The Proteaceae form a
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
of
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
s predominantly distributed in the
Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises 83
genera
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
with about 1,660 known
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
.
Together with the
Platanaceae
Platanaceae, the "plane-tree family", is a family of flowering plants in the order Proteales. The family consists of only a single extant genus ''Platanus'', with eight known species. The plants are tall trees, native to temperate and subtropic ...
and
Nelumbonaceae
Nelumbonaceae is a family of aquatic flowering plants. ''Nelumbo'' is the sole extant genus, containing ''Nelumbo lutea'', native to North America, and ''Nelumbo nucifera'', widespread in Asia. At least four other genera, ''Nelumbites'', ''Exne ...
, they make up the order
Proteales
Proteales is an order of flowering plants consisting of three (or four) families. The Proteales have been recognized by almost all taxonomists.
The representatives of the Proteales are very different from each other. The order contains plants ...
. Well-known genera include ''
Protea
''Protea'' () is a genus of South African flowering plants, also called sugarbushes (Afrikaans: ''suikerbos'').
Etymology
The genus ''Protea'' was named in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, possibly after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form a ...
'', ''
Banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
'', ''
Embothrium
''Embothrium'' is a genus of two to eight species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) in the plant family Proteaceae, native to southern South America, in Chile and adjacent western Argentina; the genus occurs as far south as Tierra del Fuego ...
'', ''
Grevillea
''Grevillea'', commonly known as spider flowers, is a genus of about 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Grevillea'' are shrubs, rarely trees, with the leaves arranged alternately along the b ...
'', ''
Hakea
''Hakea'' ( ) is a genus of about 150 species of plants in the Family ''Proteaceae'', endemic to Australia. They are shrubs or small trees with leaves that are sometimes flat, otherwise circular in cross section in which case they are sometimes d ...
'' and ''
Macadamia
''Macadamia'' is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus ...
''. Species such as the New South Wales waratah (''
Telopea speciosissima
''Telopea speciosissima'', commonly known as the New South Wales waratah or simply waratah, is a large shrub in the plant family Proteaceae. It is endemic to New South Wales in Australia and is the floral emblem of that state. No subspecies a ...
''), king protea (''
Protea cynaroides
''Protea cynaroides'', also called the king protea, is a flowering plant. It is a distinctive member of ''Protea'', having the largest head (botany), flower head in the genus. The species is also known as giant protea, honeypot or king sugar bus ...
''), and various species of ''Banksia'', ''soman'', and ''Leucadendron'' are popular
cut flowers
Cut flowers are flowers or flower buds (often with some stem and leaf) that have been cut from the plant bearing it. It is usually removed from the plant for decorative use. Typical uses are in vase displays, wreaths and garlands. Many gardene ...
. The nuts of ''
Macadamia integrifolia
''Macadamia integrifolia'' is a small to medium-sized tree, growing to 15 metres in height. Native to rainforests in south east Queensland and northern New South Wales, Australia. Common names include macadamia, smooth-shelled macadamia, bush n ...
'' are widely grown commercially and consumed, as are those of
Gevuina avellana
''Gevuina avellana'' (Chilean hazelnut ( in Spanish language, Spanish), or ''Gevuina hazelnut''), is an evergreen tree, up to 20 meters (65 feet) tall. It is the only species currently classified in the genus ''Gevuina''. It is native to souther ...
on a smaller scale.
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
and
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
have the greatest concentrations of diversity.
Etymology
The name Proteaceae was adapted by
Robert Brown from the name Proteae coined in 1789 for the family by
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (; 12 April 1748 – 17 September 1836) was a French botanist, notable as the first to publish a natural classification of flowering plants; much of his system remains in use today. His classification was based on an e ...
, based on the genus ''Protea'', which in 1767
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
derived from the name of the Greek god
Proteus
In Greek mythology, Proteus (; Ancient Greek: Πρωτεύς, ''Prōteus'') is an early prophetic sea-god or god of rivers and oceanic bodies of water, one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea" ''(hálios gérôn)''. ...
, a deity who was able to change between many forms. This is an appropriate image, seeing as the family is known for its astonishing variety and diversity of flowers and leaves.
Description
![Rhopala heterophylla Pohl90](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Rhopala_heterophylla_Pohl90.png)
The genera of Proteaceae are highly varied, with ''
Banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
'' in particular providing a striking example of
adaptive radiation
In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic int ...
in plants.
This variability makes it impossible to provide a simple, diagnostic identification key for the family, although individual genera may be easily identified.
* Proteaceae range from prostrate shrubs to tall forest
tree
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...
s, of 40 m in height, and are usually of medium height or low or perennial
shrub
A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
s, except for some ''
Stirlingia
''Stirlingia'', commonly known as blueboy, is a genus of 7 species in the family Proteaceae, all of which are endemic to Western Australia.
Description
''Stirlingia'' grows as a shrub or herb arising from a perennial tap root or woody root stoc ...
'' species that are
herb
In general use, herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal ...
s. Some species are facultatively deciduous (''
Embothrium coccineum
''Embothrium coccineum'', Chilean firetree or Chilean firebush, commonly known in Chile and Argentina as ''notro'', ''ciruelillo'' and ''fósforo'' is a small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. It grows in the temperate for ...
''), rarely acaulescent, the cauline portion of the collar is often thickened (
lignotuber
A lignotuber is a woody swelling of the root crown possessed by some plants as a protection against destruction of the plant stem, such as by fire. Other woody plants may develop basal burls as a similar survival strategy, often as a response t ...
).
Indumentum
In biology, an indumentum (Latin, literally: "garment") is a covering of trichomes (fine "hairs") on a plant Davis, Peter Hadland and Heywood, Vernon Hilton (1963) ''Principles of angiosperm taxonomy'' Van Nostrandpage, Princeton, New Jersey, pa ...
of three-celled hairs, sometimes glandular, rarely absent, the apical cell is usually elongated, acute, sometimes equally or unequally bifid.
*
Leaves
A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
rarely aromatic, usually alternate, and in a spiral, rarely opposed, or verticilate; coriaceous, rarely fleshy or spinescent, simple or compound (imparipinate, imparibipinate or rarely palmate or digitate with pinnatisect segments), entire edge to (3-)pinnatisect (giving a fern-like aspect); rarely divided dichotomously, often remotely toothed, crenate or serrated, seated or stalked; the
petiole frequently with a swollen base but rarely sheathed (sometimes in ''
Synaphea''), without
stipule
In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole). Stipules are considered part of the anatomy of the leaf of a typical flowering plant, although in many speci ...
s; pinnate sometimes palmate or parallel
venation
Venation may refer to:
* Venation (botany), the arrangement of veins in leaves
* Wing venation, the arrangement of veins in insect wings
See also
*
* Vernation
Vernation (from ''vernal'' meaning ''spring'', since that is when leaves spring forth ...
, brochidodromous or reduced to a single prominent vane,
vernation
Vernation (from ''vernal'' meaning ''spring'', since that is when leaves spring forth in temperate regions) is the formation of new leaves or fronds. In plant anatomy, it is the arrangement of leaves in a bud.
