![Iwakuni Digital TV Repeater](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Iwakuni_Digital_TV_Repeater.JPG)
A broadcast relay station, also known as a satellite station, relay transmitter, broadcast translator (U.S.), re-broadcaster (Canada),
repeater
In telecommunications, a repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it. Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction. Som ...
(
two-way radio
A two-way radio is a radio that can both transmit and receive radio waves (a transceiver), unlike a broadcast receiver which only receives content. It is an audio (sound) transceiver, a transmitter and receiver in one unit, used for bidirection ...
) or complementary station (Mexico), is a broadcast transmitter which repeats (or
transponds) the signal of a radio or television station to an area not covered by the originating station. It expands the
broadcast range
A broadcast range (also listening range or listening area for radio, or viewing range or viewing area for television) is the service area that a broadcast station or other transmission covers via radio waves (or possibly infrared light, which is ...
of a television or radio station beyond the primary signal's original coverage or improves service in the original coverage area. The stations may be (but are not usually) used to create a
single-frequency network
A single-frequency network or SFN is a broadcast network where several transmitters simultaneously send the same signal over the same frequency channel.
Analog AM and FM radio broadcast networks as well as digital broadcast networks can operate ...
. They may also be used by an AM or FM radio station to establish a presence on the other band.
Relay stations are most commonly established and operated by the same organisations responsible for the originating stations they repeat. However, depending on technical and regulatory restrictions, relays may also be set up by unrelated organisations.
Types
Broadcast translators
In its simplest form, a broadcast translator is a facility created to receive a terrestrial broadcast over the air on one frequency and rebroadcast the same (or substantially identical) signal on another frequency. These stations are used in television and radio to cover areas (such as valleys or rural villages) which are not adequately covered by a station's main signal. They can also be used to expand market coverage by duplicating programming on another band.
Boosters and distributed transmission
Relays which broadcast within (or near) the parent station's coverage area on the same channel (or frequency) are known in the U.S. as booster stations. Signals from the stations may interfere with each other without careful antenna design.
Radio interference
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrost ...
can be avoided by using
atomic time
International Atomic Time (abbreviated TAI, from its French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 450 atomic ...
, obtained from
GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite sy ...
satellite
A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioi ...
s, to synchronize co-channel stations in a
single-frequency network
A single-frequency network or SFN is a broadcast network where several transmitters simultaneously send the same signal over the same frequency channel.
Analog AM and FM radio broadcast networks as well as digital broadcast networks can operate ...
.
Analog television stations cannot have same-channel boosters unless opposite (
perpendicular
In elementary geometry, two geometric objects are perpendicular if they intersect at a right angle (90 degrees or π/2 radians). The condition of perpendicularity may be represented graphically using the ''perpendicular symbol'', ⟂. It ca ...
)
polarization is used, due to video
synchronization issues such as
ghosting. In the U.S., no new on-channel UHF signal boosters have been authorized since July 11, 1975.
A
distributed transmission system (DTS or DTx) uses several medium-power stations (usually digital) on the same frequency to cover a broadcast area, rather than one high-power station with repeaters on a different frequency. Although digital television stations are technically capable of sharing a channel, this is more difficult with the
8VSB
8VSB is the modulation method used for broadcast in the ATSC digital television standard. ATSC and 8VSB modulation is used primarily in North America; in contrast, the DVB-T standard uses COFDM.
A modulation method specifies how the radio sig ...
modulation and unvariable
guard interval used in
ATSC standards than with the
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) used in the European and Australian
DVB-T standard. A
distributed transmission system would have stringent synchronization requirements, requiring each transmitter to receive its signal from a central source for broadcast at a GPS-synchronized time. A DTS does not use broadcast repeaters in the conventional sense, since they cannot receive a signal from a main terrestrial broadcast transmitter for rebroadcast; to do so would introduce a re-transmission delay destroying the required synchronization, causing interference between transmitters.
The use of
virtual channel
In most telecommunications organizations, a virtual channel is a method of remapping the ''program number'' as used in H.222 Program Association Tables and Program Mapping Tables to a channel number that can be entered via digits on a receiver's ...
s is another alternative, although this may cause the same channel to appear several times in a receiver – once for each relay station – and require the user to tune to the best one (which may change due to
propagation
Propagation can refer to:
* Chain propagation in a chemical reaction mechanism
*Crack propagation, the growth of a crack during the fracture of materials
* Propaganda, non-objective information used to further an agenda
* Reproduction, and other fo ...
issues such as weather). Although boosters or DTS cause all relay stations to appear as one signal, they require careful
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more speciali ...
to avoid interference.
Satellite stations
Some licensed stations
simulcast
Simulcast (a portmanteau of simultaneous broadcast) is the broadcasting of programmes/programs or events across more than one resolution, bitrate or medium, or more than one service on the same medium, at exactly the same time (that is, simulta ...
another station. Relay stations in name only, they are generally licensed like any other station. Although this is unregulated in the U.S. and widely permitted in
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
, the U.S.
Federal Communications Commission
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that regulates communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable across the United States. The FCC maintains jurisdicti ...
(FCC) regulates
radio format
A radio format or programming format (not to be confused with broadcast programming) describes the overall content broadcast on a radio station. The radio format emerged mainly in the United States in the 1950s, at a time when radio was compelle ...
s to ensure diversity in programming.
U.S. satellite stations may request an FCC exemption from requirements for a properly staffed
broadcast studio in the
city of license
In American, Canadian, and Mexican broadcasting, a city of license or community of license is the community that a radio station or television station is officially licensed to serve by that country's broadcast regulator.
In North American br ...
. The stations often cover large, sparsely populated regions or operate as statewide
non-commercial educational radio
Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmi ...
and
television
Television, sometimes shortened to TV, is a telecommunication medium for transmitting moving images and sound. The term can refer to a television set, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertisin ...
systems.
