The history of
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
spans 10 millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development along the country's desert coastline and in the
Andes
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
mountains. Peru's coast was home to the
Norte Chico civilization
Caral-Supe (also known as Caral and Norte Chico) was a complex pre-Columbian-era society that included as many as thirty major population centers in what is now the Caral region of north-central coastal Peru. The civilization flourished betwee ...
, the oldest civilization in the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
and one of the six
cradles of civilization
A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where civilization was created by mankind independent of other civilizations in other locations. The formation of urban settlements (cities) is the primary characteristic of a society that c ...
in the world. When the Spanish arrived in the sixteenth century, Peru was the homeland of the highland
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
, the largest and most advanced state in
pre-Columbian
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
America. After the conquest of the Incas, the
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
established a
Viceroyalty
A viceroyalty was an entity headed by a viceroy. It dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the sixteenth century.
France
*Viceroyalty of New France
Portuguese Empire
In the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the term "Viceroyalty o ...
with jurisdiction over most of its
South American
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
domains. Peru declared
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
from Spain in 1821, but achieved independence only after the
Battle of Ayacucho
The Battle of Ayacucho ( es, Batalla de Ayacucho, ) was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. This battle secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America. In Peru it is co ...
three years later.
Modern historiography of Peru divides its history into three main periods:
* A
Prehispanic period, which lasts from the first civilizations of the region to the
Spanish conquest
The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its predece ...
of the
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
.
* A
Viceregal or Colonial period, which lasts from the aforementioned conquest to the
Peruvian declaration of independence.
* A
Republican period, which lasts from the war of independence to the current day.
Prehispanic Era
Pre-Columbian cultures
Hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside the caves of
Pachacamac
Pachacámac ( qu, Pachakamaq) is an archaeological site southeast of Lima, Peru in the Valley of the Lurín River. The site was first settled around A.D. 200 and was named after the "Earth Maker" creator god Pacha Kamaq. The site flourished ...
, Telarmachay, Junin, and
Lauricocha. Some of the oldest civilizations appeared
circa
Circa is a word of Latin origin meaning 'approximately'.
Circa or CIRCA may also refer to:
* CIRCA (art platform), art platform based in London
* Circa (band), a progressive rock supergroup
* Circa (company), an American skateboard footwear com ...
6000 BC in the coastal provinces of
Chilca
Chilca was a rocket launch site in Peru at , near Lima. Chilca was in service from 1974 and 1983 and was mainly used for launching Arcas and Nike sounding rockets
A sounding rocket or rocketsonde, sometimes called a research rocket or a subor ...
and
Paracas, and in the highland province of
Callejón de Huaylas
The Santa Valley (Quechua language, Quechua ''Sancta'') is an inter-andean valley in the Ancash Region in the north-central highlands of Peru. Due to its location between two mountain ranges, it is known as Callejón de Huaylas, the Alley of Huayla ...
. Over the next three thousand years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating land, as evidenced from sites such as
Jiskairumoko
Jisk'a Iru Muqu ( Aymara, ''jisk'a'' small, ''iru'' a type of grass, ''(Festuca orthophylla)'', ''muqu'' knot; joint of a part of the reed, also spelled ''Jiskairumoko, Jisk'airumoko'') is a pre-Columbian archaeological site south-east of Pu ...
,
Kotosh
Kotosh is an archaeological site near the town of Huánuco, Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type ...
, and
Huaca Prieta
Huaca Prieta is the site of a prehistoric settlement beside the Pacific Ocean in the Chicama Valley, just north of Trujillo, La Libertad Province, Peru. It is a part of the El Brujo Archaeological Complex, which also includes Moche (culture) si ...
. Cultivation of plants such as
corn
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
and
cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus ''Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor perce ...
(''Gossypium barbadense'') began, as well as the domestication of animals such as the wild ancestors of the
llama
The llama (; ) (''Lama glama'') is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a List of meat animals, meat and pack animal by Inca empire, Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era.
Llamas are social animals and live with othe ...
, the
alpaca
The alpaca (''Lama pacos'') is a species of South American camelid mammal. It is similar to, and often confused with, the llama. However, alpacas are often noticeably smaller than llamas. The two animals are closely related and can successfu ...
and the
guinea pig
The guinea pig or domestic guinea pig (''Cavia porcellus''), also known as the cavy or domestic cavy (), is a species of rodent belonging to the genus ''Cavia'' in the family Caviidae. Breeders tend to use the word ''cavy'' to describe the ani ...
, as seen in the 6000 BC dated
Camelid
Camelids are members of the biological family Camelidae, the only currently living family in the suborder Tylopoda. The seven extant members of this group are: dromedary camels, Bactrian camels, wild Bactrian camels, llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, ...
relief paintings in the Mollepunko caves in
Callalli. Inhabitants practiced
spinning
Spin or spinning most often refers to:
* Spinning (textiles), the creation of yarn or thread by twisting fibers together, traditionally by hand spinning
* Spin, the rotation of an object around a central axis
* Spin (propaganda), an intentionally b ...
and
knitting
Knitting is a method by which yarn is manipulated to create a textile, or fabric. It is used to create many types of garments. Knitting may be done by hand or by machine.
Knitting creates stitches: loops of yarn in a row, either flat or i ...
of cotton and wool,
basketry
Basket weaving (also basketry or basket making) is the process of weaving or sewing pliable materials into three-dimensional artifacts, such as baskets, mats, mesh bags or even furniture. Craftspeople and artists specialized in making baskets ...
, and
pottery
Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and por ...
.
As these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements. As a result, new societies emerged along the coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was
Caral
The Sacred City of Caral-Supe or simply Caral, is an archaeological site where the remains of the main city of the Caral civilization are found. It is located in Peru in the Supe valley, near the current town of Caral, 182 kilometers north of L ...
, located in the
Supe Valley 200 km north of Lima. It was built in approximately 2500 BC.
The remnants of this civilization, also known as
Norte Chico, consists of approximately 30 pyramidal structures built up in receding terraces ending in a flat roof; some of them measuring up to 20 meters in height. Caral is regarded as one of several
cradles of civilization
A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where civilization was created by mankind independent of other civilizations in other locations. The formation of urban settlements (cities) is the primary characteristic of a society that c ...
around the world where civilization emerged independent of other civilizations.
[Charles C. Mann, "Oldest Civilization in the Americas Revealed", ''Science'', 7 January 2005, accessed 1 Nov 2010. Quote: "Almost 5,000 years ago, ancient Peruvians built monumental temples and pyramids in dry valleys near the coast, showing that urban society in the Americas is as old as the most ancient civilizations of the Old World."]
In the early 21st century,
archeologists
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscape ...
discovered new evidence of ancient
pre-Ceramic Aceramic is defined as "not producing pottery". In archaeology, the term means "without pottery".
Aceramic societies usually used bark, basketry, gourds and leather for containers. It is sometimes used to refer to a specific early Neolithic period ...
complex cultures. In 2005,
Tom D. Dillehay and his team announced the discovery of three
irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow Crop, crops, Landscape plant, landscape plants, and Lawn, lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,00 ...
canal
Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface flow un ...
s that were 5400 years old, and a possible fourth that was 6700 years old in the
Zaña Valley
Zaña (also Saña) is the capital of Zaña District in the Chiclayo Province of Lambayeque region in northern Peru. It is located inland from the Pacific Ocean at an elevation of in the valley of the Zaña River. Zaña had a population of 4,51 ...
in northern Peru. This was the evidence of community agricultural improvements that occurred at a much earlier date than previously believed.
