''Prometheus Bound'' ( grc, Προμηθεὺς Δεσμώτης, ''Promētheús Desmṓtēs'') is an
ancient Greek tragedy
Greek tragedy is a form of theatre from Ancient Greece and Greek inhabited Anatolia. It reached its most significant form in Athens in the 5th century BC, the works of which are sometimes called Attic tragedy.
Greek tragedy is widely believed t ...
traditionally attributed to
Aeschylus
Aeschylus (, ; grc-gre, Αἰσχύλος ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian, and is often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Greek ...
and thought to have been composed sometime between 479 BC and the
terminus ante quem
''Terminus post quem'' ("limit after which", sometimes abbreviated to TPQ) and ''terminus ante quem'' ("limit before which", abbreviated to TAQ) specify the known limits of dating for events or items..
A ''terminus post quem'' is the earliest da ...
of 424 BC. The tragedy is based on the myth of
Prometheus
In Greek mythology, Prometheus (; , , possibly meaning "forethought")Smith"Prometheus". is a Titan god of fire. Prometheus is best known for defying the gods by stealing fire from them and giving it to humanity in the form of technology, know ...
, a
Titan who defies Zeus, and protects and gives fire to mankind, for which he is subjected to the wrath of Zeus and punished.
C. J. Herington claims that Aeschylus certainly did not mean ''Prometheus Bound'' to be a "self-contained dramatic unity", and suggests that "most modern students of the subject would probably agree" that ''Prometheus Bound'' was followed by a work with the title ''Prometheus Lyomenos (Prometheus Unbound)''. Herington adds that "some very slight evidence" indicates that ''Prometheus Unbound'' "may have been followed by a third play", ''Prometheus Pyrphoros (Prometheus the Fire-Bearer)''; the latter two survive only in fragments. Some scholars have proposed that these fragments all originated from ''Prometheus Unbound'', and that there were only two Promethean plays rather than three. Since the final two dramas of the trilogy have been lost, the author's intention for the work as a whole is not known.
The ascription to Aeschylus had never been challenged since antiquity down to relatively recent times. By the 1970s, both
R. P. Winnington-Ingram and
Denys Page
Sir Denys Lionel Page (11 May 19086 July 1978) was a British classicist and textual critic who served as the 34th Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Cambridge and the 35th Master of Jesus College, Cambridge. He is best known for h ...
had become sceptical of its authenticity, but the majority of scholars still affirmed the traditional attribution of authorship. Independently in 1977 both
Oliver Taplin
Oliver Taplin, FBA (born 2 August 1943) is a retired British academic and classicist. He was a fellow of Magdalen College and Professor of Classical Languages and Literature at the University of Oxford. He holds a DPhil from Oxford University.
Ac ...
and Mark Griffith made forceful cases, on linguistic, technical and stagecraft grounds, for questioning its authenticity, a view supported by
M. L. West
Martin Litchfield West, (23 September 1937 – 13 July 2015) was a British philologist and Classics, classical scholar. In recognition of his contribution to scholarship, he was awarded the Order of Merit in 2014.
West wrote on Music of Ancien ...
. To date, no consensus on the matter has been established, though recent computerized stylometric analysis has thrown the burden of proof on those who uphold the traditional claim.
Synopsis
Before the play begins,
Kronos, the ruler of the pre-
Olympian gods (the
Titans
In Greek mythology, the Titans ( grc, οἱ Τῑτᾶνες, ''hoi Tītânes'', , ''ho Tītân'') were the pre-Olympian gods. According to the ''Theogony'' of Hesiod, they were the twelve children of the primordial parents Uranus (Sky) and Ga ...
), had been overthrown by an insurgency led by Zeus. In that revolt, Prometheus had sided with Zeus. As the new king, Zeus intended to destroy and replace humankind. Prometheus frustrated this plan, showing humans the use of fire, which Prometheus had stolen. Prometheus also taught humanity the arts. For these acts of defiance, Zeus intends to punish Prometheus by chaining him to a rock in the mountains of
Scythia
Scythia (Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe.
His ...
.
The play opens with four characters on stage, a feature unique to the surviving corpus of Greek tragedy.
Kratos and
Bia,
personification
Personification occurs when a thing or abstraction is represented as a person, in literature or art, as a type of anthropomorphic metaphor. The type of personification discussed here excludes passing literary effects such as "Shadows hold their b ...
s of brute power and callous violence respectively, are engaged in fettering the silent Prometheus to a mountainside in
Scythia
Scythia (Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe.
His ...