In pine species, new leaves are short ...
normally conduplicate; anisophylly often occurs during the different growth periods; leaf blade dorsiventral, isobilateral or centred;
mesophyll tissue
A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, ste ...
usually with sclerenchymatous
idioblast
An idioblast is an isolated plant cell that differs from neighboring tissues. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments, and minerals. They could contain oil, latex, gum, resin, tannin or pigments etc. ...
s, rare secretory cavities. Brachy-paracytic
stoma
In botany, a stoma (from Greek ''στόμα'', "mouth", plural "stomata"), also called a stomate (plural "stomates"), is a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that controls the rate of gas exchange. The pore is bor ...
ta (laterocytic in ''
Bellendena
''Bellendena montana'', commonly known as mountain rocket, is a species of low-growing multi-stemmed shrub in the plant family Proteaceae. It is endemic to high-altitude subalpine and alpine regions in Tasmania, Australia. The prominent white flo ...
'').
Plant stem
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. It supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, stores nutrien ...
s with two types of radii, wide and multi-serrated or narrow and uni-serrated,
phloem
Phloem (, ) is the living biological tissue, tissue in vascular plants that transports the soluble organic compounds made during photosynthesis and known as ''photosynthates'', in particular the sugar sucrose, to the rest of the plant. This tran ...
stratified or not, trilacunar nodes with three
leaf trace
A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, st ...
s (rarely unilacunar with one trace),
sclereids
Sclereids are a reduced form of sclerenchyma cells with highly thickened, lignified cellular walls that form small bundles of durable layers of tissue in most plants.Evert, Ray F; Eichhorn, Susan E. Esau's Plant Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Ti ...
frequent;
bark
Bark may refer to:
* Bark (botany), an outer layer of a woody plant such as a tree or stick
* Bark (sound), a vocalization of some animals (which is commonly the dog)
Places
* Bark, Germany
* Bark, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland
Arts, ...
with
lenticel
A lenticel is a porous tissue consisting of cells with large intercellular spaces in the periderm of the secondarily thickened organs and the bark of woody stems and roots of dicotyledonous flowering plants. It functions as a pore, providing a ...
s frequently horizontally enlarged,
cork cambium
Cork cambium (pl. cambia or cambiums) is a tissue found in many vascular plants as a part of the epidermis. It is one of the many layers of bark, between the cork and primary phloem. The cork cambium is a lateral meristem and is responsible fo ...
present, usually superficial.
Root
In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the sur ...
s lateral and short, often grouped in bundles (''proteoid roots'') with very dense root hairs, rarely with
mycorrhiza
A mycorrhiza (from Greek μύκης ', "fungus", and ῥίζα ', "root"; pl. mycorrhizae, mycorrhiza or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant ...
.
*
Plant
Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...
s usually hermaphroditic, more rarely monoecious, dioecious or andromonoecious.
*
Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed o ...
s very variable, simple or compound, axillary or terminal, lateral flowers solitary or in pairs, rarely with a terminal flower,
racemiform,
paniculate
A panicle is a much-branched inflorescence. (softcover ). Some authors distinguish it from a compound spike inflorescence, by requiring that the flowers (and fruit) be pedicellate (having a single stem per flower). The branches of a panicle are of ...
or condensed, usually with
bract
In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s, sometimes converted into leaves or squamiform, forming a type of cone, or with bright colours, forming an involucre or pseudanthium, the peduncles and
pedicel
Pedicle or pedicel may refer to:
Human anatomy
*Pedicle of vertebral arch, the segment between the transverse process and the vertebral body, and is often used as a radiographic marker and entry point in vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty procedures
...
s sometimes contracted, compacted with the
rachis
In biology, a rachis (from the grc, ῥάχις [], "backbone, spine") is a main axis or "shaft".
In zoology and microbiology
In vertebrates, ''rachis'' can refer to the series of articulated vertebrae, which encase the spinal cord. In this c ...
, in some cases the congested inflorescences form super inflorescences (some ''
Alloxylon
''Alloxylon'' is a genus of four species in the family Proteaceae of mainly small to medium-sized trees. They are native to the eastern coast of Australia, with one species, '' A. brachycarpum'' found in New Guinea and the Aru Islands. The genus ...
''); very rarely the flowers are solitary and axillary near the end of branches; in species with lignotubers the flowers sometimes grow from these and pass through the soil (geophytes).
*
Flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s are usually perfect, actinomorphic, or zygomorphic, hypogynous, frequently large and showy. Flat or oblique, sometimes forming a gynophore. Hypogynous disk present and extrastaminal or absent.
Perianth
The perianth (perigonium, perigon or perigone in monocots) is the non-reproductive part of the flower, and structure that forms an envelope surrounding the sexual organs, consisting of the calyx (sepals) and the corolla (petals) or tepals when ...
of (3-)4(-8)
tepal
A tepal is one of the outer parts of a flower (collectively the perianth). The term is used when these parts cannot easily be classified as either sepals or petals. This may be because the parts of the perianth are undifferentiated (i.e. of very ...
s (sometimes interpreted as a dimerous and dichlamydeous perianth), in 1(-2) valvate whorls, sometimes elongated in a basal sack, free or fused in different ways (all fused or even one free and three basally to completely fused), or even connivent by marginally interdigitate papillae forming a tube or a bilabiate structure, zygomorphic, sometimes opening laterally in a variety of ways. Haplostemonous androecium, usually isostemonous, opposititepalous of (3-)4(-5)
stamen
The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10
Morphology and terminology
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...
s, all fertile or some converted into
staminode
In botany, a staminode is an often rudimentary, sterile or abortive stamen, which means that it does not produce pollen.Jackson, Benjamin, Daydon; ''A Glossary of Botanic Terms with their Derivation and Accent''; Published by Gerald Duckworth & Co. ...
s, usually filamentous, filaments partially or totally fused to the tepals, rarely free, basifixed
anther
The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10
Morphology and terminology
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filam ...
s adnate, ditheous, tetrasporangiate, sometimes
unilocular
A locule (plural locules) or loculus (plural loculi) (meaning "little place" in Latin) is a small cavity or compartment within an organ or part of an organism (animal, plant, or fungus).
In angiosperms (flowering plants), the term ''locule'' usu ...
and bisporagiate, introrse to latrorse (rarely), expanded connective, usually with apiculus,
dehiscence along longitudinal tears. Hypogynous glands (0-)1-4, squamiform or elongated, fleshy, free or fused forming a lunate or annular
nectar
Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists ...
y over the receptacle. Superior gynoecium of 1(-2) apocarpous
carpel
Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
s, sessile or stipitate (with a more or less elongated
gynophore A gynophore is the stalk of certain flowers which supports the gynoecium (the ovule-producing part of a flower), elevating it above the branching points of other floral parts.
Plant genera that have flowers with gynophores include '' Telopea'', ''P ...
