi ...
s. Most cats dislike the smell of it, and it can, therefore, be used as a deterrent to them (see also ''
Plectranthus caninus ''Coleus caninus'', synonym ''Plectranthus caninus'', is a herb from the mint family Lamiaceae, native to southern and eastern Africa from Angola to Sudan and to India and Myanmar. A plant sold under the name "''Coleus canina''" or "scaredy cat ...
''). Caterpillars of some subspecies of the butterfly ''
Papilio machaon ''Papilio machaon'', the Old World swallowtail, is a butterfly of the family Papilionidae. The butterfly is also known as the common yellow swallowtail or simply the swallowtail (a common name applied to all members of the family, but this speci ...
'' feed on rue, as well as other plants. The caterpillars of ''
Papilio xuthus ''Papilio xuthus'', the Asian swallowtail, Chinese yellow swallowtail or Xuthus swallowtail, is a yellow-colored, medium to large sized swallowtail butterfly found in northeast Asia, northern Myanmar, southern China, Taiwan, the Korean Penins ...
'' also feed readily on it. Hasidic Jews also were taught that rue should be placed into amulets to protect them from epidemics and plagues. Other
Hasidim Ḥasīd ( he, חסיד, "pious", "saintly", "godly man"; plural "Hasidim") is a Jewish honorific, frequently used as a term of exceptional respect in the Talmudic and early medieval periods. It denotes a person who is scrupulous in his observ ...
rely on the works of a famous Baghdadi Kabbalist
Yaakov Chaim Sofer Yaakov Chaim Sofer (1870–1939) (Hebrew: יעקב חיים סופר) was a Sephardi rabbi, Kabbalist, Talmudist and ''posek''. He is the author of ''Kaf Hachaim'', a work of halakha that he came to be known by. Biography Sofer was born in Bagh ...
who makes mention of the plant "ruda" () as an effective device against both black magic and the
evil eye The Evil Eye ( grc, ὀφθαλμὸς βάσκανος; grc-koi, ὀφθαλμὸς πονηρός; el, (κακό) μάτι; he, עַיִן הָרָע, ; Romanian: ''Deochi''; it, malocchio; es, mal de ojo; pt, mau-olhado, olho gordo; ar ...
. It finds many household uses around the world as well. It is traditionally used in Central Asia as an insect repellent and room deodorizer.


Toxicity

Rue is generally safe if consumed in small amounts as an herb to flavor food. Rue extracts are
mutagenic In genetics, a mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause cancer i ...
and
hepatotoxic Hepatotoxicity (from ''hepatic toxicity'') implies chemical-driven liver damage. Drug-induced liver injury is a cause of acute and chronic liver disease caused specifically by medications and the most common reason for a drug to be withdrawn fro ...
. Large doses can cause violent gastric pain, vomiting, liver damage, and death. This is due to a variety of toxic compounds in the plant's sap. It is recommended to only use small amounts in food, and to not consume it excessively. It should be strictly avoided by pregnant women, as it can be an abortifacient and teratogen. Exposure to common rue, or herbal preparations derived from it, can cause severe
phytophotodermatitis Phytophotodermatitis, also known as berloque dermatitis or margarita photodermatitis, is a cutaneous phototoxic inflammatory reaction resulting from contact with a light-sensitizing botanical agent followed by exposure to ultraviolet light (from ...
, which results in burn-like blisters on the skin.