Semi-satellites
A television re-broadcaster often sells local (or regional) advertising for broadcast only on the local transmitter, and may air a limited amount of programming distinct from its parent station. Some "semi-satellites" broadcast local news or separate news segments during part of the
newscast
News broadcasting is the medium of broadcasting various news events and other information via television, radio, or the internet in the field of broadcast journalism. The content is usually either produced locally in a radio studio or telev ...
.
CHEX-TV-2 in
Oshawa,
Ontario
Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central C ...
, aired daily late-afternoon and early-evening news and community programs separate from its parent station,
CHEX-TV in
Peterborough, Ontario
Peterborough ( ) is a city on the Otonabee River in Ontario, Canada, about 125 kilometres (78 miles) northeast of Toronto. According to the 2021 Census, the population of the City of Peterborough was 83,651. The population of the Peterborough ...
. The FCC prohibits this on U.S. FM translator stations, only permitting it on fully licensed stations.
In some cases, a semi-satellite is a formerly autonomous full-service station which is programmed remotely through
centralcasting or
broadcast automation to avoid the cost of a local staff.
CBLFT, an
owned-and-operated station of the
French-language network
Ici Radio-Canada Télé in
Toronto
Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the anch ...
, is a ''de facto'' semi-satellite of its stronger
Ottawa sibling
CBOFT; its programming has long been identical or differed only in local news and advertising. A financially weak privately owned broadcaster in a small market can become a ''de facto'' semi-satellite by gradually curtailing local production and relying on a commonly owned station in a larger city for programming;
WWTI in
Watertown, New York
Watertown is a city in, and the county seat of, Jefferson County, New York, United States. It is approximately south of the Thousand Islands, along the Black River about east of where it flows into Lake Ontario. The city is bordered by th ...
, relies on
WSYR-TV
WSYR-TV (channel 9) is a television station in Syracuse, New York, United States, affiliated with ABC. Owned by Nexstar Media Group, the station maintains studios on Bridge Street (off NY 290) in East Syracuse (a village of DeWitt), and i ...
in this manner. Broadcast automation allows the substitution of
syndicated programming or
digital subchannel content which the broadcaster was unable to obtain for both cities.
Some defunct full-service stations (such as
CJSS-TV
CJSS-TV was a television station in Cornwall, Ontario, Canada. In operation from 1959 to 1963 as a private affiliate of CBC Television, the station was later converted to a rebroadcaster of Ottawa's CJOH-TV.
The station originally signed on as a ...
in
Cornwall, Ontario
Cornwall is a city in Eastern Ontario, Canada, situated where the provinces of Ontario and Quebec and the state of New York converge. It is the seat of the United Counties of Stormont, Dundas, and Glengarry and is Ontario's easternmost city ...
, now
CJOH-TV-8) have become full satellite stations and originate nothing. If programming from the parent station must be removed or substituted due to local
sports blackouts, the modified signal is that of a semi-satellite station.
National networks
Most broadcasters outside North America, portions of South America, and Japan maintain a national network, and use relay transmitters to provide service to a region (or nation). Compared with other types of relays, the transmitter network is often created and maintained by an independent authority (funded with
television license
A television licence or broadcast receiving licence is a payment required in many countries for the reception of television broadcasts, or the possession of a television set where some broadcasts are funded in full or in part by the licence f ...
fees); several major broadcasters use the same transmitters.
In North America, a similar pattern of regional network broadcasting is sometimes used by state- or province-wide
educational television networks. A state or province establishes an educational station and extends it with several full-power transmitters to cover the entire jurisdiction, with no capability for local-programming origination. In the U.S., such regional networks are member stations of the national
Public Broadcasting Service.
Relay transmitters by country
Canada
In Canada, "re-broadcaster" or "re-broadcasting transmitter" are the terms most commonly used by the
Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
Television
A television re-broadcaster may sell local or regional advertising for broadcast only on the local transmitter. Rarely, they may air limited programming distinct from their parent station. Some "semi-satellites" broadcast local newscasts or separate news segments in part of a newscast.
There is no strict rule for the
call sign
In broadcasting and radio communications, a call sign (also known as a call name or call letters—and historically as a call signal—or abbreviated as a call) is a unique identifier for a transmitter station. A call sign can be formally assign ...
of a television re-broadcaster. Some transmitters have call signs different from the parent station (
CFGC in
Sudbury is a re-broadcaster of
CIII), and others use the call sign of the originating station followed by a number (such as the former
CBLFT-17 in
Sarnia
Sarnia is a city in Lambton County, Ontario, Canada. It had a Canada 2021 Census, 2021 population of 72,047, and is the largest city on Lake Huron. Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes w ...
, Ontario). The latter type officially includes the television station's -TV suffix between the call sign and the number, although it is often omitted from media directories.
The numbers are usually applied sequentially, beginning with "1", and denote the chronological order in which the station's rebroadcast transmitters began operation. Some broadcasters may use a system in which the number is the transmitter's broadcast channel, such as
CJOH-TV-47 in
Pembroke, Ontario. A broadcaster cannot mix the numbering systems under a single call sign; the transmitters are numbered sequentially or by their analogue channel. If sequential numbering reaches 99 (such as
TVOntario
TVO Media Education Group (often abbreviated as TVO and stylized on-air as tvo) is a publicly funded English-language educational television network and media organization serving the Canadian province of Ontario. It is operated by the Ontario ...
's former broadcast transmitters), the next transmitter is assigned a new call sign and numbered "1". Translators which share a frequency (such as
CBLT
CBLT-DT (channel 5) is a television station in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, serving as the flagship station of the English-language service of CBC Television. It is part of a twinstick with Ici Radio-Canada Télé outlet CBLFT-DT (channel 25). Bo ...
's former repeaters CBLET, CBLHT, CBLAT-2 and CH4113 on channel 12) are given distinct call signs.
Digital re-broadcasters may be numbered by the TV channel number of the analogue signal they replaced. TVOntario's CICO-DT-53 (digital UHF 26,
Belleville) is an example; the station was converted in 2011 to vacate an out-of-core analogue channel (UHF 53), and retains CICO-TV-53's former analogue UHF television call-sign numbering as a surviving TVO repeater.