, and are assisted in the task by the begrudging blacksmith of the gods,
Hephaestus
Hephaestus (; eight spellings; grc-gre, Ἥφαιστος, Hḗphaistos) is the Greek god of blacksmiths, metalworking, carpenters, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metallurgy, fire (compare, however, with Hestia), and volcanoes.Walter Burk ...
. Zeus, an off-stage character in this play, is portrayed as a tyrannical leader.
Only one of Zeus's two agents, Kratos, speaks in this scene, and he announces his orders harshly and insolently. Kratos states that the punishment meted out to Prometheus is due to the fact he stole fire and revealed the secret of how it is produced to humanity, adding that the punitive measure taken will compel Prometheus to take cognizance of the sovereignty of Zeus. For Prometheus, his punishment occurs because he dared to rescue mankind from being annihilated by Zeus. The penalty exacted is particularly galling since he himself had been instrumental in securing Zeus's victory in the
Titanomachy
In Greek mythology, the Titanomachy (; grc, , , Titan battle) was a ten-year series of battles fought in Ancient Thessaly, consisting of most of the Titans (the older generation of gods, based on Mount Othrys) fighting against the Twelve Olympi ...
.
Hephaestus performs his task, shackling Prometheus to the mountain, whereupon all three exit, leaving Prometheus alone on stage. Prometheus now speaks, and appeals to the powers of Nature, which are all around him. He calls on the wind, the mountains' springs of water, the Earth and the Sun — to witness how he suffers unfairly. Somewhat elliptically he intuits what the future might portend in positive terms, and his outrage diminishes.
Prometheus becomes aware that something is approaching. He hears the beating of wings, and inhales the scent of the ocean. A chorus enters, made up of the
daughters of Oceanus. From within their deep sea-caves, they had heard the sound of the hammering, and were drawn by curiosity and fear. They have arrived without stopping to put on their sandals. Before they come closer, they hover in the air just above Prometheus, who hints to them that he is keeping a secret that will eventually cause him to have power over Zeus. The chorus thinks that he is speaking out of anger, and may not actually be prophetic. Responding to their questions, Prometheus tells the story of his offense against Zeus admitting that it was deliberate. He complains that the punishment is too harsh. At last, Prometheus invites the chorus to stop hovering and come down to earth, to listen to more of what he has to say. They agree, and arrange themselves downstage in order to listen.
Prometheus' story is interrupted by the entrance of
Oceanus
In Greek mythology, Oceanus (; grc-gre, , Ancient Greek pronunciation: , also Ὠγενός , Ὤγενος , or Ὠγήν ) was a Titan son of Uranus and Gaia, the husband of his sister the Titan Tethys, and the father of the river gods a ...
— the father of the chorus of nymphs. Oceanus arrives in a carriage drawn by a winged beast — a
griffin
The griffin, griffon, or gryphon (Ancient Greek: , ''gryps''; Classical Latin: ''grȳps'' or ''grȳpus''; Late Latin, Late and Medieval Latin: ''gryphes'', ''grypho'' etc.; Old French: ''griffon'') is a legendary creature with the body, tail ...
. Oceanus is an older god, a Titan son of Earth, who has made peace with Zeus. He has heard of Prometheus' troubles, and has come to offer some sympathy and advice. Prometheus is proud, and is hurt by this offer. Prometheus responds coldly, and wonders why Oceanus would leave his caves and streams to see such a miserable sight chained to a rock. Prometheus suggests that Oceanus should not intervene, out of concern for his own safety. Oceanus is annoyed by this, but wants to help, and offers to leave only when Prometheus tells him that if he attempts to intervene it will only increase the punishment Prometheus is suffering. Oceanus notes that his winged beast is eager to get home to his own stable, and he exits.
Prometheus is alone again with the chorus of Oceanus' daughters, who did not speak while their father was visiting. Prometheus speaks to the chorus of Ocean nymphs. He asks pardon for his silence, which is because he was thinking about the ingratitude of the gods. He describes the positive things he had done for humans. In the so-called Catalogue of the Arts (447-506), he reveals that he taught men all the civilizing arts, such as writing, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, metallurgy, architecture, and agriculture. He suggests that he will one day be unchained, but it will be due to the intervention of Necessity, which is something directed by Fate, not Zeus. When asked how that will happen, he keeps it secret. The Chorus sings an Ode that is a prayer that they will never cross Zeus.