), sometimes not completely closed,
style
Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to:
* Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable
* Design, the process of creating something
* Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...
usually developed,
stigma small or in the shape of a terminal or sub terminal disk or even lateral and oblique, often indented, papilous, moist or dry,
ovule
In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: the ''integument'', forming its outer layer, the ''nucellus'' (or remnant of the megasporangium), and the fe ...
s 1-100 or more per carpel, anatropous, hemianatropous, amphitropous or orthotropous, mostly hemitropous, bitegmic, crassinucellate,
chalaza
The chalaza (; from Greek "hailstone"; plural ''chalazas'' or ''chalazae'', ) is a structure inside bird eggs and plant ovules. It attaches or suspends the yolk or nucellus within the larger structure.
In animals
In the eggs of most birds (no ...
with a ring of vascular bundles, the funiculus is occasionally absent and the ovule is fused to the placenta, marginal
placentation
Placentation refers to the formation, type and structure, or arrangement of the placenta. The function of placentation is to transfer nutrients, respiratory gases, and water from maternal tissue to a growing embryo, and in some instances to remove ...
with various dispositions or apical.
*
Fruit
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering.
Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...
dehiscent or indehiscent, in
achene
An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and indehiscent (they do not ope ...
or nucule,
follicle,
drupe
In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pit'', ''stone'', or '' pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed (''kernel'') ...
(with lignified endocarp) or falsely drupal (with lignified internal mesocarp), sometimes similar to a
caryopsis
In botany, a caryopsis (plural caryopses) is a type of simple fruit—one that is monocarpellate (formed from a single carpel) and indehiscent (not opening at maturity) and resembles an achene, except that in a caryopsis the pericarp is fused ...
as it is fused to the wall of the ovary and the testa, often lignified and serotinous; the fruit from the same inflorescence are sometimes fused forming a syncarp.
*
Seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...
s 1-many, sometimes winged, flat to rounded, with
endosperm
The endosperm is a tissue produced inside the seeds of most of the flowering plants following double fertilization. It is triploid (meaning three chromosome sets per nucleus) in most species, which may be auxin-driven. It surrounds the embryo and ...
absent, present in ''Bellendina'', endotesta with an unusual layer containing crystals of
calcium oxalate
Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalic acid with the chemical formula . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' varies from 1 to 3. Anhydrous and all hydrated forms are colorless or white. The monohydrate ...
that is rarely absent, well differentiated
embryo
An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male spe ...
, straight, dicotyledonous, but often with 3 or more (up to 9) large cotyledons, often auriculate.
*
Pollen
Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...
in monads, triangular in polar view, (2-)3(-8)-aperturate, usually isopolar and triporate, biporate in ''
Embothrium
''Embothrium'' is a genus of two to eight species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) in the plant family Proteaceae, native to southern South America, in Chile and adjacent western Argentina; the genus occurs as far south as Tierra del Fuego ...
'' and the tribe Banksieae, colpoidate in ''
Beauprea
''Beauprea'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Its 13 extant species are endemic to New Caledonia, though closely related forms have been found in the fossil records of Australia and New Zealand. Its closest extant relative ...
'', spherical in ''
Aulax'' and ''
Franklandia'' or strongly anisopolar in some species of ''
Persoonia
''Persoonia'', commonly known as geebungs or snottygobbles, is a genus of about one hundred species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Persoonia'' are shrubs or small trees usually with smooth bark, simple leav ...
''; the openings of the former's tetrads follow Garside's Law.
*
Chromosomal number: ''n'' = 5, 7, 10–14, 26, 28; sizes range from very small (average of 1,0 μm) to very big (average of 14,4 μm) according to species; ''x'' = 7, 12.
Flowers
![Pincushion hakea03](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Pincushion_hakea03.jpg)
Generally speaking, the diagnostic feature of Proteaceae is the compound
flower head
A pseudanthium (Greek for "false flower"; ) is an inflorescence that resembles a flower. The word is sometimes used for other structures that are neither a true flower nor a true inflorescence. Examples of pseudanthia include flower heads, compos ...
or, more accurately,
inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed o ...
. In many genera, the most obvious feature is the large and often very showy inflorescences, consisting of many small
flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s densely packed into a compact head or spike. Even this character, however, does not occur in all Proteaceae; ''
Adenanthos
''Adenanthos'' is a genus of Australian native shrubs in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. Variable in habit and leaf shape, it is the only genus in the family where solitary flowers are the norm. It was discovered in 1791, and formally publ ...
'' species, for example, have solitary flowers. In most Proteaceae species, the pollination mechanism is highly specialised. It usually involves the use of a "pollen-presenter", an area on the
style
Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to:
* Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable
* Design, the process of creating something
* Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...
-end that presents the
pollen
Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...
to the pollinator.
Proteaceae flower parts occur in fours, but the four
tepal
A tepal is one of the outer parts of a flower (collectively the perianth). The term is used when these parts cannot easily be classified as either sepals or petals. This may be because the parts of the perianth are undifferentiated (i.e. of very ...
s are fused into a long, narrow tube with a closed cup at the top, and the filaments of the four
stamen
The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10
Morphology and terminology
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...
s are fused to the tepals, in such a way that the anthers are enclosed within the cup. The pistil initially passes along the inside of the perianth tube, so the stigma, too, is enclosed within the cup. As the flower develops, the pistil grows rapidly. Since the stigma is trapped, the style must bend to elongate, and eventually it bends so far, it splits the perianth along one seam. The style continues to grow until
anthesis
Anthesis is the period during which a flower is fully open and functional. It may also refer to the onset of that period.
The onset of anthesis is spectacular in some species. In ''Banksia'' species, for example, anthesis involves the extension ...
, when the
nectaries
Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists ...
begin to produce
nectar
Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists ...
. At this time, the perianth splits into its component tepals, the cup splits apart, and the pistil is released to spring more or less upright.
Ecology
![Protea caffra IMG 2758](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Protea_caffra_IMG_2758.JPG)
Many of the Proteaceae have specialised
proteoid root
Cluster roots, also known as proteoid roots, are plant roots that form clusters of closely spaced short lateral rootlets. They may form a two- to five-centimetre-thick mat just beneath the leaf litter. They enhance nutrient uptake, possibly by chem ...
s, masses of lateral roots and hairs forming a radial absorptive surface, produced in the leaf litter layer during seasonal growth, and usually shrivelling at the end of the growth season. They are an adaptation to growth in poor, phosphorus-deficient soils, greatly increasing the plants' access to scarce water and nutrients by exuding
carboxylates
In organic chemistry, a carboxylate is the conjugate base of a carboxylic acid, (or ). It is an ion with negative charge.
Carboxylate salts are salts that have the general formula , where M is a metal and ''n'' is 1, 2,...; ''carboxylate ...
that mobilise previously unavailable phosphorus. They also increase the root's absorption surface, but this is a minor feature, as it also increases competition for nutrients against its own root clusters.
However, this adaptation leaves them highly vulnerable to dieback caused by the ''
Phytophthora cinnamomi
''Phytophthora cinnamomi'' is a soil-borne water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants variously called "root rot", "dieback", or (in certain '' Castanea'' species), "ink disease". The plant pathogen is one of the wo ...