In 2006, Robert Benfer and a research team discovered a 4200-year-old
observatory
An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysical, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. His ...
at
Buena Vista Buena Vista, meaning "good view" in Spanish, may refer to:
Places Canada
*Bonavista, Newfoundland and Labrador, with the name being originally derived from “Buena Vista”
*Buena Vista, Saskatchewan
*Buena Vista, Saskatoon, a neighborhood in ...
, a site in the Andes several kilometers north of present-day
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
. They believe the observatory was related to the society's reliance on agriculture and understanding of the seasons. The site includes the oldest three-dimensional sculptures found thus far in South America. In 2007, the archaeologist
Walter Alva
Walter Alva (born 28 June 1951), full name is Walter Alva Alva, is a Peruvian archaeologist, specializing in the study and excavation of the prehistoric Moche culture. Alva is noted for two major finds: the tomb of the Lord of Sipan and related ...
and his team found a 4000-year-old temple with painted murals at
Ventarrón, in the northwest
Lambayeque region
Lambayeque () is a department and region in northwestern Peru known for its rich Moche and Chimú historical past. The region's name originates from the ancient pre-Inca civilization of the '' Lambayeque''. It is the second-smallest departmen ...
. The temple contained ceremonial offerings gained from an exchange with Peruvian jungle societies, as well as those from the
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
a coast. Such finds show sophisticated, monumental construction requiring large-scale organization of labor, suggesting that hierarchical complex cultures arose in South America much earlier than scholars had thought.
Many other civilizations developed and were absorbed by the most powerful ones such as
Kotosh
Kotosh is an archaeological site near the town of Huánuco, Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type ...
;
Chavin;
Paracas;
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
;
Nasca;
Moche;
Tiwanaku
Tiwanaku ( es, Tiahuanaco or ) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilo ...
;
Wari;
Lambayeque;
Chimu
Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor or Chimú Empire) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture. The culture arose about 900 AD, succeeding the Moche culture, and was later conquered by the Inca emperor Topa Inca Yupanqui around 1470, fifty y ...
and
Chincha, among others. The
Paracas culture
The Paracas culture was an Andean society existing between approximately 800 BCE and 100 BCE, with an extensive knowledge of irrigation and water management and that made significant contributions in the textile arts. It was located in what tod ...
emerged on the southern coast around 300 BC. They are known for their use of
vicuña
The vicuña (''Lama vicugna'') or vicuna (both , very rarely spelled ''vicugna'', its former genus name) is one of the two wild South American camelids, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco, which live ...
fibers instead of just
cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus ''Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor perce ...
to produce fine
textile
Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
s—innovations that did not reach the northern coast of Peru until centuries later. Coastal cultures such as the
Moche and
Nazca
Nazca (; sometimes spelled Nasca; qu, Naska) is a city and system of valleys on the southern coast of Peru. It is also the name of the largest existing town in the Nazca Province. The name is derived from the Nazca culture, which flourished in ...
flourished from about 100 BC to about AD 700: the Moche produced impressive metalwork, as well as some of the finest
pottery
Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and por ...
seen in the ancient world, while the Nazca are known for their textiles and the enigmatic
Nazca lines
The Nazca Lines are a group of geoglyphs made in the soil of the Nazca Desert in southern Peru. They were created between 500 BCE and 500 CE by people making depressions or shallow incisions in the desert floor, removing pebbles and le ...
.
These coastal cultures eventually began to decline as a result of recurring ''
el Niño
El Niño (; ; ) is the warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific (approximately between the International Date L ...
'' floods and droughts. In consequence, the
Huari Huari may refer to:
*Huari culture, a historical civilization in Peru
*Huari (archaeological site), an archaeological site in Peru
*Huari, Peru, a town in Peru
* Huari District, a district in the Huari Province, Peru
* Huari Province, a province in ...
and
Tiwanaku
Tiwanaku ( es, Tiahuanaco or ) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilo ...
, who dwelt inland in the
Andes
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
, became the predominant cultures of the region encompassing much of modern-day Peru and
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
. They were succeeded by powerful
city-state
A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
s such as
Chancay
Chancay is a small city located north of Lima. Its population is 63,378. The Chancay culture was a pre-Columbian archaeological culture, later part of the Inca Empire.
History
It was founded in 1562 under the name of Villa de Arnedo.
The ma ...
,
Sipan
Huaca Rajada, also known as Sipán, is a Moche archaeological site in northern Peru in the Lambayeque Valley, that is famous for the tomb of '' Lord of Sipán'' (El Señor de Sipán), excavated by Walter Alva and his wife Susana Meneses beginn ...
, and
Cajamarca
Cajamarca (), also known by the Quechua name, ''Kashamarka'', is the capital and largest city of the Cajamarca Region as well as an important cultural and commercial center in the northern Andes. It is located in the northern highlands of Peru ...
, and two empires:
Chimor
Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor or Chimú Empire) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture. The culture arose about 900 AD, succeeding the Moche culture, and was later conquered by the Inca emperor Topa Inca Yupanqui around 1470, fifty y ...
and
Chachapoyas. These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of
cultivation, gold and silver craft,
pottery
Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and por ...
,
metallurgy
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys.
Metallurgy encompasses both the sc ...
, and
knitting
Knitting is a method by which yarn is manipulated to create a textile, or fabric. It is used to create many types of garments. Knitting may be done by hand or by machine.
Knitting creates stitches: loops of yarn in a row, either flat or i ...
. Around 700 BC, they appear to have developed systems of social organization that were the precursors of the
Inca
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
civilization.
In the highlands, both the
Tiahuanaco
Tiwanaku ( es, Tiahuanaco or ) is a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia near Lake Titicaca, about 70 kilometers from La Paz, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilo ...
culture, near
Lake Titicaca
Lake Titicaca (; es, Lago Titicaca ; qu, Titiqaqa Qucha) is a large freshwater lake in the Andes mountains on the border of Bolivia and Peru. It is often called the highest navigable lake in the world. By volume of water and by surface area, ...
in both Peru and
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
, and the
Wari culture
The Wari ( es, Huari) were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 AD.
Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located north-east of the mo ...
, near the present-day city of
Ayacucho
Ayacucho (, qu, Ayak'uchu) is the capital city of Ayacucho Region and of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.
During the Inca Empire and Viceroyalty of Peru periods the city was known by the name of Huamanga (Quechua: Wamanga), and it c ...
, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD.
While in the forested region of the Amazon, architectural excavations from the
Chachapoya
The Chachapoyas, also called the "Warriors of the Clouds", was a culture of the Andes living in the cloud forests of the southern part of the Department of Amazonas of present-day Peru. The Inca Empire conquered their civilization shortly be ...
and the
Wari culture allow for the evidence of complex societal presences
prior to the conquest of Amazonas region by the Incan Empire.
As the Incan empire expanded, it defeated and assimilated uncooperative Andean cultures, like the
Chachapoyas culture
The Chachapoyas, also called the "Warriors of the Clouds", was a culture of the Andes living in the cloud forests of the southern part of the Department of Amazonas of present-day Peru. The Inca Empire conquered their civilization shortly bef ...