Io, the daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, arrives. Io had become the object of Zeus's affections and desires, which angered Zeus's wife, Hera. Io's father was advised to banish his daughter from his house, which he does. Io then wanders the Earth. Hera turned Io into a heifer and the herder Argus drove her from land to land. After Argus was killed by Hermes, a new torment was inflicted on Io — a plague of
gad-flies. She has now arrived at the desolate place where Prometheus is chained. Prometheus is familiar with her story, and she recognizes him as the great friend to humans. The chorus doesn't know Io's past, and persuades Prometheus to let Io tell them. The chorus is shocked and saddened and asks Prometheus to tell of Io's future wanderings. He hesitates because he knows it will be painful.
A brief dialogue reveals that Prometheus and Io are both victims of Zeus and that in the future Prometheus will eventually be freed by the descendants of Io. Prometheus asks Io to choose: Does she want to hear the rest of her own future, or the name of her descendant that will rescue him? The chorus interrupts — they want both: One answer for Io and one for themselves. Prometheus foresees that Io's wanderings will end at the mouth of the Nile. There Zeus will restore her. She will give birth to a son,
Epaphus In Greek mythology, Epaphus (; Ancient Greek: Ἔπᾰφος), also called Apis or Munantius, was a son of the Greek God Zeus and king of Egypt.
Family
Epaphus was the son of ZeusHesiod, '' Ehoiai'' 40a as cited in ''Oxyrhynchus Papyri 1358'' fr ...
, who will father fifty daughters, all of whom will murder their husbands, except for one, who will bear a line of kings, and another one who will rescue Prometheus from his torment. Prometheus' future rescuer is not named, but is known to be Heracles. Io bounds away.
Prometheus proclaims that no matter how great Zeus may be, his reign will eventually come to an end. Zeus may do his worst, but it will not be forever. The chorus express caution, which he responds to with even more defiance. Prometheus's words have reached Zeus, whose messenger,
Hermes
Hermes (; grc-gre, Ἑρμῆς) is an Olympian deity in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Hermes is considered the herald of the gods. He is also considered the protector of human heralds, travellers, thieves, merchants, and orato ...
, appears to urge Prometheus to reveal his secret about the marriage that threatens Zeus. Hermes reveals Zeus' own threats — the earthquake, the fall of the mountain that will bury Prometheus, the eagle that will attack Prometheus's vital organs. Prometheus states again that he knows all that is to come and will endure it. Prometheus warns the chorus to stand aside. They don't. The end comes: Earthquake, dust-storm, jagged lightning, whirlwind. As Zeus blasts Prometheus to
Tartarus
In Greek mythology, Tartarus (; grc, , }) is the deep abyss that is used as a dungeon of torment and suffering for the wicked and as the prison for the Titans. Tartarus is the place where, according to Plato's ''Gorgias'' (), souls are judg ...
down in the bowels of the earth, Prometheus has the last line of the play: "O holy mother mine, O you firmament that revolves the common light of all, you see the wrongs I suffer!" Prometheus vanishes along with the chorus.
Textual styles
The play is composed of dialogues between the different characters, including, Io, Ocean, Nature, and with the chorus. The dialogue contains a sustained
stichomythia
Stichomythia ( grc, στιχομυθία, stikhomuthía) is a technique in verse drama in which sequences of single alternating lines, or half-lines (hemistichomythia between Prometheus and Oceanus, and also a unique series of quatrains sung by the chorus.
Departures from Hesiod
Hesiod, Hesiod's ''
Works and Days
''Works and Days'' ( grc, Ἔργα καὶ Ἡμέραι, Érga kaì Hēmérai)The ''Works and Days'' is sometimes called by the Latin translation of the title, ''Opera et Dies''. Common abbreviations are ''WD'' and ''Op''. for ''Opera''. is a ...
'' and ''
Theogony
The ''Theogony'' (, , , i.e. "the genealogy or birth of the gods") is a poem by Hesiod (8th–7th century BC) describing the origins and genealogies of the Greek gods, composed . It is written in the Epic dialect of Ancient Greek and contains 10 ...
'', written circa 700 BC, are early and major sources for stories of Greek mythology, and sources for Aeschylus. Hesiod's ''Theogony'' contains the starting point for Aeschylus' play, which was written more than two centuries later. However by the time that Aeschylus read the ''Theogony'', it had accrued significant additions that are now part of the extant version. Parts of those additions — including the story of Hercules killing the eagle — are essential to Aeschylus' conception of ''Prometheus Bound''. Aeschylus also added his own variations. For example, in Hesiod Prometheus' efforts to outwit Zeus are simply presented, without noting that Zeus' response is overly cruel, or that Prometheus' actions might be justified — that Zeus became angry was enough for Hesiod to report without question. Aeschylus looks at those events in Hesiod, and sees intolerable injustice.