''
water mould
Oomycota forms a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms, called oomycetes (). They are filamentous and heterotrophic, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction of an oospore is the resul ...
, and generally intolerant of
fertilization
Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development. Proce ...
. Due to these specialized proteoid roots, the Proteaceae are one of few flowering plant families that do not form symbioses with
arbuscular mycorrhiza
An arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) (plural ''mycorrhizae'', a.k.a. ''endomycorrhiza'') is a type of mycorrhiza in which the symbiont fungus (''AM fungi'', or AMF) penetrates the cortical cells of the roots of a vascular plant forming arbuscules. (N ...
l fungi. They exude large amounts of organic acids (
citric acid
Citric acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula HOC(CO2H)(CH2CO2H)2. It is a colorless weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in t ...
and
malic acid
Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms ...
) every 2–3 days in order to aid the mobilization and absorption of phosphate. Many species are fire-adapted (
pyrophyte
Pyrophytes are plants which have adapted to tolerate fire.
Fire acts favourably for some species. "Passive pyrophytes" resist the effects of fire, particularly when it passes over quickly, and hence can out-compete less resistant plants, which are ...
s), meaning they have strategies for surviving fires that sweep through their habitat. Some are
resprouter
Resprouters are plant species that are able to survive fire by the activation of dormant vegetative buds to produce regrowth.
Plants may resprout from a bud bank that can be located in different places, including in the trunk or major branches (e ...
s, and have a thick rootstock buried in the ground that shoots up new stems after a fire, and others are
reseeders, meaning the adult plants are killed by the fire, but disperse their seeds, which are stimulated by the smoke to take root and grow. The heat was previously thought to have stimulated growth, but the chemicals in the smoke have now been shown to cause it.
There are four dioecious genera (''
Aulax'', ''
Dilobeia
''Dilobeia'' is a genus of trees in the family Proteaceae. It is endemic to Madagascar and contains two recognised species. It is most closely related to the genera ''Cenarrhenes'' (Tasmania) and ''Beaupreopsis'' (New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ...
'', ''
Heliciopsis
''Heliciopsis'' is a genus of about thirteen species of trees, constituting part of the flowering plant family Proteaceae.
They grow naturally in Burma, Indo-China, SE. China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, Java (Indonesia) and ...
'' and ''
Leucadendron
''Leucadendron'' is a genus of about 80 species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, endemic to South Africa, where they are a prominent part of the fynbos ecoregion and vegetation type.
Description
Species in the genus ''Leucadendron' ...
''), 11 andromonoecious genera and some other genera have species that are cryptically andromonoecious: two species are sterile and only reproduce vegetatively (''Lomatia tasmanica'', ''Hakea pulvinifera''). The species vary between being autocompatible and autoincompatible, with intermediate situations; these situations sometimes occur in the same species. The flowers are usually protandrous. Just before anthesis, the anthers release their
pollen
Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...
, depositing it onto the stigma, which in many cases has an enlarged fleshy area specifically for the deposition of its own pollen. Nectar-feeders are unlikely to come into contact with the anthers themselves, but can hardly avoid contacting the stigma; thus, the stigma functions as a
pollen-presenter
A pollen-presenter is an area on the tip of the style in flowers of plants of the family Proteaceae on which the anthers release their pollen prior to anthesis. To ensure pollination, the style grows during anthesis, sticking out the pollen-pres ...
, ensuring the nectar-feeders act as pollinators. The downside of this pollination strategy is that the probability of self-fertilisation is greatly increased; many Proteaceae counter this with strategies such as
protandry
Sequential hermaphroditism (called dichogamy in botany) is a type of hermaphroditism that occurs in many fish, gastropods, and plants. Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when the individual changes its sex at some point in its life. In particular, ...
, self-incompatibility, or preferential abortion of selfed seed. The systems for presenting pollen are usually highly diverse, corresponding to the diversification of the pollinators.
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by wind. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, birds ...
is carried out by
bee
Bees are winged insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their roles in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the western honey bee, for producing honey. Bees are a monophyly, monophyletic lineage within the ...
s,
beetle
Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...
s,
flies
Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...
,
moth
Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s, birds (
honeyeater
The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family (biology), family, Meliphagidae, of small to medium-sized birds. The family includes the Epthianura, Australian chats, myzomelas, friarbirds, wattlebirds, Manorina, miners and melidectes. They are ...
s,
sunbird
Sunbirds and spiderhunters make up the family Nectariniidae of passerine birds. They are small, slender passerines from the Old World, usually with downward-curved bills. Many are brightly coloured, often with iridescent feathers, particularly i ...
s,
sugarbird
The sugarbirds are a small genus, ''Promerops'', and family, Promeropidae, of passerine birds, restricted to southern Africa. In general appearance and habits, they resemble large, long-tailed sunbirds, but are possibly more closely related to ...
s and
hummingbird
Hummingbirds are birds native to the Americas and comprise the biological family Trochilidae. With about 361 species and 113 genera, they occur from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, but the vast majority of the species are found in the tropics aro ...
s) and mammals (rodents, small
marsupial
Marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass Marsupialia. All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas. A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a po ...
s,
elephant shrew
Elephant shrews, also called jumping shrews or sengis, are small insectivorous mammals native to Africa, belonging to the family Macroscelididae, in the order Macroscelidea. Their traditional common English name "elephant shrew" comes from a pe ...
s and
bats
Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera.''cheir'', "hand" and πτερόν''pteron'', "wing". With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight. Bats are more agile in flight than most bi ...
). The latter two means were evolutionarily derived from
entomophily
Entomophily or insect pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but not only of flowering plants, is distributed by insects. Flowers pollinated by insects typically advertise themselves with bright colours, some ...
in different, independent events. The dispersion of some species exhibit the curious phenomenon of
serotiny
Serotiny in botany simply means 'following' or 'later'.
In the case of serotinous flowers, it means flowers which grow following the growth of leaves, or even more simply, flowering later in the season than is customary with allied species. Havi ...
, which is associated with their pyrophytic behaviour: these trees accumulate fruits on their branches whose outer layers or protective structures (
bract
In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...
s) are highly lignified and resistant to fire. The fruit only release their seeds when they have been burnt and when the ground has been fertilized with ashes from the fire and is free from competitors. Many species have seeds with
elaiosome
Elaiosomes ( grc, ἔλαιον ''élaion'' "oil" + ''sóma'' "body") are fleshy structures that are attached to the seeds of many plant species. The elaiosome is rich in lipids and proteins, and may be variously shaped. Many plants have elaio ...
s that are dispersed by
ant
Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22 ...
s; the seeds with wings or thistledown exhibit
anemochory
In Spermatophyte plants, seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant.
Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their seeds, including both abiotic vectors, ...
, while the drupes and other fleshy fruit exhibit
endozoochory
In Spermatophyte plants, seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant.
Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their seeds, including both abiotic vectors, ...
as mammals and birds ingest them. Some African and Australian rodents are known to accumulate fruit and seeds of these plants in their nests in order to feed on them, although some manage to germinate.