Chemistry

A series of furanoacridones and two
acridone alkaloids Acridone alkaloids are natural products derived from acridone. Occurrence Acridone alkaloids are found in bark, wood, leaves and roots of rue plants, especially in roots and suspension cultures of rue. Examples This group is named after ...
( arborinine and evoxanthine) have been isolated from ''R. graveolens''. It also contains
coumarin Coumarin () or 2''H''-chromen-2-one is an aromatic organic chemical compound with formula . Its molecule can be described as a benzene molecule with two adjacent hydrogen atoms replaced by a lactone-like chain , forming a second six-membered h ...
s and
limonoid Limonoids are phytochemicals of the triterpenoid class which are abundant in sweet or sour-scented citrus fruit and other plants of the families Cucurbitaceae, Rutaceae, and Meliaceae. Certain limonoids are antifeedants such as azadirachtin from ...
s. Cell cultures produce the coumarins
umbelliferone Umbelliferone, also known as 7-hydroxycoumarin, hydrangine, skimmetine, and ''beta''-umbelliferone, is a natural product of the coumarin family. It absorbs ultraviolet light strongly at several wavelengths. There are some indications that this ch ...
,
scopoletin Scopoletin is a coumarin. It found in the root of plants in the genus ''Scopolia'' such as ''Scopolia carniolica'' and ''Scopolia japonica'', in chicory, in ''Artemisia scoparia'', in the roots and leaves of stinging nettle ('' Urtica dioica''), i ...
,
psoralen Psoralen (also called psoralene) is the parent compound in a family of naturally occurring organic compounds known as the linear furanocoumarins. It is structurally related to coumarin by the addition of a fused furan ring, and may be considered ...
,
xanthotoxin Methoxsalen, sold under the brand name Oxsoralen among others, is a medication used to treat psoriasis, eczema, vitiligo, and some cutaneous lymphomas in conjunction with exposing the skin to ultraviolet (UVA) light from lamps or sunlight. Methox ...
,
isopimpinellin Isopimpinellin is a natural product synthesized by numerous plant species, especially species in the carrot family Apiaceae. The compound can be found in celery, garden angelica, parsnip, fruits and in the rind and pulp of limes. Several studies ...
, rutamarin and rutacultin, and the alkaloids
skimmianine Skimmianine is a furoquinoline alkaloid found in ''Skimmia japonica'', a flowering plant in family Rutaceae that is native to Japan and China. It is also a strong acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor. Biosynthesis The biosynthesis of skimmian ...
, kokusaginine, 6-methoxydictamnine and edulinine. The ethyl acetate extract of ''R. graveolens'' leaves yields two
furanocoumarin The furanocoumarins, or furocoumarins, are a class of organic chemical compounds produced by a variety of plants. Most of the plant species found to contain furanocoumarins belong to a handful of plant families. The families Apiaceae and Rutacea ...
s, one quinoline alkaloid and four quinolone alkaloids. The chloroform extracts of the root, stem and leaf shows the isolation of the furanocoumarin chalepensin. The essential oil of ''R. graveolens'' contains two main constituents, undecan-2-one (46.8%) and nonan-2-one (18.8%).


Symbolism

The bitter taste of its leaves led to rue being associated with the (etymologically unrelated) verb ''
rue ''Ruta graveolens'', commonly known as rue, common rue or herb-of-grace, is a species of ''Ruta'' grown as an ornamental plant and herb. It is native to the Balkan Peninsula. It is grown throughout the world in gardens, especially for its bluis ...
'' "to regret". Rue is well known for its symbolic meaning of regret and it has sometimes been called "herb-of-grace" in literary works. In mythology, the
basilisk In European bestiaries and legends, a basilisk ( or ) is a legendary reptile reputed to be a serpent king, who causes death to those who look into its eyes. According to the ''Naturalis Historia'' of Pliny the Elder, the basilisk of Cyrene i ...
, whose breath could cause plants to wilt and stones to crack, had no effect on rue.
Weasels Weasels are mammals of the genus ''Mustela'' of the family Mustelidae. The genus ''Mustela'' includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender b ...
who were bitten by the basilisk would retreat and eat rue in order to recover and return to fight.


In the Bible

Rue is mentioned in the Bible, Luke 11:42:
"But woe unto you, Pharisees! For ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs".


In Lithuania

Rue is considered a national herb of Lithuania and it is the most frequently referenced herb in Lithuanian folk songs, as an attribute of young girls, associated with virginity and maidenhood. It was common in traditional Lithuanian weddings for only virgins to wear a rue () at their wedding, a symbol to show their purity.