Another departure by Aeschylus from Hesiod's ''Theogony'' involves the two forms of punishment of Prometheus — the chaining to a rock, and the eagle's daily tearing of his liver. In the version of the ''Theogony'' that Aeschylus was familiar with, which is also the extant version known to modern readers, the two punishments are presented as one story. It was Aeschylus, who instead decided to separate the tortures, and have the eagle begin tearing at Prometheus' liver only after the chained Prometheus had refused to reveal the secrets that Zeus wanted to know. Aeschylus' alterations have been maintained by literature that followed ''Prometheus Bound''.
Hesiod portrays Prometheus as a lowly
trickster
In mythology and the study of folklore and religion, a trickster is a character in a story (god, goddess, spirit, human or anthropomorphisation) who exhibits a great degree of intellect or secret knowledge and uses it to play tricks or otherwi ...
and semi-comic foil to Zeus's authority. Zeus's anger toward Prometheus is in turn responsible for mortal man's having to provide for himself; before, all of man's needs had been provided by the gods. Prometheus' theft of fire also prompts the arrival of the first woman,
Pandora
In Greek mythology, Pandora (Greek: , derived from , ''pān'', i.e. "all" and , ''dōron'', i.e. "gift", thus "the all-endowed", "all-gifted" or "all-giving") was the first human woman created by Hephaestus on the instructions of Zeus. As Hes ...
, and her jar of evils. Pandora is entirely absent from ''Prometheus Bound'', where Prometheus becomes a human benefactor and divine
kingmaker
A kingmaker is a person or group that has great influence on a royal or political succession, without themselves being a viable candidate. Kingmakers may use political, monetary, religious and military means to influence the succession. Origina ...
, rather than an object of blame for human suffering.
Prometheus Trilogy
There is evidence that ''Prometheus Bound'' was the first play in a trilogy conventionally called the ''
Prometheia
The ''Prometheia'' ( grc, Προμήθεια) is a trilogy of plays about the titan Prometheus. It was attributed in Antiquity to the 5th-century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus. Though an Alexandrian catalogue of Aeschylean play titles designates t ...
'', but the other two plays, ''
Prometheus Unbound'' and ''
Prometheus the Fire-Bringer
''Prometheus the Fire-Bringer'' (Ancient Greek: Προμηθεὺς Πυρφόρος, ''Promētheús Pyrphóros'') was probably the final play in the ''Prometheia'' trilogy traditionally ascribed to the 5th century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus.
P ...
'', survive only in fragments. In ''Prometheus Unbound'', Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat the Titan's perpetually
regenerating liver. Perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy. In ''Prometheus the Fire-Bringer'', the Titan finally warns Zeus not to lie with the sea nymph
Thetis
Thetis (; grc-gre, Θέτις ), is a figure from Greek mythology with varying mythological roles. She mainly appears as a sea nymph, a goddess of water, or one of the 50 Nereids, daughters of the ancient sea god Nereus.
When described as ...
, for she is fated to give birth to a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus would later marry Thetis off to the mortal
Peleus
In Greek mythology, Peleus (; Ancient Greek: Πηλεύς ''Pēleus'') was a hero, king of Phthia, husband of Thetis and the father of their son Achilles. This myth was already known to the hearers of Homer in the late 8th century BC.
Biograp ...
; the product of that union will be
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus ( grc-gre, Ἀχιλλεύς) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and the central character of Homer's ''Iliad''. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, k ...
, Greek hero of the
Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has ...
. Grateful for the warning, Zeus finally reconciles with Prometheus.
Questions regarding authorship
Scholars of the
Great Library of Alexandria
The Great Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world. The Library was part of a larger research institution called the Mouseion, which was dedicated to the Muses, th ...
considered Aeschylus to be the author of ''Prometheus Bound''. Since the 19th century, however, doubts began to emerge, after
Rudolf Westphal, in 1857 and again in 1869, challenged the idea that the text was the work of a single author. In 1911, A. Gercke became the first scholar to reject the Aeschylean ascription, while dismissing the notion that a Prometheus trilogy itself existed. Two years later his student F. Niedzballa likewise concluded the text was written by someone else, on the basis of lexical analysis of words in the play not recurrent elsewhere in Aeschylus. Some have raised doubts focused on matters of linguistics, meter, vocabulary, and style, notably by Mark Griffith, though he remained open to idea that uncertainty persists and the traditional attribution might turn out to be correct. Griffith's views were challenged in brief by
Günther Zuntz
Günther Zuntz (28 January 1902 – 3 April 1992), German-English classical philologist, professor of Hellenistic Greek and Bible scholar. He obtained a D.Phil. from the University of Marburg in 1928 and was later a professor at the University of M ...
and in great detail by Maria Pia Pattoni in 1987.