Distribution
Proteaceae are mainly a Southern Hemisphere family, with its main centres of diversity in Australia and South Africa. It also occurs in Central Africa,
South
South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west.
Etymology
The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...
and
Central America
Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
,
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, eastern and south eastern
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
, and
Oceania
Oceania (, , ) is a region, geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Spanning the Eastern Hemisphere, Eastern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of ...
.
Only two species are known from New Zealand, although fossil pollen evidence suggests there were more previously.
It is a good example of a
Gondwana
Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
n family, with taxa occurring on virtually every land mass considered a remnant of the ancient
supercontinent
In geology, a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth's continent, continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass. However, some geologists use a different definition, "a grouping of formerly dispersed continents", ...
Gondwana, except
Antarctica
Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest contine ...
. The family and subfamilies are thought to have diversified well before the fragmentation of Gondwana, implying all of them are well over 90 million years old. Evidence for this includes an abundance of proteaceous
pollen
Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...
found in the
Cretaceous
The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of th ...
coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal is formed when dea ...
deposits of the
South Island
The South Island, also officially named , is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand in surface area, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman ...
of
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
. It is thought to have achieved its present distribution largely by
continental drift
Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across the ocean bed. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed into the science of pla ...
rather than dispersal across ocean gaps.
Phytochemistry
![Brabejum stellatifolium seed](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Brabejum_stellatifolium_seed.jpg)
No conclusive studies have been carried out on the chemical substances present in this broad family. The genera ''
Protea
''Protea'' () is a genus of South African flowering plants, also called sugarbushes (Afrikaans: ''suikerbos'').
Etymology
The genus ''Protea'' was named in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, possibly after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form a ...
'' and ''
Faurea
''Faurea'' is a genus containing 16 species of flowering plants in the protea family which occur in the summer rainfall area of southern Africa, extending to tropical Africa and Madagascar. The name honours South African soldier and botanist W ...
'' are unusual as they use
xylose
Xylose ( grc, ξύλον, , "wood") is a sugar first isolated from wood, and named for it. Xylose is classified as a monosaccharide of the aldopentose type, which means that it contains five carbon atoms and includes an aldehyde functional gro ...
as the main sugar in their nectar and as they have high concentrations of polygalactol, while
sucrose
Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula .
For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined ...
is the main sugar present in ''
Grevillea
''Grevillea'', commonly known as spider flowers, is a genus of about 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Grevillea'' are shrubs, rarely trees, with the leaves arranged alternately along the b ...
''.
Cyanogenic glycosides
In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides ...
, derived from
tyrosine
-Tyrosine or tyrosine (symbol Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine is one of the 20 standard amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize proteins. It is a non-essential amino acid with a polar side group. The word "tyrosine" is from the Gr ...
, are often present, as are
proanthocyanidines (
delphinidin
Delphinidin (also delphinidine) is an anthocyanidin, a primary plant pigment, and also an antioxidant. Delphinidin gives blue hues to flowers in the genera ''Viola'' and ''Delphinium''. It also gives the blue-red color of the grape that produces ...
and
cyanidin
Cyanidin is a natural organic compound. It is a particular type of anthocyanidin (glycoside version called anthocyanins). It is a pigment found in many red berries including grapes, bilberry, blackberry, blueberry, cherry, chokeberry, cranb ...
),
flavonol
Flavonols are a class of flavonoids that have the 3-hydroxyflavone backbone (IUPAC name : 3-hydroxy-2-phenylchromen-4-one). Their diversity stems from the different positions of the phenolic -OH groups. They are distinct from flavanols (with "a ...
s (
kaempferol
Kaempferol (3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a natural flavonol, a type of flavonoid, found in a variety of plants and plant-derived foods including kale, beans, tea, spinach, and broccoli. Kaempferol is a yellow crystalline solid with a meltin ...
,
quercetin
Quercetin is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols. It is found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, seeds, and grains; capers, red onions, and kale are common foods containing appreciable amounts of it. It has a bitter flavor a ...
and
myricetin
Myricetin is a member of the flavonoid class of polyphenolic compounds, with antioxidant properties. Common dietary sources include vegetables (including tomatoes), fruits (including oranges), nuts, berries, tea, and red wine. Myricetin is structu ...
) and
arbutin
Arbutin is a glycoside; a glycosylated hydroquinone extracted from the bearberry plant in the genus ''Arctostaphylos'' among many other medicinal plants, primarily in the family Ericaceae. Applied topically, it inhibits tyrosinase and thus preve ...
.
Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
s are usually absent.
Iridoid
Iridoids are a type of monoterpenoids in the general form of cyclopentanopyran, found in a wide variety of plants and some animals. They are biosynthetically derived from 8-oxogeranial. Iridoids are typically found in plants as glycosides, mos ...
s and
ellagic acid
Ellagic acid is a polyphenol found in numerous fruits and vegetables. It is the dilactone of hexahydroxydiphenic acid.
Name
The name comes from the French term ''acide ellagique'', from the word ''galle'' spelled backwards because it can be ob ...
are also absent.
Saponin
Saponins (Latin "sapon", soap + "-in", one of), also selectively referred to as triterpene glycosides, are bitter-tasting usually toxic plant-derived organic chemicals that have a foamy quality when agitated in water. They are widely distributed ...
s and
sapogenin
Sapogenins are the aglycones, or non-saccharide, portions of the family of natural products known as saponins. Sapogenins contain steroid or other triterpene frameworks as their key organic feature. For example, steroidal sapogenins such as tigge ...
s can be either present or absent in different species. Many species accumulate
aluminium
Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. I ...
.
Uses and cultivation
![MacNut2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/MacNut2.JPG)
Many traditional cultures have used Proteaceae as sustenance, medicine, for curing animal hides, as a source of dyes, firewood and as wood for construction. Aboriginal Australians eat the fruit of ''
Persoonia
''Persoonia'', commonly known as geebungs or snottygobbles, is a genus of about one hundred species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Persoonia'' are shrubs or small trees usually with smooth bark, simple leav ...
'', and the seeds of species from other genera, including ''
Gevuina
''Gevuina avellana'' (Chilean hazelnut ( in Spanish), or ''Gevuina hazelnut''), is an evergreen tree, up to 20 meters (65 feet) tall. It is the only species currently classified in the genus ''Gevuina''. It is native to southern Chile and adjace ...
'' and ''
Macadamia
''Macadamia'' is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus ...
'', form part of the diet of the indigenous peoples but are also sold throughout the world. The tender shoots of ''
Helicia
''Helicia'' is a genus of 110 species of trees and shrubs, constituting part of the plant family Proteaceae. They grow naturally in rainforests throughout tropical South and Southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, Indochina, Peninsular Mala ...
'' species are used in Java, and the nectar from the inflorescences of a number of species is drunk in Australia. Traditional medicines can be obtained from infusions of the roots, bark, leaves, or flowers of many species that are used as topical applications for skin conditions or internally as tonics, aphrodisiacs, and galactogens to treat headaches, cough, dysentery, diarrhea, indigestion, stomach ulcers, and kidney disease. The wood from the trees of this family is widely used in construction and for internal uses such as decoration; the wood from species of ''
Protea
''Protea'' () is a genus of South African flowering plants, also called sugarbushes (Afrikaans: ''suikerbos'').