In Ukraine

Likewise, rue is prominent in Ukrainian folklore, songs and culture. In the Ukrainian folk song "Oi poli ruta, ruta" (O, rue, rue in the field), the girl regrets losing her virginity, reproaching the lover for "breaking the green hazel tree". (Ukrainian) " Chervona Ruta" (Червона Рута—"Red Rue") is a song, written by
Volodymyr Ivasyuk Volodymyr Mykhailovych Ivasyuk or Volodymyr Ivasiuk ( uk, Володи́мир Миха́йлович Івасю́к) (4 March 1949 – 24–27 April 1979) was a Ukrainian songwriter, composer and poet. He is the author and composer of the ...
, a popular Ukrainian poet and composer. Pop singer
Sofia Rotaru Sofiia Mykhailivna Yevdokymenko-Rotaru (born 7 August 1947), known as Sofia Rotaru ( uk, Софія Михайлівна Ротару ; russian: link=no, Софи́я Миха́йловна Рота́ру; ro, Sofia Rotaru), is a former Ukrainia ...
performed the song in 1971.


In Jewish culture

"''Una Matica de Ruda''" is a traditional Sephardic wedding song.


In English literature

It is one of the flowers distributed by the mad
Ophelia Ophelia () is a character in William Shakespeare's drama '' Hamlet'' (1599–1601). She is a young noblewoman of Denmark, the daughter of Polonius, sister of Laertes and potential wife of Prince Hamlet, who, due to Hamlet's actions, ends u ...
in
William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
's ''
Hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts ...
'' (IV.5): :"There's
fennel Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...
for you, and columbines: :there's rue for you; and here's some for me: :we may call it herb-grace o' Sundays: :O you must wear your rue with a
difference Difference, The Difference, Differences or Differently may refer to: Music * ''Difference'' (album), by Dreamtale, 2005 * ''Differently'' (album), by Cassie Davis, 2009 ** "Differently" (song), by Cassie Davis, 2009 * ''The Difference'' (al ...
..." It was planted by the gardener in '' Richard II'' to mark the spot where the Queen wept upon hearing news of Richard's capture (III.4.104–105): :"Here did she fall a tear, here in this place :I'll set a bank of rue, sour herb of grace." It is also given by the rusticated Perdita to her disguised royal father-in-law on the occasion of a sheep-shearing (
Winter's Tale ''The Winter's Tale'' is a play by William Shakespeare originally published in the First Folio of 1623. Although it was grouped among the comedies, many modern editors have relabelled the play as one of Shakespeare's late romances. Some criti ...
, IV.4): :"For you there's rosemary and rue; these keep :Seeming and savour all the winter long." It is used by Michael in Milton's '' Paradise Lost'' to give Adam clear sight (11.414): :"Then purg'd with euphrasy and rue :The visual nerve, for he had much to see." Rue is used by Gulliver in '' Gulliver's Travels'' (by Jonathan Swift) when he returns to England after living among the "
Houyhnhnms Houyhnhnms are a fictional race of intelligent horses described in the last part of Jonathan Swift's satirical 1726 novel ''Gulliver's Travels''. The name is pronounced either or . Swift apparently intended all words of the Houyhnhnm language ...
". Gulliver can no longer stand the smell of the English Yahoos (people), so he stuffs rue or tobacco in his nose to block out the smell.
"I was at last bold enough to walk the street in his (Don Pedro's) company, but kept my nose well with rue, or sometimes with tobacco".


See also

* ''
Peganum harmala ''Peganum harmala'', commonly called wild rue, Syrian rue, African rue, esfand or espand,Mahmoud OmidsalaEsfand: a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areasEncyclopedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6, pp. 583–584. Originall ...
'', an unrelated plant also known as "Syrian rue"


References


External links


Rue (Ruta graveolens L.) page
from Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages {{Taxonbar, from=Q25062 graveolens Herbs Medicinal plants Abortifacients Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Mutagens Subshrubs National symbols of Lithuania