M. L. West
Martin Litchfield West, (23 September 1937 – 13 July 2015) was a British philologist and Classics, classical scholar. In recognition of his contribution to scholarship, he was awarded the Order of Merit in 2014.
West wrote on Music of Ancien ...
found the evidence against the ascription 'overwhelming' and, after editing all seven plays, wrote an extended analysis and review of Griffith, Zuntz and Pattoni's work concluding that ascription to Aeschylus was untenable and contextualizing the play as the product of the 440s-430s era.
Some scholars note that certain themes in the play appear to be foreign to Aeschylus, when compared to the themes in his other plays. The scholar Wilhelm Schmid argues that the playwright who demonstrated such piety toward Zeus in ''
The Suppliants'' and ''
Agamemnon
In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (; grc-gre, Ἀγαμέμνων ''Agamémnōn'') was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Greeks during the Trojan War. He was the son, or grandson, of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the husb ...
'' could not have been the same playwright who in ''Prometheus Bound'' inveighs against Zeus for violent tyranny.
M. L. West
Martin Litchfield West, (23 September 1937 – 13 July 2015) was a British philologist and Classics, classical scholar. In recognition of his contribution to scholarship, he was awarded the Order of Merit in 2014.
West wrote on Music of Ancien ...
argued that ''Prometheus Bound'' may be the work of Aeschylus' son,
Euphorion, who was also a playwright.
Responses to some of these questions have included the suggestion that the strongest characteristic of the play is in the humanity of their portrayal. The mythological and religious aspects are treated as secondary compared to the clash of wills that occurs between Zeus and Prometheus. The rebellion of Prometheus was not invented by Aeschylus, who only breathed the human spirit into older forms. This play, ''Prometheus Bound'', only contains a part of the story. In the sequel, Aeschylus would have had the chance to give to Zeus' character an arc, and show him learning and developing more admirable and generous aspects. Coming later in the trilogy, a benevolent Zeus would have a deeper impact. In this play Zeus does not appear — we learn of the tyranny of Zeus, only from those who suffer from it. Characters' views need not be identical with the author’s.
Dating the play
A reference (lines 363-372) to the eruption of
Mount Aetna in 479 suggests that Prometheus Bound may date from later than this event. The play cannot date later than 430 BC, because ''
Prometheus Unbound'' (part of the same trilogy as ''Prometheus Bound'') was parodied in
Cratinus
Cratinus ( grc-gre, Κρατῖνος; 519 BC – 422 BC) was an Athenian comic poet of the Old Comedy.
Life
Cratinus was victorious 27 known times, eight times at the City Dionysia, first probably in the mid-to-late 450s BCE (IG II2 2325. 50), ...
' ''Ploutoi'' (429 BC). ''Prometheus Bound'' was then parodied in Cratinus' ''Seriphioi'' (c. 423) and
Aristophanes
Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme
In Ancient Greece, a deme or ( grc, δῆμος, plural: demoi, δημοι) was a suburb or a subdivision of Athens and other city-states ...
' ''
Acharnians
''The Acharnians'' or ''Acharnians'' (Ancient Greek: ''Akharneîs''; Attic: ) is the third play — and the earliest of the eleven surviving plays — by the Athenian playwright Aristophanes. It was produced in 425 BC on behalf of the young drama ...
'' (425 BC).
Reception and influence
''Prometheus Bound'' enjoyed a measure of popularity in antiquity. Aeschylus was very popular in Athens decades after his death, as
Aristophanes
Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme
In Ancient Greece, a deme or ( grc, δῆμος, plural: demoi, δημοι) was a suburb or a subdivision of Athens and other city-states ...
' ''
The Frogs
''The Frogs'' ( grc-gre, Βάτραχοι, Bátrakhoi, Frogs; la, Ranae, often abbreviated ''Ran.'' or ''Ra.'') is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes. It was performed at the Lenaia, one of the Festivals of Dionysus in ...
'' (405 BC) makes clear. Allusions to the play are evident in his ''
The Birds'' of 414 BC, and in the
tragedian
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy ...
Euripides
Euripides (; grc, Εὐριπίδης, Eurīpídēs, ; ) was a tragedian
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful e ...
' fragmentary ''
Andromeda'', dated to 412 BC. If Aeschylean authorship is assumed, then these allusions several decades after the play's first performance speak to the enduring popularity of ''Prometheus Bound''. Moreover, a performance of the play itself (rather than a depiction of the generic myth) appears on fragments of a Greek vase dated c. 370–360 BC.).