Low-power re-broadcasters may have a call sign consisting of the letters CH followed by four numbers; for example,
CH2649 in
Valemount,
British Columbia
British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
, is a re-broadcaster of
Vancouver
Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the ...
's
CHAN. Re-broadcasters of this type are numbered sequentially in the order they were licensed by the CRTC, and their call signs are unrelated to the parent station or other re-broadcasters. Although the next number in the sequence (CH2650 in
Anzac, Alberta) is a re-broadcaster of CHAN, this is because CH2649 and CH2650 were licensed simultaneously; the following number, CH2651, is a re-broadcaster (also in Anzac) of
Edmonton
Edmonton ( ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Alberta. Edmonton is situated on the North Saskatchewan River and is the centre of the Edmonton Metropolitan Region, which is surrounded by Alberta's central region. The city ancho ...
's
CITV
CITV (short for Children's ITV, also known as the CITV Channel) is a British free-to-air children's television channel owned by ITV plc. It broadcasts content from the CITV archive and acquisitions, every day from 6 am to 9 pm which ...
. A station's re-broadcasters are not necessarily named in the same manner;
CBLT
CBLT-DT (channel 5) is a television station in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, serving as the flagship station of the English-language service of CBC Television. It is part of a twinstick with Ici Radio-Canada Télé outlet CBLFT-DT (channel 25). Bo ...
had re-transmitters with their own call signs (some used CBLT followed by a number, and some used CH numbers).
CBC and Radio-Canada owned-and-operated re-transmitters were shut down on August 1, 2012, along with most TVOntario transmitters (which often were located at Radio-Canada sites) and some
Aboriginal Peoples Television Network
The Aboriginal Peoples Television Network (APTN, stylized aptn) is a Canadian specialty channel. Established in 1992 and maintained by governmental funding to broadcast in Canada's northern territories, APTN acquired a national broadcast licen ...
(APTN) transmitters in the far north. Private commercial broadcasters operate full-power re-broadcasters to obtain "must carry" status on
cable television
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to consumers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables, or in more recent systems, light pulses through fibre-optic cables. This contrasts with bro ...
systems.
Transmitters in small markets with one (or no) originating stations were, in most cases, not required to convert to digital even if operating at full power. Transmitters broadcasting on UHF channels 52–69 were required to vacate the channels by August 31, 2011; some (such as a
CKWS-TV re-transmitter in
Brighton, Ontario
Brighton is a town in Northumberland County, Ontario, Northumberland County, Ontario, Canada, approximately east of Toronto and west of Kingston, Ontario, Kingston. It is traversed by both Ontario Highway 401, Highway 401 and the former Ontar ...
, and three TVOntario sites) went digital as part of a move to a lower frequency but do not provide
high-definition television
High-definition television (HD or HDTV) describes a television system which provides a substantially higher image resolution than the previous generation of technologies. The term has been used since 1936; in more recent times, it refers to the g ...
,
digital subchannels or any functions beyond that of the original analogue site.
Radio
Like a TV station, a radio re-broadcaster may have a distinct call sign or use the call sign of the originating station followed by a numeric suffix. The numeric suffix, however, is always sequential.
For a re-broadcaster of an
FM station, the numeric suffix is appended to the FM suffix; re-broadcasters of
CJBC-FM
CJBC-FM is a public Canadian radio station, broadcasting at 90.3 MHz in Toronto, Ontario. A French-language station, it airs the programming of Radio-Canada's Ici Musique network. CJBC's studios are located in the Canadian Broadcasting Centre, ...
in Toronto are numbered CJBC-FM-1, CJBC-FM-2, etc. If an
AM station has a re-broadcaster on the FM band, the numeric suffix falls between the four-letter call sign and the FM suffix; CKSB-1-FM is an FM re-broadcaster of the AM station
CKSB, and CKSB-FM-1 would be a re-broadcaster of
CKSB-FM
CKSB-FM (89.9 MHz) is a public radio station in Winnipeg, Manitoba, owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. It carries Radio-Canada's Ici Musique network, airing a mix of adult album alternative (AAA), classical music and other genres.
...
.
A broadcaster is limited to two stations on one band in a market, but a possible means to obtain a third FM signal in-market is to use a re-broadcaster of the AM station to move the signal to low-power FM. In Sarnia,
Blackburn Radio
Blackburn Radio, Inc. is a Canadian radio broadcasting group, which owns several radio stations in Southwestern Ontario. Headquartered in London, Ontario, the company is owned by 2061302 Ontario Limited, which is majority owned by Cogent Invest ...
owns
CFGX-FM (99.9) and
CHKS-FM
CHKS-FM is a Canadian radio station, which broadcasts at 106.3 FM in Sarnia, Ontario. The station broadcasts a classic hits format with the brand name ''Cool 106.3'' and it also serves Port Huron, Michigan.
CHKS-FM broadcasts in HD.
Range
CHK ...
(106.3); its third Sarnia station,
CHOK (1070 kHz), uses an FM repeater for city coverage as Country 103.9 FM (although the AM signal remains the station's official primary transmitter).
Low-power radio re-broadcasters may have a call sign consisting of VF followed by four numbers; however, a call sign of this type may also denote a low-power station which originates its own programming. Some stations licensed under the CRTC's experimental-broadcasting guidelines, a special class of short-term license (similar to
special temporary authority) sometimes granted to newer
campus and
community radio
Community radio is a radio service offering a third model of radio broadcasting in addition to commercial and public broadcasting. Community stations serve geographic communities and communities of interest. They broadcast content that is popula ...
operations, may have a call sign consisting of three letters from anywhere in Canada's
ITU-prefix range followed by three digits (such as
CFU758 or VEK565). Other stations in this license class have been assigned conventional Cxxx call signs. Former re-broadcasters have occasionally been converted to originating stations, retaining their former call sign; examples include
CITE-FM-1
CITE-FM-1 is a French-language radio station located in Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.