.
Archaeologists led by Gabriel Prieto revealed the largest mass child sacrifice with more than 140 children skeleton and 200
Llama
The llama (; ) (''Lama glama'') is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a List of meat animals, meat and pack animal by Inca empire, Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era.
Llamas are social animals and live with othe ...
s dating to the
Chimú culture after he was informed that some children had found bones in a dune nearby Prieto's fieldwork in 2011.
According to the researchers' notes in the study, there was cut marks on the sterna, or breastbones some of the children and the llamas. Children's faces were smeared with a red pigment during the ceremony before their chests had been cut open, most likely to remove their hearts. Remains showed that these kids came from different regions and when the children and llamas were sacrificed, the area was drenched with water.
“We have to remember that the Chimú had a very different world view than Westerners today. They also had very different concepts about death and the role each person plays in the cosmos, perhaps the victims went willingly as messengers to their gods, or perhaps Chimú society believed this was the only way to save more people from destruction” said anthropologists Ryan Williams.
In September 2021, archaeologists announced the remains of eight 800-year-old bodies nearby ancient town of Chilca. Bodies included adults and children who were covered in plant material before being buried. Some dishes and musical instruments were uncovered as well. Researchers think remains belong to the Chilca culture, which was apart from other pre-Hispanic cultures in the area.
Inca Empire (1438–1532)
The
Incas
The Inca Empire (also Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift, known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechuan languages, Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) wa ...
built the largest and most advanced empire and dynasty of
pre-Columbian America
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
. The Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from
Quechua
Quechua may refer to:
*Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru
*Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language
**So ...
for "The Four United Regions"—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of the 16th century. It dominated a territory that included (from north to south) the southwest part of
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
, part of
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
, the main territory of
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
, the northern part of
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
, and the northwest part of
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
; and from east to west, from the southwest part of
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
to the
Amazonian forests.
The empire originated from a tribe based in
Cusco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the list of cities in Peru, seventh m ...
, which became the capital. Pachacutec wasn't the first Inca, but he was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the
Cusco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the list of cities in Peru, seventh m ...
state. His offspring later ruled an empire by both violent invasions and peaceful conquests, that is, intermarriages among the rulers of small kingdoms and the current Inca ruler.
In
Cuzco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
, the royal city was created to resemble a
cougar
The cougar (''Puma concolor'') is a large Felidae, cat native to the Americas. Its Species distribution, range spans from the Canadian Yukon to the southern Andes in South America and is the most widespread of any large wild terrestrial mamm ...
; the head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as
Sacsayhuamán
Sacsayhuamán, which can be spelled many different ways (possibly from Quechua language, ''waman'' falcon or variable hawk), is a citadel on the northern outskirts of the city of Cusco, Peru, the historic capital of the Inca Empire.
The com ...
. The empire's administrative, political, and military center was located in Cusco. The empire was divided into four quarters:
Chinchaysuyu,
Antisuyu
Antisuyu ( , ) was the eastern part of the Inca Empire which bordered on the modern-day Upper Amazon region which the Anti inhabited. Along with Chinchaysuyu, it was part of the '' Hanan Suyukuna'' or "upper quarters" of the empire, constituti ...
,
Kuntisuyu
Kuntisuyu or Kunti Suyu ( Quechua ''kunti'' west, ''suyu'' region, part of a territory, each of the four regions which formed the Inca Empire, "western region") was the southwestern provincial region of the Inca Empire. Kuntisuyu was the smallest ' ...
and
Qullasuyu
Qullasuyu (Quechua language, Quechua and Aymara language, Aymara spelling, ; Hispanicized spellings: ''Collasuyu, Kholla Suyu'') was the southeastern provincial region of the Inca Empire. Qullasuyu is the region of the Qulla and related specifica ...
.
The official language was
Quechua
Quechua may refer to:
*Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru
*Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language
**So ...
, the language of a neighbouring tribe of the original tribe of the empire. Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states, and cities—were allowed to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as superior to their own.
Inti
INTI International University & Colleges are private university colleges located in Malaysia. The main campus was initially known as INTI University College until 31 May 2010 when the Higher Education Ministry announced its upgrade to universi ...
, the sun god, was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire. His representation on earth was the Inca ("Emperor").
The
Tawantinsuyu
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
was organized in dominions with a stratified society in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. The empire, being quite large, also had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire called the
Inca Trail
The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu (also known as ''Camino Inca'' or ''Camino Inka'') is a hiking trail in Peru that terminates at Machu Picchu. It consists of three overlapping trails: ''Mollepata'', ''Classic'', and ''One Day''. ''Mollepata'' is ...
, and
chasquis, message carriers who relayed information from anywhere in the empire to Cusco.
Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel located in the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru on a mountain range.UNESCO World Heritage Centre. It is located in the Machupicchu District within Urubamba Province above the Sacred Valley, which ...
(Quechua for "old peak"; sometimes called the "Lost City of the Incas") is a well-preserved pre-Columbian Inca ruin located on a high mountain ridge above the
Urubamba Valley
The Sacred Valley of the Incas ( es, Valle Sagrado de los Incas; qu, Willka Qhichwa), or the Urubamba Valley, is a valley in the Andes of Peru, north of the Inca capital of Cusco. It is located in the present-day Peruvian region of Cusco. In c ...
, about 70 km (44 mi) northwest of Cusco. Elevation measurements vary depending on whether the data refer to the ruin or the extremity of the mountain; Machu Picchu tourist information reports the elevation as 2,350 m (7,711 ft)
Forgotten for centuries by the outside world (although not by locals), it was brought back to international attention by Yale archaeologist
Hiram Bingham III
Hiram Bingham III (November 19, 1875 – June 6, 1956) was an American academic, explorer and politician. He made public the existence of the Inca Empire, Inca citadel of Machu Picchu in 1911 with the guidance of local indigenous farmers. Late ...
. Bingham, often cited as the inspiration for Indiana Jones, "scientifically rediscovered" the site in 1911 and brought international attention to the site with his best-selling book ''Lost City of the Incas''. Peru is pursuing legal efforts to retrieve thousands of artifacts that Bingham removed from the site and sold to the current owners at Yale University.
Although Machu Picchu is by far the most well known internationally, Peru boasts of many other sites where the modern visitor can see extensive and well-preserved ruins, remnants of the Inca-period and even older constructions. Much of the Inca architecture and stonework found at these sites continues to confound archaeologists. For example, at
Sacsaywaman in Cusco, the zig-zag-shaped walls are composed of massive boulders fitted precisely to one another's irregular, angular shapes. No mortar holds them together, but nonetheless they have remained solid through the centuries, surviving earthquakes that flattened many of the colonial constructions of Cusco. Damage to the walls visible today was mainly inflicted during battles between the Spanish and the Inca, as well as later, in the colonial era. As Cusco grew, the walls of Sacsaywaman were partially dismantled, the site becoming a convenient source of construction materials for the city's newer inhabitants. It is still not known how these stones were shaped and smoothed, lifted on top of one another, or fitted together by the Incas; it is also unknown how they transported the stones to the site in the first place. The stone used is not native to the area and most likely came from mountains many kilometers away.