In the early 19th century, the
Romantic writers came to identify with the defiant Prometheus.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as trea ...
wrote
a poem on the theme, as did
Lord Byron
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English romantic poet and Peerage of the United Kingdom, peer. He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and h ...
.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley ( ; 4 August 17928 July 1822) was one of the major English Romantic poets. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achie ...
wrote a play, ''
Prometheus Unbound'', which used some of the materials of the play as a vehicle for Shelley's own vision.
Performance in the English language
In 1979
George Eugeniou
George Eugeniou (born June 1931) is a Cypriot actor, director and writer. He is the founder and artistic director of Theatro Technis in London, England, which was established in 1957.
Early life and career
George Eugeniou was born in Limassol ...
directed and performed in the play at
Theatro Technis
Theatro Technis is an independent multi-cultural arts centre with a 120 -seat theatre located in the heart of London Borough of Camden. It contributes in general and specific ways to the cultural and social life of the people of Lond ...
London setting the drama in the
Greece governed by the Junta. George Eugeniou, Koraltan Ahmet and
Angelique Rockas
Angelique Rockas is an actress, producer and activist. Rockas founded the theatre company Internationalist Theatre in the UK with her patron Athol Fugard. The theatre featured multi-racial casts in classical plays.
Early life
Rockas was born a ...
played roles.
In 2005, ''Prometheus Bound'' once again reached a London stage at
The Sound Theatre in James Kerr's new translation, also directed by Kerr and starring
David Oyelowo
David Oyetokunbo Oyelowo ( ; born 1 April 1976) is a British actor, director and producer. His accolades include a Critics' Choice Award and two NAACP Image Awards as well as nominations for two Golden Globe Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards ...
as Prometheus.
A translation of the play by Joel Agee, commissioned by the
J. Paul Getty Museum, the
CalArts Center for New Performance, and Trans Arts, was first performed from 29 August to 28 September 2013 at the
Getty Villa
The Getty Villa is at the easterly end of the Malibu coast in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States. One of two campuses of the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Villa is an educational center and museum dedi ...
's Outdoor Classical Theater. It was directed by Travis Preston, composed by
Ellen Reid
Ellen Lorraine Reid (born 14 July 1966) is a Canadian musician. She provides backing vocals, piano, keyboards and accordion for the Canadian rock band Crash Test Dummies.
Early life and education
Reid was born and grew up in Selkirk, Manito ...
and
Vinny Golia
Vinny Golia (born March 1, 1946) is an American composer and multi-instrumentalist specializing in woodwind instruments. He performs in the genres of contemporary music, jazz, free jazz, and free improvisation.
Career
As a composer, Golia fuse ...
, and choreographed by Mira Kingsley. The production employed a huge, steel wheel in place of the barren cliff.
In April 2015 MacMillan Films, in the United States, staged ''Prometheus Bound'' for camera using Peter Arnott's translation with James Thomas directing, Tanya Rodina as Io, and Casey McIntyre as the Chorus Leader. The production used a real ''skene'' building whose roof was the landing and dance platform for the Chorus of Oceanids.
Translations
*
Thomas Medwin
Thomas Medwin (20 March 1788 –2 August 1869) was an early 19th-century English writer, poet and translator. He is known chiefly for his biography of his cousin, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and for published recollections of his friend, Lord Byron.
...
, 1832 — verse
''full text''1837 (
Pagan Press
''The Man Who Wrote Frankenstein'' is a 2007 book written and published by John Lauritsen, which defends the unorthodox hypothesis that the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, not his wife Mary Shelley, is the real author of ''Frankenstein; or, The Moder ...
reprint 2011)
*
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley ( ; 4 August 17928 July 1822) was one of the major English Romantic poets. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achie ...
, 1832 — vers
''Prometheus Unbound full text''*
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (née Moulton-Barrett; 6 March 1806 – 29 June 1861) was an English poet of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime.
Born in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabet ...
, writing anonymously, 1833 — verse
''full text''*
Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817May 6, 1862) was an American naturalist, essayist, poet, and philosopher. A leading Transcendentalism, transcendentalist, he is best known for his book ''Walden'', a reflection upon simple living in natural su ...
, 1843 — verse
''full text''*
Henry William Herbert
Henry William Herbert (7 April 1807 – 17 May 1858), pen name Frank Forester, was a British-born American novelist, poet, historian, illustrator, journalist and writer on sport. Starr writes that "as a classical scholar he had few equals ...
, 1849 — verse
''Google ebook''*
Theodore Alois Buckley
Theodore Alois William Buckley (1825–1856) was a translator of Homer and other classical works.