Owned and operated by Bell Media, it broadcasts on 102.7 MHz with an effective radiated power of 92,000 watts ( class C1) using an omnidirectional antenna on M ...
in
Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke ( ; ) is a city in southern Quebec, Canada. It is at the confluence of the Saint-François and Magog rivers in the heart of the Estrie administrative region. Sherbrooke is also the name of a territory equivalent to a regional cou ...
,
CBF-FM-8
CBF-FM-8 is a French-language Canadian radio station located in Trois-Rivières, Quebec.
Owned and operated by public broadcaster Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as part of the French-language Société Radio-Canada system, it broadcasts on 96 ...
in
Trois-Rivières
Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River across from the city of ...
and
CBAF-FM-15
CBAF-FM-15 is a French language Canadian radio station located in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.
Owned and operated by the (government-owned) Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (French: Société Radio-Canada), it broadcasts on 88.1 MHz u ...
in
Charlottetown.
Mexico
In
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, translator and booster stations are given the call sign of the parent station.
Television
Most television stations in Mexico are operated as repeaters of the networks they broadcast. Translator stations in Mexico are given call signs beginning with XE and XH.
Televisa
Grupo Televisa is a Mexican multimedia mass media company. A major Latin American mass media corporation, it often presents itself as the largest producer of Spanish-language content.
In April 2021, Televisa and Univision Communications announce ...
and
Azteca maintain two national networks apiece. Televisa's
Las Estrellas network includes 128 stations (the most in Mexico), and Azteca's networks have 88 and 91 stations. The stations may insert local advertising. Azteca's stations in larger cities may include local news and a limited amount of regional content;
Televisa
Grupo Televisa is a Mexican multimedia mass media company. A major Latin American mass media corporation, it often presents itself as the largest producer of Spanish-language content.
In April 2021, Televisa and Univision Communications announce ...
prefers to use its non-national
Gala TV
Gala TV was a bingo channel in the United Kingdom, launched in 2006 by Gala Bingo. The channel was removed from the satellite lineup in 2011. It continued as an online television channel, and in 2012 was renamed as Gala Live.
Gala TV broadca ...
network and
Televisa Regional
Televisa Regional is a unit of Grupo Televisa which owns and operates television stations across Mexico. The stations rebroadcast programming from its subsidiary TelevisaUnivision's other networks, and they engage in the local production of newsca ...
stations as outlets for local production. A number of translators also serve areas with little or no signal in their defined coverage area, known as ('shadow channels'). Most shadow channels air the same programming as their parent station. The northern and central regional network
Multimedios Televisión
Canal 6 (alternately known as Multimedios Televisión) is a network of Spanish language television stations primarily concentrated in northeastern Mexico and the southwestern United States. The system is part of Grupo Multimedios. The flagship st ...
in
Monterrey uses the same system to a smaller extent (its
XHSAW-TDT is the shadow channel of main station
XHAW-TDT in Monterrey), with regional output for local newscasts and advertising on a master schedule.
There are two main national networks of non-commercial TV stations in Mexico. One is the
Canal Once
Once (Eleven; formerly Once TV México and Canal Once) is a Mexican educational broadcast television network owned by National Polytechnic Institute. The network's flagship station is XEIPN-TDT channel 11 in Mexico City. It broadcasts across ...
(or XEIPN-TDT) network, operated by the
Instituto Politécnico Nacional
The National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico ( es, Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México; ), abbreviated IPN, is one of the largest public universities in Mexico with 171,581 students at the high school, undergraduate and postgraduate level ...
(IPN). Operating 13 transmitters, it airs its programs under a contract with the
Quintana Roo state network. The other network, operated by the
Sistema Público de Radiodifusión del Estado Mexicano (SPR), has 26 stations (16 operational); most are digital. The SPR transmitters are almost exclusively in cities where the IPN never built stations, and carry Canal Once as one of the five educational networks in the
multiplex
Multiplex may refer to:
* Multiplex (automobile), a former American car make
* Multiplex (comics), a DC comic book supervillain
* Multiplex (company), a global contracting and development company
* Multiplex (assay), a biological assay which measu ...
of the digital station.
Twenty-six of Mexico's 32 states also own and operate television services, and 16 use more than one transmitter. The largest (by number of stations) is
Telemax,
Sonora's state network, with 59 transmitters. Many state-network transmitters broadcast at a low
effective radiated power
Effective radiated power (ERP), synonymous with equivalent radiated power, is an IEEE standardized definition of directional radio frequency (RF) power, such as that emitted by a radio transmitter. It is the total power in watts that would h ...
(ERP). A few stations are owned by municipalities or translator associations. Like state networks, they transmit at very low power.
Transmitters re-broadcasting Mexico City stations to
Baja California
Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
and other communities along the Pacific coast normally operate on a two-hour delay behind the originating station; there is a one-hour delay in
Sonora, and
Quintana Roo
Quintana Roo ( , ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Quintana Roo ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Quintana Roo), is one of the 31 states which, with Mexico City, constitute the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 11 mu ...
(one hour ahead of central Mexico in 2015) receives programs one hour later than they are broadcast to most of the rest of Mexico.
Radio
Ten to 15 FM shadow channels exist, and they are required to be co-channel with the stations they re-transmit. Quintana Roo has the most FM shadow channels (seven), about half the national total. Three more FM shadows are authorized:
XETIA-FM/
XEAD-FM (
Ajijic,
Jalisco) and
XHRRR-FM (Tecolula,
Veracruz
Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states which, along with Me ...
).
United States
Radio
In July 2009, the basic FCC regulations concerning translators were:
* FM translators may be used for cross-band translation; this removed the restriction preventing FM translators from re-transmitting AM signals.
* No translator (or booster) may transmit anything other than the
simulcast
Simulcast (a portmanteau of simultaneous broadcast) is the broadcasting of programmes/programs or events across more than one resolution, bitrate or medium, or more than one service on the same medium, at exactly the same time (that is, simulta ...
of its licensed parent station, except for emergency warnings (such as
EAS) and 30 seconds per hour of fundraising.