Spanish Era
Spanish conquest (1532–1572)
When the
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
landed in 1531,
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
's territory was the nucleus of the highly developed
Inca civilization
The Incas were most notable for establishing the Inca Empire in Pre-Columbian America, which was centered in modern day South America in Peru and Chile. It was about 2,500 miles from the northern to southern tip. The civilization lasted from 14 ...
. Centered at
Cuzco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
, the Inca Empire extended over a vast region, stretching from southwest
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
to northern
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
.
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish conquistador, best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of Peru.
Born in Trujillo, Spain to a poor family, Pizarro chose ...
and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. In 1532, they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. (The forms ''Biru'', ''Pirú'', and ''Berú'' are also seen in early records.) According to
Raúl Porras Barrenechea
Raúl Porras Barrenechea (23 March 1897 – 27 September 1960) was a Peruvian diplomat, historian and politician. He was President of the Senate in 1957 and Minister of Foreign Affairs between 1958 and 1960. A well-known figure of the student m ...
, Peru is not a
Quechua
Quechua may refer to:
*Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru
*Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language
**So ...
n nor
Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
word, but Indo-Hispanic or hybrid.
In the years between 1524 and 1526,
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
, introduced from the conquistadors in Panama and preceding the Spanish conquerors in Peru through transmission among natives, had swept through the Inca Empire.
[
] Smallpox caused the death of the Inca ruler
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac (with many alternative transliterations; 1464/1468–1524) was the third Sapan Inka of the Inca Empire, born in Tumipampa sixth of the Hanan dynasty, and eleventh of the Inca civilization. Subjects commonly approached Sapa Inkas addi ...
as well as most of his family including his heir, caused the fall of the Inca political structure and contributed to the
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
between the brothers
Atahualpa
Atahualpa (), also Atawallpa (Quechua), Atabalica, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa (c. 1502 – 26-29 July 1533) was the last Inca Emperor. After defeating his brother, Atahualpa became very briefly the last Sapa Inca (sovereign emperor) of the Inca Empir ...
and
Huáscar
Huáscar Inca (; Quechua: ''Waskar Inka''; 1503–1532) also Guazcar was Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire from 1527 to 1532. He succeeded his father, Huayna Capac and his brother Ninan Cuyochi, both of whom died of smallpox while campaigning near Qui ...
. Taking advantage of this,
Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish conquistador, best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of Peru.
Born in Trujillo, Spain to a poor family, Pizarro chose ...
carried out a ''
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
''. On 16 November 1532, while the Atahualpa's victorious army was in an unarmed celebration in
Cajamarca
Cajamarca (), also known by the Quechua name, ''Kashamarka'', is the capital and largest city of the Cajamarca Region as well as an important cultural and commercial center in the northern Andes. It is located in the northern highlands of Peru ...
, the Spanish lured Atahualpa into a trap during the
Battle of Cajamarca
The Battle of Cajamarca also spelled Cajamalca (though many contemporary scholars prefer to call it Massacre of Cajamarca) was the ambush and seizure of the Inca ruler Atahualpa by a small Spanish force led by Francisco Pizarro, on November 16, 1 ...
. The well-armed 168 Spaniards killed thousands of barely armed Inca soldiers and captured the newly minted Inca ruler, causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huáscar was killed, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the murder, executing him by strangulation.
For a period, Pizarro maintained the ostensible authority of the
Inca
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
, recognizing
Túpac Huallpa
Túpac Huallpa (or Huallpa Túpac) (1510 – October 1533), original name Auqui Huallpa Túpac, was the first vassal Sapa Inca installed by the Spanish conquistadors, during the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire led by Francisco Pizarro.
Life ...
as the
Sapa Inca
The Sapa Inca (from Quechua ''Sapa Inka'' "the only Inca") was the monarch of the Inca Empire (''Tawantinsuyu''), as well as ruler of the earlier Kingdom of Cusco and the later Neo-Inca State. While the origins of the position are mythical and o ...
after Atahualpa's death. But the conqueror's abuses made this facade too obvious. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. By 23 March 1534, Pizarro and the Spanish had re-founded the Inca city of Cuzco as a new Spanish colonial settlement.
Establishing a stable colonial government was delayed for some time by native revolts and bands of the ''
Conquistadores
Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (, ; meaning 'conquerors') were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish Empire, Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to ...
'' (led by Pizarro and
Diego de Almagro
Diego de Almagro (; – July 8, 1538), also known as El Adelantado and El Viejo, was a Spanish conquistador known for his exploits in western South America. He participated with Francisco Pizarro in the Spanish conquest of Peru. While sub ...
) fighting among themselves. A long civil war developed, from which Pizarro emerged victorious at the
Battle of Las Salinas
The Battle of Las Salinas was a military conflict and decisive confrontation between the forces of Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro against those of rival conquistador Diego de Almagro, on April 6, 1538, during the Conquest of Peru. Both camps clai ...
. In 1541, Pizarro was assassinated by a faction led by
Diego de Almagro II
Diego de Almagro II (1520 – September 16, 1542), called ''El Mozo'' (the lad), was the son of Spanish conquistador Diego de Almagro and Ana Martínez, a native Panamanian Indian woman.
Peru
In 1531 El Mozo accompanied his father on the e ...
(''El Mozo''), and the stability of the original colonial regime was shaken up in the ensuing
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
.
Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its most significant milestone was the foundation of
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
in January 1535, from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The new rulers instituted the
''encomienda'' system, by which the Spanish extracted tribute from the local population, part of which was forwarded to
Seville
Seville (; es, Sevilla, ) is the capital and largest city of the Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the River Guadalquivir, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula ...
in return for converting the natives to Christianity. Title to the land itself remained with the
king of Spain
, coatofarms = File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Spanish_Monarch.svg
, coatofarms_article = Coat of arms of the King of Spain
, image = Felipe_VI_in_2020_(cropped).jpg
, incumbent = Felipe VI
, incumbentsince = 19 Ju ...
. As governor of Peru, Pizarro used the ''encomienda'' system to grant virtually unlimited authority over groups of native Peruvians to his soldier companions, thus forming the colonial land-tenure structure. The indigenous inhabitants of Peru were now expected to raise
Old World
The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by the ...
cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult mal ...
,
poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quails, a ...
, and crops for their landlords. Resistance was punished severely, giving rise to the "
Black Legend".
The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories led to the creation of a
Real Audiencia
A ''Real Audiencia'' (), or simply an ''Audiencia'' ( ca, Reial Audiència, Audiència Reial, or Audiència), was an appellate court in Spain and its empire. The name of the institution literally translates as Royal Audience. The additional des ...
(Royal Audience). The following year, in 1542, the
Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru ( es, Virreinato del Perú, links=no) was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed from ...
(''Virreinato del Perú'') was established, with authority over most of Spanish-ruled South America. (
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
,
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
,
Panamá
Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cost ...
and
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
were split off as the
Viceroyalty of New Granada
The Viceroyalty of New Granada ( es, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, links=no ) also called Viceroyalty of the New Kingdom of Granada or Viceroyalty of Santafé was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in norther ...
(''Virreinato de Nueva Granada'') in 1717; and
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
,
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
,
Paraguay
Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...
, and
Uruguay
Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...
were set up as the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata ( es, Virreinato del Río de la Plata or es, Virreinato de las Provincias del Río de la Plata) meaning "River of the Silver", also called "Viceroyalty of the River Plate" in some scholarly writings, in ...
in 1776).