Etymology
The genus ''Protea'' was named in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, possibly after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form a ...
'', ''
Leucadendron
''Leucadendron'' is a genus of about 80 species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, endemic to South Africa, where they are a prominent part of the fynbos ecoregion and vegetation type.
Description
Species in the genus ''Leucadendron' ...
'' and ''
Grevillea
''Grevillea'', commonly known as spider flowers, is a genus of about 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Grevillea'' are shrubs, rarely trees, with the leaves arranged alternately along the b ...
'' is especially popular. Many
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
are used in gardening, particularly genera of ''
Banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
'', ''
Embothrium
''Embothrium'' is a genus of two to eight species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) in the plant family Proteaceae, native to southern South America, in Chile and adjacent western Argentina; the genus occurs as far south as Tierra del Fuego ...
'', ''
Grevillea
''Grevillea'', commonly known as spider flowers, is a genus of about 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Grevillea'' are shrubs, rarely trees, with the leaves arranged alternately along the b ...
'', and ''
Telopea''. Unfortunately, this use has resulted in the introduction of exotic species that have become invasive; examples include the hakea willow (''
Hakea salicifolia
''Hakea salicifolia'' commonly known as the willow-leaved hakea, is species of flowering plant that is endemic to eastern Australia. It is an adaptable, fast growing small tree or shrub with attractive foliage and cream white flowers.
Descript ...
'') and the silky hakea (''
Hakea sericea
''Hakea sericea'', commonly known as bushy needlewood or silky hakea, is a large shrub with a profusion of mainly white flowers from July for several months. It is endemism, endemic to eastern Australia. It has become an environmental weed in so ...
'') in Portugal.
Two species of ''
Macadamia
''Macadamia'' is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus ...
'' are cultivated commercially for their edible nuts.
''
Gevuina avellana
''Gevuina avellana'' (Chilean hazelnut ( in Spanish language, Spanish), or ''Gevuina hazelnut''), is an evergreen tree, up to 20 meters (65 feet) tall. It is the only species currently classified in the genus ''Gevuina''. It is native to souther ...
'' (Chilean hazel) is also cultivated for its edible nuts, in
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
and
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
, and they are also used in the pharmaceutical industry for their humectant properties and as an ingredient in
sunscreen
Sunscreen, also known as sunblock or sun cream, is a photoprotective topical product for the skin that mainly absorbs, or to a much lesser extent reflects, some of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation and thus helps protect against sunburn and ...
s. It is the most cold-resistant of the tree families that produce nuts. It is also planted in the
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
and on the Pacific coast of the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
for its tropical appearance and its ability to grow in
cooler climates.
Many Proteaceae species are cultivated by the
nursery industry as barrier plants and for their prominent and distinctive flowers and foliage. Some species are of importance to the
cut flower industry
Cut flowers are flowers or flower buds (often with some stem and leaf) that have been cut from the plant bearing it. It is usually removed from the plant for decorative use. Typical uses are in vase displays, wreaths and garlands. Many gardener ...
, especially some ''
Banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
'' and ''
Protea
''Protea'' () is a genus of South African flowering plants, also called sugarbushes (Afrikaans: ''suikerbos'').
Etymology
The genus ''Protea'' was named in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, possibly after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form a ...
'' species. Two species of the genus ''
Macadamia
''Macadamia'' is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus ...
'' are grown commercially for edible nuts.
Sugarbushes (''
Protea
''Protea'' () is a genus of South African flowering plants, also called sugarbushes (Afrikaans: ''suikerbos'').
Etymology
The genus ''Protea'' was named in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, possibly after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form a ...
''), pincushions (''
Leucospermum
''Leucospermum'' is a genus of evergreen upright, sometimes creeping shrubs that is assigned to the Proteaceae, with currently forty-eight known species. Almost all species are easily recognised as ''Leucospermum'' because of the long protruding ...
'') and conebushes (''
Leucadendron
''Leucadendron'' is a genus of about 80 species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, endemic to South Africa, where they are a prominent part of the fynbos ecoregion and vegetation type.
Description
Species in the genus ''Leucadendron' ...
''), as well as others like pagodas (''
Mimetes
''Mimetes'', the pagoda, is a genus of evergreen shrubs or small trees high, with thirteen species assigned to the family Proteaceae. This genus, as with other proteas, is popular with nectarivorous birds such as the Cape sugarbird and several ...
''), ''
Aulax'' and blushing brides (''
Serruria
''Serruria'', or spiderhead is a genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, endemic to South Africa.
Names
''Serruria'' was named in honor of Joseph Serrurier, a professor of botany at the Utrecht University early in the eighteenth ce ...
''), comprise one of the three main plant groups of
fynbos
Fynbos (; meaning fine plants) is a small belt of natural shrubland or heathland vegetation located in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. This area is predominantly coastal and mountainous, with a Mediterranean clim ...
, which forms part of the
Cape Floral Kingdom, the smallest but richest plant kingdom for its size and the only kingdom contained within a single country. The other main groups of plants in fynbos are the
Ericaceae
The Ericaceae are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the heath or heather family, found most commonly in acidic and infertile growing conditions. The family is large, with c.4250 known species spread across 124 genera, making it th ...
and the
Restionaceae
The Restionaceae, also called restiads and restios, are a family (biology), family of flowering plants native to the Southern Hemisphere; they vary from a few centimeters to 3 meters in height. Following the APG IV system, APG IV (2016): the fami ...
. South African proteas are thus widely cultivated due to their many varied forms and unusual flowers. They are popular in South Africa for their beauty and their usefulness in
wildlife garden
A wildlife garden (or wild garden) is an environment created by a gardener that serves as a sustainable haven for surrounding wildlife. Wildlife gardens contain a variety of habitats that cater to native and local plants, birds, amphibians, rep ...
s for attracting birds and useful insects.
The species most valued as ornamentals are the trees that grow in southern latitudes as they give landscapes in
temperate climates
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
a tropical appearance; ''
Lomatia ferruginea'' (Fuinque), ''
Lomatia hirsuta
Lomatia hirsuta, known as radal, is a tree native to Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
In Chile it grows from Coquimbo to Chiloe (36 to 42°S). It grows on a variety of soils and humidity. It grows on poor soils near ravines.
Description
''Lomatia ...
'' (Radal) have been introduced in Western
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and to the western
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
. ''
Embothrium coccineum
''Embothrium coccineum'', Chilean firetree or Chilean firebush, commonly known in Chile and Argentina as ''notro'', ''ciruelillo'' and ''fósforo'' is a small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. It grows in the temperate for ...
'' (Chilean Firetree or ''Notro'') is highly valued in the British Isles for its dark red flowers and can be found as far north as the
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
at a latitude of 62° north.