In 1852 Buckley published the book "''The great cities of the ancient world in their glory and their desolation''". This book depicts stories, descri ...
, 1849 — prose:
full text'
*
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (née Moulton-Barrett; 6 March 1806 – 29 June 1861) was an English poet of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime.
Born in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabet ...
, 1851 — verse
''full text''(completely different translation from her 1833 version)
*
Charles Cavendish Clifford
Sir Charles Cavendish Clifford, 4th Baronet (7 January 1821 – 22 November 1895)
was an English barrister and Liberal Party politician. He was a member of parliament (MP) for over 20 years, representing seats on the Isle of Wight, and served as p ...
, 1852 — verse:
Google ebook'
*
Augusta Webster
Augusta Webster (30 January 1837 – 5 September 1894) born in Poole, Dorset as Julia Augusta Davies, was an England, English poet, dramatist, essayist, and translation, translator.
Biography
Augusta was the daughter of Vice-admiral George Dav ...
, 1866 — verse
''full text''*
C. B. Cayley, 1867 — verse
''full text''*
Edward Hayes Plumptre
Edward Hayes Plumptre (6 August 1821 – 1 February 1891) was an English divine and scholar born in London.
Life
He was born on 6 August 1821, being the son of Edward Hallows Plumptre, a London solicitor. Charles John Plumptre was his brother. ...
, 1868 — verse
''full text''*
Anna Swanwick
Anna Swanwick (22 June 1813 – 2 November 1899) was an English author and feminist.
Life
Anna Swanwick was the youngest daughter of John Swanwick and his wife, Hannah Hilditch. She was born in Liverpool on 22 June 1813. The Swanwicks des ...
, 1886 – vers
''full text''* John Dunning Cooper, 1890
*
4th Earl of Carnarvon
Fourth or the fourth may refer to:
* the ordinal form of the number 4
* ''Fourth'' (album), by Soft Machine, 1971
* Fourth (angle), an ancient astronomical subdivision
* Fourth (music), a musical interval
* ''The Fourth'' (1972 film), a Sovie ...
, 1892
*
Herbert Hailstone
Herbert Hailstone (1850–1896) was an English author and scholar. He grew up in Bottisham, Cambridgeshire, the son of Reverend John Hailstone. He was educated at Eton College before studying at Peterhouse, Cambridge, graduating with a BA in 187 ...
, 1892
*
Edward Henry Pember
Edward Henry Pember, KC JP (28 May 1833 – 5 April 1911) was an English barrister and literary figure. He was a prominent member of the parliamentary bar.
Biography
The eldest son of John Edward Rose Pember of Clapham Park, Surrey, by his ...
, 1895 — verse
''full text''*
George Denman
George Denman (23 December 1819 – 21 September 1896) was an English barrister, High Court judge, and Liberal politician.
Early life
Denman was born at 50 Russell Square, London, the fourth son of Thomas Denman, 1st Baron Denman, of Dov ...
, 1896 — verse
*
Paul Elmer More
Paul Elmer More (December 12, 1864 – March 9, 1937) was an American journalist, critic, essayist and Christian apologist.
Biography
Paul Elmer More, the son of Enoch Anson and Katherine Hay Elmer, was born in St. Louis, Missouri. He was educ ...
, 1899 — prose and verse
''full text''*
Edwyn Bevan
Edwyn Robert Bevan OBE, FBA (15 February 1870 in London – 18 October 1943 in London) was a versatile British philosopher and historian of the Hellenistic world.
Life
Edwyn Robert Bevan was the fourteenth of sixteen children of Robert Cooper L ...
, 1902 — vers
''full text''*
J. Case
''J. The Jewish News of Northern California'', formerly known as ''Jweekly'', is a weekly print newspaper in Northern California, with its online edition updated daily. It is owned and operated by San Francisco Jewish Community Publications In ...
, 1905 – verse
*
John Stuart Blackie
John Stuart Blackie FRSE (28 July 1809 – 2 March 1895) was a Scottish scholar and man of letters.
Biography
He was born in Glasgow, on Charlotte Street, the son of Kelso-born banker Alexander Blackie (d.1846) and Helen Stodart. He was ed ...
, 1906 — verse
''full text''*
Robert Whitelaw, 1907 — verse
''full text''*
E. D. A. Morshead
Edmund Doidge Anderson Morshead (1849 – 24 October 1912) was an English classicist and teacher.
Biography
He was the son of John Philip Anderson Morshead, educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford; and later returned to teach cla ...