* The parent station must
identify all its translators and boosters between 7 and 9a.m., 12:55 and 1:05 p.m., and 4 and 6p.m. each broadcast day, or each must be equipped with an automated
device (audio or
FSK) for hourly identification.
* Maximum power is 250 watts ERP for a translator, and 20 percent of the maximum allowable ERP for the primary station's class for a booster. There is no limit on
height
Height is measure of vertical distance, either vertical extent (how "tall" something or someone is) or vertical position (how "high" a point is).
For example, "The height of that building is 50 m" or "The height of an airplane in-flight is ab ...
for fill-in translators within the
service contour
In US broadcasting, service contour (or protected contour) refers to the area in which the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) predicts coverage.
The FCC calculates FM and TV contours based on effective radiated power (ERP) in a given direct ...
of the primary station.
* A translator (or booster) must stop transmitting if the parent station's signal is lost; this helps prevent unauthorized re-transmission of other stations.
There is one way programming may differ between a main station and an FM translator: an
HD Radio signal may contain
digital subchannels with different programming from the main analogue channel, and a translator may broadcast programming from the originating station's HD2 subchannel as the translator's main analogue signal.
W237DE (95.3 MHz in
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) broadcasts the format formerly carried by WTCY (1400 AM, now
WHGB
WHGB (1400 AM) is a commercial radio station in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The station is owned by Cumulus Media and broadcasts a sports radio format. Most programming is supplied by the CBS Sports Radio Network, in which parent company Cumulu ...
), receiving the signal from a
WNNK
WNNK-FM (104.1 FM) is a commercial radio station licensed to serve Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Owned by Cumulus Media it carries a hot adult contemporary format. The station's studios are on Vartan Way in Harrisburg, with its transmitter atop Blu ...
(104.1 FM) HD2 digital subchannel for analogue rebroadcast from the WNNK tower site on 95.3. It is legally an FM repeater of an FM station, although each signal would be heard with unique content by users with analogue
FM radio receivers.
Commercial stations may own their translators (or boosters) when the translator (or booster) is in the parent station's primary service contour; they can only fill in where
terrain
Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) involves the vertical and horizontal dimensions of land surface. The term bathymetry is used to describe underwater relief, while hypsometry studies terrain relative to sea level. The Latin wo ...
blocks the signal. Boosters may only be owned by the primary station; translators outside a primary station's service contour cannot be owned by (or receive financial support from) the primary station. Most translators operate by receiving the main station's on-air signal with a directional antenna and sensitive receiver and re-transmitting the signal. They may not transmit in the FM
reserved band from 88 to 92
MHz
The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to one event (or cycle) per second. The hertz is an SI derived unit whose expression in terms of SI base units is s−1, meaning that one he ...
, where only
non-commercial
A non-commercial (also spelled noncommercial) activity is an activity that does not, in some sense, involve commerce, at least relative to similar activities that do have a commercial objective or emphasis. For example, advertising-free community ...
stations are allowed. Non-commercial stations may broadcast in the commercial portion of the band, however. Unlike commercial stations, they can relay programming to translators via
satellite
A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioi ...
if the translators are in the reserved band. Translators in the commercial band may only be fed by a direct on-air signal from another FM station (or translator). Non-fill-in commercial-band translators may not be fed by satellite, according to FCC rule 74.1231(b). All stations may use any means to feed a booster.
All U.S. translator and booster stations are low-power and have a
class D license, making them secondary to other stations (including the parent); they must accept
interference
Interference is the act of interfering, invading, or poaching. Interference may also refer to:
Communications
* Interference (communication), anything which alters, modifies, or disrupts a message
* Adjacent-channel interference, caused by extr ...
from full-power (100 watts or more on FM) stations, while not causing any of their own. Boosters must not interfere with the parent station in the
community of license
In American, Canadian, and Mexican broadcasting, a city of license or community of license is the community that a radio station or television station is officially licensed to serve by that country's broadcast regulator.
In North American broad ...
. Licenses are automatically renewed with that of the parent station and do not require separate applications, although the renewal may be challenged with a petition to deny. FM booster stations are given the full call sign (including an -FM
suffix, even if there is none assigned) of the parent station plus a
serial number such as
WXYZ-FM1, WXYZ-FM2, etc.
FM translator stations may use sequential numbered call signs consisting of K or W followed by a three-digit number (201 through 300, corresponding to 88.1 to 107.9 MHz), followed by a pair of sequentially-assigned letters. The format is similar to that used by numbered television translators, where the number refers to the permanent channel assignment. The largest terrestrial radio-translator system in the U.S. in October 2008 belonged to
KUER-FM
KUER-FM (90.1 MHz) is a public radio station in Salt Lake City, Utah. Owned by the University of Utah, its studios are located in the Eccles Broadcast Center on the University of Utah campus, while its transmitter is located on Farnsworth Peak, ...
, the non-commercial radio outlet of the
University of Utah
The University of Utah (U of U, UofU, or simply The U) is a public research university in Salt Lake City, Utah. It is the flagship institution of the Utah System of Higher Education. The university was established in 1850 as the University of De ...
, with 33 translator stations ranging from
Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyomi ...
to
New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ke ...
and
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
.
Television
Unlike FM radio,
low-power television stations may operate as translators or originate their own programming. Translator stations are given call signs which begin with W (east of the
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it fl ...
) or K (west of the Mississippi, like regular stations) followed by a channel number and two
serial letters for each channel; the first stations on a channel are AA, AB, AC and so on). Television channels have two digits, from 02 to 36 (formerly 02 to 83; 02 to 69 and 02 to 51); FM radio channels are numbered from 200 (87.9 MHz) to 300 (107.9 MHz), one every 0.2 MHz (for example, W42BD or K263AF). An X after the number in these call signs does not indicate an experimental broadcasting license (as it may in other services), since all 26 letters are used in the sequence. When the sequence is exhausted, another letter is added. This has already happened for translator on channels 7 and 13 in K territory; what is now
KMNF-LD
KMNF-LD (channel 7) is a low-power television station in Mankato, Minnesota, United States, affiliated with NBC and The CW Plus. It is owned by Gray Television alongside dual CBS/Fox affiliate KEYC-TV (channel 12). Both stations share studios ...
was assigned callsign K13AAR-D in September 2018 and K07AAH-D in May 2019.