After Pizarro's death, there were numerous internal problems, and Spain finally sent
Blasco Núñez Vela
Blasco Núñez Vela (c. 1490 – January 18, 1546) was the first Spanish viceroy of South America ("Viceroyalty of Peru"). Serving from May 15, 1544 to January 18, 1546, he was charged by Charles V with the enforcement of the controversial ...
to be Peru's first viceroy in 1544. He was later killed by Pizarro's brother,
Gonzalo Pizarro
Gonzalo Pizarro y Alonso (; 1510 – April 10, 1548) was a Spanish conquistador and younger paternal half-brother of Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of the Inca Empire. Bastard son of Captain Gonzalo Pizarro y Rodríguez de Aguilar (senior) (14 ...
, but a new viceroy,
Pedro de la Gasca
Pedro de la Gasca (June 1485 – 13 November 1567) was a Spanish bishop, diplomat and the second (acting) viceroy of Peru, from 10 April 10 1547 to 27 January 1550.
Biography
Pedro de la Gasca studied at the University of Salamanca and the Un ...
, eventually managed to restore order. He captured and executed Gonzalo Pizarro.
A census taken by the last
Quipu
''Quipu'' (also spelled ''khipu'') are recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures in the region of Andean South America.
A ''quipu'' usually consisted of cotton or camelid fiber strings. The Inca people u ...
camayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Inca. Historian David N. Cook estimates that their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of
infectious disease
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dise ...
s. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at
genocide
Genocide is the intentional destruction of a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. Raphael Lemkin coined the term in 1944, combining the Greek word (, "race, people") with the Latin ...
, the results were similar. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors,
epidemic
An epidemic (from Ancient Greek, Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given population within an area in a short period of time.
Epidemics ...
disease
A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...
such as
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
(unlike the Spanish, the
Amerindians
The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of the European settlers in the 15th century, and the ethnic groups who now identify themselves with those peoples.
Many Indigenous peoples of the Ame ...
had no immunity to the disease) was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a
plaza
A town square (or square, plaza, public square, city square, urban square, or ''piazza'') is an open public space, commonly found in the heart of a traditional town but not necessarily a true geometric square, used for community gatherings. ...
with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like
Huanuco Viejo, were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.
Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824)
In 1542, the Spanish Crown created the
Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru ( es, Virreinato del Perú, links=no) was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed from ...
, which was reorganized after the arrival of Viceroy
Francisco de Toledo
Francisco Álvarez de Toledo ( Oropesa, 10 July 1515 – Escalona, 21 April 1582), also known as ''The Viceroyal Solon'', was an aristocrat and soldier of the Kingdom of Spain and the fifth Viceroy of Peru. Often regarded as the "best of Peru ...
in 1572. He put an end to the indigenous
Neo-Inca State
The Neo-Inca State, also known as the Neo-Inca state of Vilcabamba, was the Inca state established in 1537 at Vilcabamba by Manco Inca Yupanqui (the son of Inca emperor Huayna Capac). It is considered a rump state of the Inca Empire (1438–153 ...
in
Vilcabamba and executed
Tupac Amaru I. He also sought economic development through commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from the silver mines of
Potosí
Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
. He reused the Inca ''
mita'', a forced labor program, to mobilize native communities for mining work. This organization transformed Peru into the principal source of Spanish wealth and power in South America.
The town of
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
, founded by Pizarro on 18 January 1535 as the "Ciudad de Reyes" (City of Kings), became the seat of the new viceroyalty. It grew into a powerful city, with jurisdiction over most of Spanish South America. Precious metals passed through Lima on their way to the
Isthmus of Panama
The Isthmus of Panama ( es, Istmo de Panamá), also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien (), is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country ...
and from there to
Seville, Spain
Seville (; es, Sevilla, ) is the capital and largest city of the Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the River Guadalquivir, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula ...
for the Atlantic route. For the Pacific, it passed to Mexico and disembarked from the port of Acapulco and eventually arrived at the Philippines. By the 18th century, Lima had become a distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of a university and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas. Peru was thus wealthy and highly populated.
Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera
Sebastian may refer to:
People
* Sebastian (name), including a list of persons with the name
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films and television
* ''Sebastian'' (1968 film), British spy film
* ''Sebastian'' (1995 film), Swedish drama film
...
, governor of
Panama
Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cos ...
settled
Zamboanga City
Zamboanga City, officially the City of Zamboanga (Chavacano and es, Ciudad de Zamboanga, Tausug language, Tausūg: ''Dāira sin Sambuangan'', fil, Lungsod ng Zamboanga, ceb, Dakbayan sa Zamboanga), is a city in the Zamboanga Peninsula region ...
in the Philippines, where residents now speak a
Spanish Creole
A Spanish creole, or Spanish-based creole language, is a creole language (contact language with native speakers) for which Spanish serves as its substantial '' lexifier''.
A number of creole languages are influenced to varying degrees by the Sp ...
, by employing soldiers and colonists recruited from the towns of Peru.
Nevertheless, throughout the eighteenth century, further away from Lima in the provinces, the Spanish did not have complete control. The Spanish could not govern the provinces without the help of local elite. This local elite, who governed under the title of Curaca, took pride in their Incan history. Additionally, throughout the eighteenth century, indigenous people rebelled against the Spanish. Two of the most important rebellions were that of
Juan Santos Atahualpa
Juan Santos Atahualpa Apu-Inca Huayna Capac (c. 1710 – c. 1756) was the messianic leader of a successful indigenous rebellion in the Amazon Basin and Andean foothills against the Viceroyalty of Peru in the Spanish Empire. The rebellion began i ...
in 1742 in the Andean jungle provinces of
Tarma
'')
, pushpin_map = Peru
, coordinates =
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name =
, subdivision_type1 = Region
, subdivision_name1 = Junín
, subdivision_type2 = Province ...
and
Jauja
Jauja (Shawsha Wanka Quechua: Sausa, Shawsha or Shausha, formerly in Spanish Xauxa, with pronunciation of "x" as "sh") is a city and capital of Jauja Province in Peru. It is situated in the fertile Mantaro Valley, to the northwest of Huancayo (t ...
, which expelled the Spanish from a large area, and the Rebellion of
Túpac Amaru II
José Gabriel Condorcanqui ( – May 18, 1781)known as Túpac Amaru II was an indigenous Cacique who led a large Andean rebellion against the Spanish in Peru. He later became a mythical figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and in ...
in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.
At the time, an economic crisis was developing due to creation of the Viceroyalties of
New Granada and
Rio de la Plata
Rio or Río is the Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese word for "river". When spoken on its own, the word often means Rio de Janeiro, a major city in Brazil.
Rio or Río may also refer to:
Geography Brazil
* Rio de Janeiro
* Rio do Sul, a ...
(at the expense of its territory), the duty exemptions that moved the commercial center from
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
to
Caracas
Caracas (, ), officially Santiago de León de Caracas, abbreviated as CCS, is the capital and largest city of Venezuela, and the center of the Metropolitan Region of Caracas (or Greater Caracas). Caracas is located along the Guaire River in the ...
and
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
, and the decrease of the mining and textile production. This crisis proved favorable for the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II and determined the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
In 1808, Napoleon invaded the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
and took the king,
Ferdinand VII
, house = Bourbon-Anjou
, father = Charles IV of Spain
, mother = Maria Luisa of Parma
, birth_date = 14 October 1784
, birth_place = El Escorial, Spain
, death_date =
, death_place = Madrid, Spain
, burial_plac ...