, 1908 — verse
''full text''*
Walter George Headlam and C. E. S. Headlam, 1909 – pros
''full text''*
Marion Clyde Wier, 1916 — verse
''full text''*
G. M. Cookson, 1924 — verse
''full text''*
Herbert Weir Smyth
Herbert Weir Smyth (August 8, 1857 – July 16, 1937) was an American classical scholar. His comprehensive grammar of Ancient Greek has become a standard reference on the subject in English, comparable to that of William Watson Goodwin, whom he s ...
, 1926 — prose
''full text''*
Clarence W. Mendell Clarence may refer to:
Places
Australia
* Clarence County, New South Wales, a Cadastral division
* Clarence, New South Wales, a place near Lithgow
* Clarence River (New South Wales)
* Clarence Strait (Northern Territory)
* City of Clarence, a loc ...
, 1926 — verse
*
Robert C. Trevelyan, 1939 — verse
*
David Grene
David Grene (13 April 1913 – 10 September 2002) was an Irish American professor of classics at the University of Chicago from 1937 until his death. He was a co-founder of the Committee on Social Thought and is best known for his translations of ...
, 1942 — prose and verse
*
E. A. Havelock, 1950 — prose and verse
*
F. L. Lucas, 1954 — verse
*
Philip Vellacott
Philip Humphrey Vellacott (16 January 1907 – 24 August 1997) was an English classical scholar, known for his numerous translations of Greek tragedy.
He was born at Grays, Essex and educated at St Paul's School, London and Magdalene College, Ca ...
, 1961 — verse
*
Paul Roche
Donald Robert Paul Roche (26 September 1916 – 30 October 2007) was a British poet, novelist, and professor of English, a critically acclaimed translator of Greek and Latin classics, notably the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristop ...
, 1964 — verse
*
Robert Lowell
Robert Traill Spence Lowell IV (; March 1, 1917 – September 12, 1977) was an American poet. He was born into a Boston Brahmin family that could trace its origins back to the ''Mayflower''. His family, past and present, were important subjects i ...
, 1967 — prose
* C. John Herrington and
James Scully, 1975 — verse
* James Kerr, 2005
* G. Theodoridis, 2006 — prose
''full text''*
Alan Sommerstein
Alan may refer to:
People
* Alan (surname), an English and Turkish surname
* Alan (given name), an English given name
**List of people with given name Alan
''Following are people commonly referred to solely by "Alan" or by a homonymous name.''
* ...
, 2008 — prose
*
Ian C. Johnston, 2012 — verse
''full text''*
Deborah H. Roberts, 2012 — verse
*
Joel Agee, 2013 — verse
* James Romm, 2016 — verse
See also
* ''
Prometheus Unbound ''and ''
Prometheus the Fire-Bringer
''Prometheus the Fire-Bringer'' (Ancient Greek: Προμηθεὺς Πυρφόρος, ''Promētheús Pyrphóros'') was probably the final play in the ''Prometheia'' trilogy traditionally ascribed to the 5th century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus.
P ...
'', which are believed to be the sequels
* ''
Prometheus Unbound'', a four-act lyrical drama by
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley ( ; 4 August 17928 July 1822) was one of the major English Romantic poets. A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achie ...
, inspired by the Greek tragedy
* ''
Prométhée
''Prométhée'', Op. 82, (''Prometheus'') is a ''tragédie lyrique'' (grand cantata) in three acts by the French composer Gabriel Fauré with a French libretto by the Symboliste poets Jean Lorrain and (1865–1940). It was partly based on the o ...
'', the opera by
Gabriel Fauré
Gabriel Urbain Fauré (; 12 May 1845 – 4 November 1924) was a French composer, organist, pianist and teacher. He was one of the foremost French composers of his generation, and his musical style influenced many 20th-century composers ...
, partly based on the first half of ''Prometheus Bound''
* ''
Prometheus
In Greek mythology, Prometheus (; , , possibly meaning "forethought")Smith"Prometheus". is a Titan god of fire. Prometheus is best known for defying the gods by stealing fire from them and giving it to humanity in the form of technology, know ...
'', the music drama by
Carl Orff
Carl Orff (; 10 July 1895 – 29 March 1982) was a German composer and music educator, best known for his cantata ''Carmina Burana'' (1937). The concepts of his Schulwerk were influential for children's music education.
Life
Early life
Car ...
, a complete setting of ''Prometheus Bound''
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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External links
Modern Art, ''Prometheus Bound Mosaic''*
{{Authority control
Plays based on classical mythology
Plays by Aeschylus
Plays set in ancient Greece
Political philosophy in ancient Greece
Prometheus
Works of unknown authorship
NYRB Classics