Numbered translator stations (a format such as W70ZZ) are typically low-power repeaters – often 100 watts (or less) on FM and 1,000 watts (or less) on television. The former translator band,
UHF television channels
70 through
83, was originally occupied primarily by low-powered translators. The combination of low power and high frequency limited broadcast range. The band was reallocated to
cellular telephone services during the 1980s, with the handful of remaining transmitters moved to lower frequencies.
Full-power repeaters such as
WPBS-TV
WPBS-TV (channel 16) is a PBS member television station in Watertown, New York, United States, owned by the St. Lawrence Valley Educational TV Council. The station's studios are located on Arsenal Street in Watertown, and its transmitter is loc ...
's identical-twin transmitter,
WNPI-TV, are normally assigned TV call signs like other full-power stations. These "satellite stations" do not have numbered call signs, and must operate in the same manner as other full-power broadcasters. This simulcasting is generally not regulated by the FCC, except when a station owner seeks an exemption from requirements such as restrictions on owning several full-service stations in the same market, limits on overlap in coverage area between commonly-owned stations, or requirements that each full-service station have a local studio and a skeleton staff capable of originating programming locally. These exemptions are normally justified on the basis of economic hardship, where a rural location unable to support a full-service originating station may be able to sustain a full-power re-broadcaster. Some stations (such as
KVRR
KVRR (channel 15) is a television station in Fargo, North Dakota, United States, affiliated with the Fox network. It is the flagship television property of locally based Red River Broadcasting, which has owned the station since its inception. ...
in
Fargo, North Dakota) are chains of as many as four full-power transmitters, each with its own call sign and license, covering a large, sparsely-populated region.
LPTV stations may also choose a four-letter call sign with an -LP suffix (shared with
low-power FM
Low-power broadcasting is broadcasting by a broadcast station at a low transmitter power output to a smaller service area than "full power" stations within the same region. It is often distinguished from "micropower broadcasting" (more commonly " ...
) for analog or -LD for digital; this is generally done only if the station originates programming.
Class A television
The class A television service is a system for regulating some low-power television (LPTV) stations in the United States. Class A stations are denoted by the broadcast callsign suffix "-CA" (analog) or "-CD" (digital), although very many analog - ...
stations are assigned calls with -CA and -CD suffixes. Digital stations which use numbers receive a -D suffix, such as W42BD-D. All are despite the fact that most of the full-power digital television stations had their -DT (originally -HD) suffixes dropped by the FCC before -D and -LD were implemented. Digital LPTV stations have their digital RF channel numbers as part of their digital call sign, which may differ from the
virtual channel
In most telecommunications organizations, a virtual channel is a method of remapping the ''program number'' as used in H.222 Program Association Tables and Program Mapping Tables to a channel number that can be entered via digits on a receiver's ...
(the analog number).
Numbered broadcast translators which are moved to another frequency are normally issued new call signs to reflect the updated channel assignment. This is not true of displaced translators using another frequency temporarily under a special technical authority. Although
K55KD could retain its call sign while it was displaced temporarily to channel 57 to resolve interference to
MediaFLO users, W81AA received the new call sign
W65AM when
channel 81 was deleted from the
bandplan
A frequency plan, bandplan, band plan or wavelength plan is a plan for using a particular band of radio frequencies, that are a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Each frequency plan defines the frequency range to be included, how channels ...
and the translator was moved to channel 65. On the rare occasion that a station moves back to its original channel, it receives its old call sign (which is not reused by another station).
=Digital transition
=
Low-power television stations are not required to simulcast a digital signal, nor were they required to cease analog operation in June 2009 like full-power stations. Full-power stations used for simulcasting another station were (like other full-service TV broadcasters) required to convert to digital in June 2009. The FCC defines "TV satellite stations" as "full-power broadcast stations authorized under Part 73 of the Commission's rules to re-transmit all or part of the programming of a parent station that is typically commonly owned". Since most satellite stations operate in small or sparsely-populated areas with an insufficient economic base to support full-service operations, many received FCC authorization on a case-by-case basis to
flash cut
A flash cut, also called a flash cutover, is an immediate change in a complex system, with no phase-in period.
In the United States, some telephone area codes were split or overlaid immediately, rather than being phased in with a permissive dia ...
from analog to digital on the same channel instead of simulcasting in both formats during the
digital transition.
Although no digital television mandates were forced on existing low-power television stations, Congress passed legislation in 2008 funding low-power stations which went digital by the conversion date or shortly thereafter. Some low-power stations were forced to change frequency to accommodate full-power stations which moved to UHF or operated digital companion channels on UHF during the transition period. By 2008, low- and full-power
channel 55 licensees were encouraged to relocate early to free spectrum for
Qualcomm's MediaFLO transmitters.
By 2011, remaining LPTV broadcasters on UHF channels 52 through 69 were forced onto lower channels. Many transmitters on the original UHF 70–83 translator band had to move twice; channels 70–83 were lost to mobile phones in 1983, followed by channels 52–69 between 2009 and 2011. Many low-power translators were also directly affected by a parent station's conversion to digital television. Translators which received an analog over-the-air signal from a full-service television station for rebroadcast needed to convert their receiving equipment, like individual viewers used
digital converter boxes. Although the signal transmitted by the repeater may have remained analog, the
uplink
In a telecommunications network, a link is a communication channel that connects two or more devices for the purpose of data transmission. The link may be a dedicated physical link or a virtual circuit that uses one or more physical links or sha ...
had to be changed. Twenty-three percent of the 4,000 licensed translators received a $1,000 federal-government subsidy for a portion of the additional equipment. Many other translators went
dark
Darkness, the direct opposite of lightness, is defined as a lack of illumination, an absence of visible light, or a surface that absorbs light, such as black or brown.