, hostage. Later in 1812, the
Cadíz Cortes, the national legislative assembly of Spain, promulgated a liberal
Constitution of Cadiz
The Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy ( es, link=no, Constitución Política de la Monarquía Española), also known as the Constitution of Cádiz ( es, link=no, Constitución de Cádiz) and as ''La Pepa'', was the first Constituti ...
. These events inspired emancipating ideas between the
Spanish Criollo people throughout the Spanish America. In Peru, the Creole rebellion of
Huánuco
Huánuco (; qu, Wanuku) is a city in central Peru. It had a population of 196,627 as of 2017 and in 2015 it had a population of 175,068. It is the capital of the Huánuco Region and the Huánuco District. It is the seat of the diocese of Huán ...
arose in 1812 and the rebellion of
Cuzco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
arose between 1814 and 1816. Despite these rebellions, the
Criollo
Criollo or criolla (Spanish for creole) may refer to:
People
* Criollo people, a social class in the Spanish race-based colonial caste system (the European descendants)
Animals
* Criollo duck, a species of duck native to Central and South Ameri ...
oligarchy in Peru remained mostly Spanish loyalist, which accounts for the fact that the
Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru ( es, Virreinato del Perú, links=no) was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed from ...
became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in South America.
Wars of independence (1811–1824)
Peru's movement toward independence was launched by an uprising of Spanish-American landowners and their forces, led by
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín y Matorras (25 February 177817 August 1850), known simply as José de San Martín () or '' the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru'', was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern and cent ...
of
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
and
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and B ...
of
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
. San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the
Battle of Chacabuco
The Battle of Chacabuco, fought during the Chilean War of Independence, occurred on February 12, 1817. The Army of the Andes of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, led by Captain–General José de San Martín, defeated a Spanish for ...
, and who had disembarked in
Paracas in 1819, led the military campaign of 4,200 soldiers. The expedition, which included warships, was organized and financed by Chile which sailed from
Valparaíso
Valparaíso (; ) is a major city, seaport, naval base, and educational centre in the commune of Valparaíso, Chile. "Greater Valparaíso" is the second largest metropolitan area in the country. Valparaíso is located about northwest of Santiago ...
in August 1820. San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru in
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
on 28 July 1821, with the words "... ''From this moment on, Peru is free and independent, by the general will of the people and the justice of its cause that God defends. Long live the homeland! Long live freedom! Long live our independence!''". San Martín received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish.
[Arana, M., 2013, ''Bolivar'', New York: Simon & Schuster, ]
On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the
Guayaquil Conference
The Guayaquil Conference ( es, Conferencia de Guayaquil) was a meeting that took place on July 26 and 27, 1822 in the port city of Guayaquil (today part of Ecuador) between libertadors José de San Martín and Simón de Bolívar to discuss the ...
with San Martín and attempted to decide the political fate of Peru. San Martín opted for a constitutional monarchy, whilst Bolivar (Head of the Northern Expedition) favored a republic. Nonetheless, they both followed the notion that it was to be independent of Spain. Following the interview, San Martin abandoned Peru on 22 September 1822 and left the whole command of the independence movement to Simon Bolivar.
![Batalla de Junín](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Batalla_de_Jun%C3%ADn.jpg)
The Peruvian congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed him to reorganize the political and military administration completely. Assisted by general
Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá (; 3 February 1795 – 4 June 1830), known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" ( en, "Grand Marshal of Ayacucho"), was a Venezuelan independence leader who served as the president of Peru and as the second pr ...
, Bolívar decisively defeated the Spanish
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...
at the
Battle of Junín
The Battle of Junín was a military engagement of the Peruvian War of Independence, fought in the highlands of the Junín Region on 6 August 1824. The preceding February the royalists had regained control of Lima, and having regrouped in Trujil ...
on 6 August 1824. Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at
Ayacucho
Ayacucho (, qu, Ayak'uchu) is the capital city of Ayacucho Region and of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.
During the Inca Empire and Viceroyalty of Peru periods the city was known by the name of Huamanga (Quechua: Wamanga), and it c ...
on 9 December 1824. The war would not end until the last royalist holdouts surrendered the
Real Felipe Fortress
The Real Felipe Fortress was built to defend the main Peruvian port and the city of Lima from pirates and corsairs during colonial times. The fortress was pivotal in the 1866 naval battle between a Spanish fleet sent to South America to "reclaim" ...
in 1826.
The victory brought about political independence, but there remained indigenous and
mestizo
(; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed Ethnic groups in Europe, European and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also r ...
supporters of the monarchy and in
Huanta Province
Huanta Province is the northernmost of the eleven provinces in the Ayacucho region in Peru. The capital of the Huanta province is the city of Huanta.
History
In the colonial era, Huanta province was larger than it is currently, with traditional ...
, they rebelled in 1825–28, which is known as ''the war of the punas'' or the
Huanta Rebellion.
Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, such as the
Battle of Callao
The Battle of Callao (, as it is known in South America) occurred on May 2, 1866, between a Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Casto Méndez Núñez and the fortified battery emplacements of the Peruvian port city of Callao during th ...
(1866), and only in 1879 finally recognized Peruvian independence.
Republican Era
The Republican era of Peru is usually considered to begin after the declaration of independence or the
Battle of Ayacucho
The Battle of Ayacucho ( es, Batalla de Ayacucho, ) was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. This battle secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America. In Peru it is co ...
in 1824, and its periods are modelled after
Jorge Basadre
Jorge Alfredo Basadre Grohmann (February 12, 1903 – June 29, 1980) was a Peruvian historian known for his extensive publications about the independent history of his country. He served during two different administrations as Minister of Educa ...
's work, ''
Historia de la República del Perú''.
Beginnings of the Republic (1824–1836)
After the
Battle of Ayacucho
The Battle of Ayacucho ( es, Batalla de Ayacucho, ) was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. This battle secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America. In Peru it is co ...
, Spanish General
José de Canterac
José de Canterac (July 29, 1786, Casteljaloux, Lot-et-Garone, France – April 13, 1835, Madrid, Spain) was a Spanish general of French origin who fought in the Spanish American wars of independence. In 1816 he joined the army of Pablo Mor ...
signed the final capitulation of the
Royalist Army in Peru. Despite the Spanish capitulation,
relations between both states would not be established until 1879. During this era, the First Militarism ( es, Primer Militarismo), a period where several military figures held control of the country, started in 1827, with
José de la Mar
José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ).
In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...
's presidency.
Spanish resistance
By the time the capitulation had been signed, the royalist forces in Peru occupied the southern provinces, slowly surrendering to the rebels. Despite the apparent end of the successful
patriot
A patriot is a person with the quality of patriotism.
Patriot may also refer to:
Political and military groups United States
* Patriot (American Revolution), those who supported the cause of independence in the American Revolution
* Patriot m ...
campaigns, two Spanish figures refused to accept the capitulation and established themselves in
Callao
Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists o ...
and
Upper Peru
Upper Peru (; ) is a name for the land that was governed by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. The name originated in Buenos Aires towards the end of the 18th century after the Audiencia of Charcas was transferred from the Viceroyalty of Peru to th ...