Among the
banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
s, many of which grow in temperate and Mediterranean climates, the vast majority are shrubs; only a few are trees that are valued for their height. Among the tallest species are: Banksia integrifolia, ''B. integrifolia'' with its subspecies Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticola, ''B. integrifolia'' subsp. ''monticola'', which is noteworthy as the plants that form the subspecies are the tallest trees of the banksias and they are the more frost-resistant than other banksias, Banksia seminuda, ''B. seminuda'', Banksia littoralis, ''B. littoralis'', Banksia serrata, ''B. serrata''; among those that can be considered small trees or large shrubs: Banksia grandis, ''B. grandis'', Banksia prionotes, ''B. prionotes'', Banksia marginata, ''B. marginata'', Banksia coccinea, ''B. coccinea'' and Banksia speciosa, ''B. speciosa''; all of these are planted in parks and gardens and even along roadsides because of their size. The rest of the species of this genus, around 170 species, are shrubs, although some of them are valued for their flowers.
Another species that is cultivated in some parts of the world, although it is smaller, is ''
Telopea speciosissima
''Telopea speciosissima'', commonly known as the New South Wales waratah or simply waratah, is a large shrub in the plant family Proteaceae. It is endemic to New South Wales in Australia and is the floral emblem of that state. No subspecies a ...
'' (Waratah), from the mountains of New South Wales,
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
.
Some temperate climate species are cultivated more locally in Australia for their attractive appearance: ''Persoonia pinifolia'' (pine-leaved Persoonia, geebung) is valued for its vivid yellow flowers and grape-like fruit. ''Adenanthos sericeus'' (woolly bush) is planted for its attractive soft leaves and its small red or orange flowers. ''Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia'' (beef nut, red bauple nut) is commonly planted for its foliage and edible nuts.
Parasites
![Hakea purpurea](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Hakea_purpurea.JPG)
The Proteaceae are particularly susceptible to certain parasites, in particular the oomycete ''
Phytophthora cinnamomi
''Phytophthora cinnamomi'' is a soil-borne water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants variously called "root rot", "dieback", or (in certain '' Castanea'' species), "ink disease". The plant pathogen is one of the wo ...
'', which causes severe root rot in the plants that grow in Mediterranean climates. ''Fusarium oxysporum'' causes a disease called fusariosis in roots that causes a yellowing and wilting, with serious ecological damages to woodland plants and economic losses in plants of commercial interest. Other common infections are caused by species of ''Botryosphaeria'', ''Rhizoctonia'', ''Armillaria'', ''Botryotinia, Botrytis'', ''Calonectria'' and other fungi.
Conservation status
The IUCN
[IUCN 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. . Downloaded on 22 February 2007] considers that 47 Proteaceae species are threatened, of which one species, ''Stenocarpus dumbeensis'' André Guillaumin, Guillaumin, 1935, from New Caledonia, is thought to be extinct. The species of this family are particularly susceptible to the destruction or fragmentation of their habitat, fire, parasitic diseases, Competition (biology), competition from introduced plants, soil retrogression and degradation, soil degradation and other damage provoked by humans and their domesticated animals. The species are also affected by climate change.
Fossils
![Lambertia multiflora](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Lambertia_multiflora.jpg)
The Proteaceae have a rich fossil record, despite the inherent difficulties in identifying remains that do not show diagnostic characteristics. Identification usually comes from using a combination of brachy-paracytic stomata and the unusual trichome bases or, in other cases, the unusual structure of pollen tetrads. ''Xylocaryon'' was identified as a member of the Proteaceae from the similarity of its fruit to the extant genus ''Eidothea''.
Fossils attributable to this family have been found on the majority of areas that formed the
Gondwana
Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
supercontinent. A wide variety of pollen belonging to this family dating back to the Upper
Cretaceous
The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of th ...
(Campanian-Maastrichtian) from the south east of Australia and pollen from the Middle Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) from northern Africa and Peru described as ''Triorites africaensis''. The first macrofossils appear twenty million years later in the Palaeocene of South America and the north east of Australia. The fossil record of some areas, such as New Zealand and Tasmania, show a greater biodiversity for Proteaceae than currently exists, which supports the fact that the distribution of many taxa has changed drastically with the passage of time and that the family has suffered a general decline, including high levels of extinction during the Cenozoic.
Taxonomy
![Woorikee2000](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Woorikee2000.jpg)
First described by French botanist
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (; 12 April 1748 – 17 September 1836) was a French botanist, notable as the first to publish a natural classification of flowering plants; much of his system remains in use today. His classification was based on an e ...
, the family Proteaceae is a fairly large one, with around 80 genera, but less than 2000 species. It is recognised by virtually all Taxonomy (biology), taxonomists. Firmly established under classical Linnaean taxonomy, it is also recognised by the cladistics-based APG system, APG and APG II system, APG II systems. It is placed in the order
Proteales
Proteales is an order of flowering plants consisting of three (or four) families. The Proteales have been recognized by almost all taxonomists.
The representatives of the Proteales are very different from each other. The order contains plants ...
, whose placement has itself varied.
A classification of the genera within Proteaceae was made by Lawrence Alexander Sidney Johnson, Lawrie Johnson and Barbara G. Briggs, Barbara Briggs
in their influential 1975 monograph "On the Proteaceae: the evolution and classification of a southern family",
until it was largely superseded by the molecular studies of Peter H. Weston and Nigel Barker in 2006. Proteaceae are now divided into five subfamilies: Bellendenoideae, Persoonioideae, Symphionematoideae, Proteoideae and Grevilleoideae.
In 2008 Mast and colleagues updated ''Macadamia'' and related genera in tribe Macadamieae. Furthermore, ''Orites megacarpus'' was found not to be within the genus ''Orites'', nor in the tribe Roupaleae, instead in the tribe Macadamieae, hence given the new species name ''Nothorites megacarpus''.
The full arrangement, according to Weston and Barker (2006) with the updates to genera from Mast et al. (2008), is as follows:
![Banksia coccinea (Illustrationes Florae Novae Hollandiae plate 3)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Banksia_coccinea_%28Illustrationes_Florae_Novae_Hollandiae_plate_3%29.jpg)
:Family Proteaceae
::Subfamily Bellendenoideae
:::::''
Bellendena
''Bellendena montana'', commonly known as mountain rocket, is a species of low-growing multi-stemmed shrub in the plant family Proteaceae. It is endemic to high-altitude subalpine and alpine regions in Tasmania, Australia. The prominent white flo ...
''
::Subfamily Persoonioideae
:::Tribe Placospermeae
:::::''Placospermum''
:::Tribe Persoonieae
:::::''Toronia'' — ''Garnieria'' — ''Acidonia'' — ''
Persoonia
''Persoonia'', commonly known as geebungs or snottygobbles, is a genus of about one hundred species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Persoonia'' are shrubs or small trees usually with smooth bark, simple leav ...
''
::Subfamily Symphionematoideae
:::::''Agastachys'' — ''Symphionema''
::Subfamily Proteoideae
:::incertae sedis
:::::''Eidothea'' — ''
Beauprea
''Beauprea'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Its 13 extant species are endemic to New Caledonia, though closely related forms have been found in the fossil records of Australia and New Zealand. Its closest extant relative ...