Human vision is unable to distinguish colors in conditions of very low lu ...
after the digital-transition deadline, or did not apply for new channels after UHF channels 52–69 were removed from the bandplan.
Some small translators operated by
directly converting a parent station's signal to another frequency for rebroadcast, without any other local signal processing or demodulation.
W07BA (a 16-watt repeater for
WSYR-TV
WSYR-TV (channel 9) is a television station in Syracuse, New York, United States, affiliated with ABC. Owned by Nexstar Media Group, the station maintains studios on Bridge Street (off NY 290) in East Syracuse (a village of DeWitt), and i ...
in
Syracuse, New York) was a simple piece of broadcast apparatus, shifting the main station's signal from channel nine to channel seven to cover a small valley in
DeWitt. Syracuse became a
UHF island
UHF television broadcasting is the use of ultra high frequency (UHF) radio for over-the-air transmission of television signals. UHF frequencies are used for both analog and digital television broadcasts. UHF channels are typically given highe ...
, WSYR-TV's main
ABC
ABC are the first three letters of the Latin script known as the alphabet.
ABC or abc may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Broadcasting
* American Broadcasting Company, a commercial U.S. TV broadcaster
** Disney–ABC Television ...
signal became a 100 kW digital broadcast on channel 17, and there is no longer a channel 9 signal to feed the repeater. Translators in remote locations with no
commercial power were expected to have problems deploying equipment for a digital uplink. Although many translators continued analog broadcasts and a minority transitioned to digital, some rural communities expected to find all local translator signals gone as a result of the originating stations' transition.
Controversy
By law, full-service local broadcasters are the primary occupants of the FM broadcast band; LPFM and translators are secondary occupants, with theoretically-equal status. In practice, however, frequencies assigned to translators become unavailable to new LPFM stations or existing stations wishing to upgrade.
Some distinctions place small, local LPFM operators at a disadvantage:
* The maximum power for an LPFM station (10 or 100 watts, depending on station class) is less than that of the largest FM broadcast translators (250 watts), limiting the reach of the LPFM signal.
* Minimum spacing (in distance and frequency) between stations is less strict for translators than for LPFM applicants. Although translator spacing is based on
signal contour
In US broadcasting, service contour (or protected contour) refers to the area in which the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) predicts coverage.
The FCC calculates FM and TV contours based on effective radiated power (ERP) in a given direct ...
levels (accounting for terrain and obstacles), LPFM stations have a more restrictive minimum-distance requirement.
* An LPFM broadcaster is required to generate local content; if there are several applicants for a frequency, those who agree to originate eight (or more) hours a day of local programming are favored. Translators are not required to originate anything locally.
* LPFM licenses are normally issued to non-commercial educational entities (such as schools or municipalities), and are subject to requirements precluding several commonly-owned stations; this is not true of translators. A non-commercial translator with no local or educational content can occupy space in the non-commercial segment (below 92 MHz) of the FM broadcast band. During the narrow FCC filing windows for new applicants, applications for broadcast translators from the same (or related) entities can request every locally-available frequency in several communities.
Broadcast translators for commercial stations are normally required to receive a signal from their parent full-service FM station
over the air
Over the Air was an annual mobile technology-focused overnight hack day event held in London from 2008 to 2016. The two-day event would include practical and educational talks and a hacking competition. Sponsors of the event have included the B ...
and re-transmit in the region covered by the main station, eliminating the need for a translator except where
terrain shielding
Terrain or relief (also topographical relief) involves the vertical and horizontal dimensions of land surface. The term bathymetry is used to describe underwater relief, while hypsometry studies terrain relative to sea level. The Latin wo ...
is a problem). This restriction does not apply to
non-commercial educational
A non-commercial educational station (NCE station) is a radio station or television station that does not accept on-air advertisements (TV ads or radio ads), as defined in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and was or ...
stations. Any non-commercial station, even one with no local or educational content, can apply for an unlimited number of translators to be fed by any means (including satellite). All take spectrum from local LPFM stations or rebroadcasters of local full-service stations.
=2003 translator boom
=
A 2003 FCC licensing window for new translator applications resulted in over 13,000 applications. Due to the number of license applications,
LPFM advocates called it the Great Translator Invasion.
Some broadcasters have taken advantage of FM translator regulations allowing non-commercial stations to feed distant translators with satellite
A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioi ...
-delivered programming hundreds (or thousands) of miles from the parent station's coverage area. The largest satellite-fed translator network was CSN International
Christian Satellite Network (CSN) International is a Christian radio network based in Twin Falls, Idaho. KAWZ, 89.9 MHz, in Twin Falls is the uplink station, feeding 337 broadcast translators nationwide and 42 full-power radio stations across t ...
. Other networks and individual churches affiliated with Calvary Chapel have also submitted multiple applications for translators. Not all translators can be fed by satellites, however; only translators in the non-commercial portion of the FM band (88.1 to 91.9 MHz) can be "satellators". All other translators must be directly fed off the air, except for "fill-in" facilities in a primary station's service contour. Translators may feed other translators, so it is possible to create small chains of translators fed from one distant station; if one translator failed, however, the network beyond the failed translator would go dark. The number of 2003 applications overwhelmed the FCC, which issued an emergency hold order on new translator applications until those already received were processed. The rules change sparked a series of lawsuits known as ''Prometheus Radio Project v. FCC
''Prometheus Radio Project v. FCC'', was a series of cases heard and adjudicated by the U.S. Third Circuit Court of Appeals from 2003 to 2010. A civilian activist group, Prometheus Radio Project, challenged new media ownership rules put forth by ...
''.
LPFM advocates allege that the proliferation of translators poses difficulties for non-translator station operators (particularly LPFM license applicants), who say that they cannot get stations on the air because translators occupy available channels in an area.