:
José Ramón Rodil and
Pedro Antonio Olañeta, respectively. Additionally, a
resistance in Ayacucho led by
Antonio Huachaca
Antonio Huachaca was a Peruvian indigenous peasant and loyalist of the Spanish Empire who fought for Spain during the Viceregal era, and then for the Royalist cause during and after the Peruvian War of Independence, reaching the rank of brigadi ...
would remain until its dissolution in 1839.
Olañeta, who established himself in
Potosí
Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
, soon became the focus of a
campaign
Campaign or The Campaign may refer to:
Types of campaigns
* Campaign, in agriculture, the period during which sugar beets are harvested and processed
*Advertising campaign, a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme
* Bl ...
commanded by
Antonio José de Sucre
Antonio José de Sucre y Alcalá (; 3 February 1795 – 4 June 1830), known as the "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" ( en, "Grand Marshal of Ayacucho"), was a Venezuelan independence leader who served as the president of Peru and as the second pr ...
. The campaign began in January and ended in April 1825, with the of April 1, where Olañeta was fatally wounded after being shot and died the day after.
Rodil, on the other hand, established himself in the
Real Felipe Fortress
The Real Felipe Fortress was built to defend the main Peruvian port and the city of Lima from pirates and corsairs during colonial times. The fortress was pivotal in the 1866 naval battle between a Spanish fleet sent to South America to "reclaim" ...
of the port of Callao, near
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
, expecting Spanish reinforcements that would never come. The capital city itself had been retaken by Royalist troops until the arrival of reinforcements for the Patriot side. This led to Rodil's forces being
besieged
Besieged may refer to:
* the state of being under siege
* ''Besieged'' (film), a 1998 film by Bernardo Bertolucci
{{disambiguation ...
from December 5, 1824, to January 23, 1826, and becoming the final Spanish stronghold in South America. The deteriorating conditions of the besieged fortress eventually led to the surrender of Rodil and his forces due to their inability to continue the siege alive.
Bolivarian era
Simón Bolívar
Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830) was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and B ...
, who became dictator of Peru on January 17, 1824, notified the
Constituent Congress
A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
of his resignation of his office, which was not accepted, instead being extended until 1827. During this time, he travelled to southern and Upper Peru, and the final
flag
A flag is a piece of fabric (most often rectangular or quadrilateral) with a distinctive design and colours. It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. The term ''flag'' is also used to refer to the graphic design empl ...
and
coat of arms of Peru
The Coat of arms of Peru is the national symbolic emblem of Peru. Four variants are used: the Coat of arms ''per se'' ('); the National Coat of arms, or National Shield ('); the Great Seal of the State ('); and the Naval Coat of arms (').
Offic ...
was established on February 25, 1825, the latter designed by .
Upper Peru, whose public opinion was split between joining Peru or the
United Provinces, soon saw a new train of thought establish itself, which suggested that the region become an independent state. Soon, the
State of Upper Peru was established as an independent state, later becoming
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
. Bolívar was in charge of the constitution, as well as
Peru's and later
Colombia's. The similarities between the constitutions was related to his desire to establish a federation in America, which led to the
Congress of Panama
The Congress of Panama (also referred to as the Amphictyonic Congress, in homage to the Amphictyonic League of Ancient Greece) was a congress organized by Simón Bolívar in 1826 with the goal of bringing together the new republics of Latin Americ ...
and later the anti-Bolivarian sentiment that led to him leaving Peru on September 3, 1826. A year later, the Constituent Congress was dissolved.
Conflict with Bolivia and Colombia
José de la Mar
José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ).
In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...
became president of Peru on August 22, 1827, having been chosen by the new Congress. Under his presidency, Peru went to war with Bolivia and Colombia due to the perceived disadvantage that Peru saw itself in due to being surrounded by Bolivarian countries.
A Peruvian
invasion of Bolivia headed by
Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra Messia (August 27, 1785 – November 18, 1841) was a Peruvian soldier and politician, who served as the 4th and 7th President of Peru.
Gamarra was a Mestizo, being of mixed Spanish and Quechua descent.Larned, Smith, Seymour, She ...
began on May 1, 1828. The Peruvian Army soon occupied the Bolivian
department of La Paz, established a
pro-Peruvian government and successfully deported the Colombian troops stationed in the country via ships paid by Bolivia that departed from the Peruvian port of
Arica
Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
.
The events in Bolivia led to
war between Peru and Colombia, which ended with the
Battle of Tarqui
The Battle of Tarqui, also known as the Battle of Portete de Tarqui, took place on 27 February 1829 at Tarqui, near Cuenca, today part of Ecuador. It was fought between troops from Gran Colombia, commanded by Antonio José de Sucre, and Peruvian ...
on February 27, 1829, after which an armistice was signed. The breach of the armistice almost led to a continuation of the war, an event that was prevented by the political instability in Peru that led to the deposition of La Mar by
Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra Messia (August 27, 1785 – November 18, 1841) was a Peruvian soldier and politician, who served as the 4th and 7th President of Peru.
Gamarra was a Mestizo, being of mixed Spanish and Quechua descent.Larned, Smith, Seymour, She ...
, who signed
a peace treaty with Colombia.
Later instability
A
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
broke out in 1834, by revolutionaries who opposed Orbegoso as a successor of Gamarra. Orbegoso proved popular with the population, and the revolution was eventually repressed, with Orbegoso, who had established himself in the Real Felipe Fortress, returning to Lima on May 3, 1834.
Desires to unite the regions of lower and upper Peru eventually led to the
Salaverry-Santa Cruz War
The Salaverry-Santa Cruz War, sometimes called the Peruvian Civil War of 1835–1836, was an internal conflict in Peru with the involvement of the Bolivian army of Andres de Santa Cruz. At the Battle of Yanacocha (August 13, 1835), Santa Cruz's ...
, which itself led to the establishment of the
Republic of South Peru
The Republic of South Peru ( es, República Sud-Peruana) was one of the three constituent Republics of the short-lived Peru–Bolivian Confederation of 1836–39.
South Peru was formed from the division of the Republic of Peru into the Republic ...
on March 17, 1836, and the
Republic of North Peru
The Republic of North Peru was one of the three constituent Republics of the short-lived Peru–Bolivian Confederation of 1836–1839.
North Peru was formed from the division of the Republic of Peru into the Republic of North Peru and the Rep ...
on August 11, 1836, with
Andrés de Santa Cruz
Andrés de Santa Cruz y Calahumana (; 30 November 1792 – 25 September 1865) was a Bolivian general and politician who served as interim president of Peru in 1827, the interim president of Peru from 1836 to 1838 and the sixth president of B ...
appointing himself the Supreme Protector of both states. The establishment of these states later ended with the establishment of the
Peru–Bolivian Confederation
The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived state that existed in South America between 1836 and 1839. The country was a loose confederation between the states of Peru, divided into the Republic of North Peru and the Republic of South Pe ...
.
Peru-Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839)
![Confederacion Perú Boliviana cronologia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Confederacion_Per%C3%BA_Boliviana_cronologia.png)
The establishment of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation soon led to war, as Peruvian exiles, as well as neighboring
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
and
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
opposed the existence of the state.