'' — ''Beaupreopsis'' — ''
Dilobeia
''Dilobeia'' is a genus of trees in the family Proteaceae. It is endemic to Madagascar and contains two recognised species. It is most closely related to the genera ''Cenarrhenes'' (Tasmania) and ''Beaupreopsis'' (New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ...
'' — ''Cenarrhenes'' — ''
Franklandia''
:::Tribe Conospermeae
::::Subtribe Stirlingiinae
:::::''
Stirlingia
''Stirlingia'', commonly known as blueboy, is a genus of 7 species in the family Proteaceae, all of which are endemic to Western Australia.
Description
''Stirlingia'' grows as a shrub or herb arising from a perennial tap root or woody root stoc ...
''
::::Subtribe Conosperminae
:::::''Conospermum'' — ''
Synaphea''
:::Tribe Petrophileae
:::::''Petrophile'' — ''
Aulax''
:::Tribe Proteeae
:::::''
Protea
''Protea'' () is a genus of South African flowering plants, also called sugarbushes (Afrikaans: ''suikerbos'').
Etymology
The genus ''Protea'' was named in 1735 by Carl Linnaeus, possibly after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form a ...
'' — ''
Faurea
''Faurea'' is a genus containing 16 species of flowering plants in the protea family which occur in the summer rainfall area of southern Africa, extending to tropical Africa and Madagascar. The name honours South African soldier and botanist W ...
''
:::Tribe Leucadendreae
::::Subtribe Isopogoninae
:::::''Isopogon''
::::Subtribe Adenanthinae
:::::''
Adenanthos
''Adenanthos'' is a genus of Australian native shrubs in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. Variable in habit and leaf shape, it is the only genus in the family where solitary flowers are the norm. It was discovered in 1791, and formally publ ...
''
::::Subtribe Leucadendrinae
:::::''
Leucadendron
''Leucadendron'' is a genus of about 80 species of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, endemic to South Africa, where they are a prominent part of the fynbos ecoregion and vegetation type.
Description
Species in the genus ''Leucadendron' ...
'' — ''
Serruria
''Serruria'', or spiderhead is a genus of flowering plants in the family Proteaceae, endemic to South Africa.
Names
''Serruria'' was named in honor of Joseph Serrurier, a professor of botany at the Utrecht University early in the eighteenth ce ...
'' — ''Paranomus'' — ''Vexatorella'' — ''Sorocephalus'' — ''Spatalla'' — ''
Leucospermum
''Leucospermum'' is a genus of evergreen upright, sometimes creeping shrubs that is assigned to the Proteaceae, with currently forty-eight known species. Almost all species are easily recognised as ''Leucospermum'' because of the long protruding ...
'' — ''
Mimetes
''Mimetes'', the pagoda, is a genus of evergreen shrubs or small trees high, with thirteen species assigned to the family Proteaceae. This genus, as with other proteas, is popular with nectarivorous birds such as the Cape sugarbird and several ...
'' — ''Diastella'' — ''Orothamnus''
::Subfamily Grevilleoideae
:::incertae sedis
:::::''Sphalmium'' — ''Carnarvonia araliifolia, Carnarvonia''
:::Tribe Roupaleae
::::incertae sedis
:::::''Megahertzia'' — ''Knightia (plant), Knightia'' — ''Eucarpha'' — ''Triunia''
::::Subtribe Roupalinae
:::::''Roupala'' — ''Neorites'' — ''Orites''
::::Subtribe Lambertiinae
:::::''Lambertia'' — ''Xylomelum''
::::Subtribe Heliciinae
:::::''
Helicia
''Helicia'' is a genus of 110 species of trees and shrubs, constituting part of the plant family Proteaceae. They grow naturally in rainforests throughout tropical South and Southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, Indochina, Peninsular Mala ...
'' — ''Hollandaea''
::::Subtribe Floydiinae
:::::''Darlingia'' — ''Floydia''
:::Tribe Banksieae
::::Subtribe Musgraveinae
:::::''Musgravea'' — ''Austromuellera''
::::Subtribe Banksiinae
:::::''
Banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
''
:::Tribe Embothrieae
::::Subtribe Lomatiinae
:::::''Lomatia''
::::Subtribe Embothriinae
:::::''
Embothrium
''Embothrium'' is a genus of two to eight species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) in the plant family Proteaceae, native to southern South America, in Chile and adjacent western Argentina; the genus occurs as far south as Tierra del Fuego ...
'' — ''Oreocallis'' — ''
Alloxylon
''Alloxylon'' is a genus of four species in the family Proteaceae of mainly small to medium-sized trees. They are native to the eastern coast of Australia, with one species, '' A. brachycarpum'' found in New Guinea and the Aru Islands. The genus ...
'' — ''
Telopea''
::::Subtribe Stenocarpinae
:::::''Stenocarpus'' — ''Strangea''
::::Subtribe Hakeinae
:::::''Opisthiolepis'' — ''Buckinghamia'' — ''
Hakea
''Hakea'' ( ) is a genus of about 150 species of plants in the Family ''Proteaceae'', endemic to Australia. They are shrubs or small trees with leaves that are sometimes flat, otherwise circular in cross section in which case they are sometimes d ...
'' — ''
Grevillea
''Grevillea'', commonly known as spider flowers, is a genus of about 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the family Proteaceae. Plants in the genus ''Grevillea'' are shrubs, rarely trees, with the leaves arranged alternately along the b ...
'' — ''Finschia''
:::Tribe Macadamieae
::::Subtribe Macadamiinae
:::::''
Macadamia
''Macadamia'' is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus ...
'' — ''Lasjia'' — ''Nothorites'' — ''Panopsis'' — ''Brabejum''
::::Subtribe Malagasiinae
:::::''Malagasia'' — ''Catalepidia''
::::Subtribe Virotiinae
:::::''Virotia'' — ''Athertonia'' — ''
Heliciopsis
''Heliciopsis'' is a genus of about thirteen species of trees, constituting part of the flowering plant family Proteaceae.
They grow naturally in Burma, Indo-China, SE. China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, Java (Indonesia) and ...
''
::::Subtribe Gevuininae
:::::''Cardwellia'' — ''Sleumerodendron'' — ''Euplassa'' — ''
Gevuina
''Gevuina avellana'' (Chilean hazelnut ( in Spanish), or ''Gevuina hazelnut''), is an evergreen tree, up to 20 meters (65 feet) tall. It is the only species currently classified in the genus ''Gevuina''. It is native to southern Chile and adjace ...
'' — ''Bleasdalea'' — ''Hicksbeachia'' — ''Kermadecia'' — ''Turrillia''
References
*
*
*
*
* Brown, R
On the Proteaceae of Jussieu''Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, Proceedings of the Linnean Society'' 10:15-216.
External links
*
*
Images of Proteaceae from the Australian National Botanical GardensMap
{{Authority control
Proteaceae,
Eudicot families
Extant Cenomanian first appearances