Since "satcasting" translators are only permitted on the non-commercial part of the spectrum (where LPFM stations do not exist), they do not threaten the ability of LPFM licensees to expand their facilities. Non-satcasting translators may be a problem for LPFM stations; if an LPFM station is "bumped" from its channel by a new full-power station, there may be no available frequency to which to move.
Proposed rules would revise the procedures by which nonprofit groups may apply for translators (prohibiting more than a certain number of translator applications to be owned by any one entity), and the FCC modified its channel requirements for LPFM broadcasters to free channel space. REC Networks petitioned the FCC to prioritize LPFM stations.
Australia
Radio
Australia's national radio networks (Radio National
Radio National, known on-air as RN, is an Australia-wide public service broadcasting radio network run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). From 1947 until 1985, the network was known as ABC Radio 2.
History
1937: Predecessors an ...
, ABC NewsRadio
ABC NewsRadio, since 2017 broadcast under the ABC News brand and for a short time known as ABC News on Radio, is a 24-hour news radio service broadcast by the Australian public broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). ABC ...
, Triple J
Triple J (stylised in all lowercase) is a government-funded, national Australian Radio in Australia, radio station intended to appeal to listeners of alternative music, which began broadcasting in January 1975. The station also places a greate ...
, ABC Classic FM
ABC Classic, formerly ABC-FM (also ABC Fine Music), and then ABC Classic FM, is an Australian classical music radio station available in Australia and internationally. Its website features classical music news, features and listening guides. ...
and SBS Radio
SBS Radio is an Australian radio network owned by the Special Broadcasting Service directed towards newly arrived immigrants in Australia. SBS Radio originally began as two stations based in Melbourne and Sydney, set up to provide pre-recorded ...
) have relay transmitters which allow each service to be broadcast as widely as possible. The ABC and SBS allow community-based relay transmitters to rebroadcast radio or television in areas which would otherwise have no service. Commercial radio broadcasters normally have relay transmitters only if local geography (such as mountains) prevents them from broadcasting to their entire market.
Television
Since the early-1990s market aggregation, each television broadcaster uses multiple relays to provide consistent service throughout Australia's large markets. Although each market is subdivided due to the legacy of previous commercial broadcasters (Southern Cross 10
10 Regional is an Australian television network owned by Southern Cross Austereo that is broadcast in Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and South Australia. The network is the primary affiliate of Network 10 i ...
(formerly Southern Cross Nine
10 Regional is an Australian television network owned by Southern Cross Austereo that is broadcast in Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and South Australia. The network is the primary affiliate of Network 10 i ...
) maintains two stations in the Victoria
Victoria most commonly refers to:
* Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia
* Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada
* Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory
* Victoria, Seychelle ...
market: GLV and BCV), the only difference between these sub-markets in practice is news service and local advertising. Except in major cities, all major television broadcasters use the same network of transmitters (which may have dozens of relay stations in each market). As a result, some areas have had trouble beginning digital
Digital usually refers to something using discrete digits, often binary digits.
Technology and computing Hardware
*Digital electronics, electronic circuits which operate using digital signals
**Digital camera, which captures and stores digital i ...
or HD service due to problems with regional transmitters.
Europe
Because most radio and television systems in Europe are national networks, the radio or television system in some countries can be considered a collection of relay stations in which each broadcaster uses a transmitter network (developed by the public broadcaster or maintained through a government-funded authority) to provide broadcast service to the entire nation.
Asia
In most parts of Asia, satellite is the preferred method of national signal coverage. Exceptions include Singapore (which bans civilian ownership of satellite receivers) and Malaysia, which only allows civilian ownership of receivers provided by Astro
Astro may refer to:
Entertainment and media
* Astro (South Korean band), a South Korean boy band
* Astro (UB40) (1957–2021), member of the British reggae band UB40
* Astro (Chilean band), a Chilean indie rock band
* Astro (Japanese band), ...
. Terrestrially, the scenario is similar to Europe's; the systems are considered national networks, and are a collection of relay stations maintained by a government-funded authority. In Japan, however, television stations are owned and operated by networks or are affiliates owned by other media companies.
See also
* Airborne radio relay
* Amateur radio repeater
* Call signs in North America
Call signs are frequently still used by North American broadcast stations, in addition to amateur radio and other international radio stations that continue to identify by call signs around the world. Each country has a different set of patterns ...
* Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunication signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. C ...
* Cellular repeater
A cellular repeater (also known as cell phone signal booster or cell phone signal amplifier) is a type of bi-directional amplifier used to improve cell phone reception. A cellular repeater system commonly consists of a donor antenna that receive ...
* Microwave radio relay
Microwave transmission is the transmission of information by electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the microwave frequency range of 300MHz to 300GHz(1 m - 1 mm wavelength) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwave signals are normally lim ...
* Repeater
In telecommunications, a repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it. Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction. Some ...
* Radio repeater
A radio repeater is a combination of a radio receiver and a radio transmitter that receives a signal and retransmits it, so that two-way radio signals can cover longer distances. A repeater sited at a high elevation can allow two mobile stations, ...
* Relay (disambiguation)
A relay is an electric switch operated by a signal in one circuit to control another circuit.
Relay may also refer to:
Historical
* Stage station, a place where exhausted horses being used for transport could be exchanged for fresh ones
* Cursus ...
* Shortwave relay station
Shortwave relay stations are transmitter sites used by international broadcasters to extend their coverage to areas that cannot be reached easily from their home state. For example, the BBC operates an extensive net of relay stations.
These days ...
* Transmitter station
A transmitter station or transmission facility is an installation used for transmitting radio frequency signals for wireless communication, broadcasting, microwave link, mobile telephone or other purposes.
Choice of location
The location may b ...
* Television transmitter
A television transmitter is a transmitter that is used for terrestrial (over-the-air) television broadcasting. It is an electronic device that radiates radio waves that carry a video signal representing moving images, along with a synchronized a ...
References
External links
FCC "FM Translators and Boosters" webpage
{{DEFAULTSORT:Broadcast Relay Station
Broadcast engineering
Broadcast transmitters
Broadcasting
Television technology
Television terminology