Peruvian opposition manifested itself in the
War of the Confederation
The War of the Confederation ( es, Guerra de la Confederación) was a military confrontation waged by Chile, along with Peruvian dissidents, and the Argentine Confederation against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation between 1836 and 1839. As ...
, which included the secession of
North Peru
The Republic of North Peru was one of the three constituent Republics of the short-lived Peru–Bolivian Confederation of 1836–1839.
North Peru was formed from the division of the Republic of Peru into the Republic of North Peru and the Rep ...
, whose president, Luis de Orbegoso, established the
Restoration Army of Peru
The Army of the North of Peru or Restoration Army of Peru was the army of the Peruvian Republic (1838–1839), Northern Peruvian Republic that was made up of Peruvians opposed to the establishment of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, who accused ...
that was defeated at the
Battle of Guías; and the establishment by Peruvian exiles in Chile of the
United Restoration Army
The Army of the North of Peru or Restoration Army of Peru was the army of the Northern Peruvian Republic that was made up of Peruvians opposed to the establishment of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, who accused Bolivian President Andrés de ...
, which fought against the confederation until its defeat in the
Battle of Yungay
The Battle of Yungay (or Yungai) was the final battle of the War of the Confederation, fought on January 20, 1839, near Yungay, Peru. The United Restorer Army, led by Chilean General Manuel Bulnes, consisting mainly of Chileans and 600 North ...
, which led to its dissolution.
The conflict against the confederation also saw a southern theater, known as the
War of Tarija, which was the conflict between Argentina and the Confederation over the territory of
Tarija
Tarija or San Bernardo de la Frontera de Tarixa is a city in southern Bolivia. Founded in 1574, Tarija is the largest city and capital and municipality within the Tarija Department, with an airport (Capitán Oriel Lea Plaza Airport, (TJA)) offe ...
. Argentina annexed the territory as a result of the war, later being returned to Bolivia in March 1839.
In addition to the conflict in Tarija, the conflict also began the
Second Iquicha War, which led to the disestablishment of the royalist autonomy—that had seen
conflict
Conflict may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
* ''Conflict'' (1921 film), an American silent film directed by Stuart Paton
* ''Conflict'' (1936 film), an American boxing film starring John Wayne
* ''Conflict'' (1937 film) ...
a decade earlier—led by Huachaca, who fled to the
Apurímac jungle, choosing to remain there while denouncing the republicans as the "antichrists".
Restoration (1839–1841)
After the demise in the
War of the Confederation
The War of the Confederation ( es, Guerra de la Confederación) was a military confrontation waged by Chile, along with Peruvian dissidents, and the Argentine Confederation against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation between 1836 and 1839. As ...
, the states of Peru and Bolivia were re-established as independent and separate from each other. The Constituent Congress meeting in
Huancayo
Huancayo (; in qu, label=Wanka Quechua, Wankayuq , '(place) with a (sacred) rock') is the capital of Junín Region, in the central highlands of Peru.
Location
Huancayo is located in Huancayo Province, of which it is also the capital. Sit ...
ratified
Agustín Gamarra
Agustín Gamarra Messia (August 27, 1785 – November 18, 1841) was a Peruvian soldier and politician, who served as the 4th and 7th President of Peru.
Gamarra was a Mestizo, being of mixed Spanish and Quechua descent.Larned, Smith, Seymour, She ...
as Provisional President on August 15, 1839, while the
new Constitution was being written. Once this was approved, and after a general election, Gamarra was proclaimed Constitutional President of Peru on July 10, 1840.
During this second government, treaties were signed with Brazil, the Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe school opened its doors, and
''El Comercio'' began its publications in 1839. Gamarra followed the same guidelines as his first government, being authoritarian and conservative, as circumstances required, after several years of civil war. He faced the challenge of pacifying the country, having to face the "regenerative" revolution that
Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco
Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco Iturralde (15 June 1806 – 16 September 1873) was a Peruvian politician and military leader who served as the President of Peru from 1843 to 1844. He was born in Lima, Peru. He led part of the Peruvian forces in the ...
led in
Arequipa
Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...
, where he proclaimed himself Supreme Chief of the Republic, in January 1841. To combat it, Gamarra sent his war minister, Ramón Castilla, who after first suffering a defeat in Cachamarca, triumphed over the ''Vivanquistas'' in Cuevillas. After his defeat, Vivanco fled to Bolivia.
Gamarra's desire to unite Bolivia and Peru dovetailed into an attempt to annex Bolivia that ultimately failed and turned into a
protracted war. After reaching
La Paz
La Paz (), officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Spanish pronunciation: ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities ...
without resistance, Gamarra participated in the
Battle of Ingavi
The Battle of Ingavi occurred on November 18, 1841, during the Peruvian-Bolivian War of 1841-1842, in the town of Ingavi, Bolivia. The Bolivian Army, commanded by Jose Ballivian, there met an invading Peruvian Army commanded by Agustín Gamarra ...
, where he was killed in action. In the aftermath of this battle, Bolivia occupied the south of Peru until a Peruvian resistance was established, which led to a counterattack that was ultimately successful due to the limited number of Bolivian troops.
The two nations signed the Treaty of Puno on June 7, 1842, officially ending the war. Both countries agreed to remain as separate
sovereign state
A sovereign state or sovereign country, is a polity, political entity represented by one central government that has supreme legitimate authority over territory. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defin ...
s and the retreat of troops in Peruvian territory was accomplished eight days later. Bolivia unconditionally renounced all claims in southern Peruvian territory, but nevertheless, the treaty did not manage to solve the border problem or the unionist movement between the two states.
The conflict ended with a return to the situation before the war. Despite this, Peruvian historiography argues that the victories seen in all the battles in Peruvian soil overshadow the defeat at Ingavi, leaving Peru in a more favorable outcome after the end of the war.
Military anarchy (1841–1845)
After Gamarra's death,
Manuel Menéndez
Manuel Menéndez Gorozabel (1793 – May 2, 1847) served as Interim President of Peru from 1841 to 1842, on 1844, and lastly from 1844 to 1845.
See also
* List of presidents of Peru
1793 births
1847 deaths
Presidents of Peru ...
was recognized as provisional president. However, several military leaders became involved in a struggle for power: in the north,
Juan Crisóstomo Torrico
Juan Crisóstomo Torrico Vargas (January 21, 1808, Lima, Peru – March 27, 1875, Paris, France) served as the 16th List of Presidents of Peru, President of Peru during a brief period in 1842. At age 34, he was Peru's youngest President ever.
In ...
; in the south,
Antonio Gutiérrez de La Fuente
Antonio Gutiérrez de la Fuente (8 September 1796 – 14 March 1878) was a Peruvian politician who also served in the Peruvian military. He briefly served as President of Peru from June 7 to September 1, 1829.
Gutiérrez de la Fuente was born in ...
,
Domingo Nieto
Domingo Nieto (15 August 1803 – 17 February 1844) was a Peruvian Grand Marshal, forefather of the nation, and politician who served as the 19th President of Peru between 1843 and 1844, officially as the President of the Government Junta and G ...
and
Juan Francisco de Vidal
Juan Francisco de Vidal La Hoz (April 2, 1800 in Lima, Peru – September 23, 1863 in Lima) served as the 8th President of Peru
The president of Peru ( es, link=no, presidente del Perú), officially called the president of the Republic of P ...
; and in Arequipa,
Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco
Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco Iturralde (15 June 1806 – 16 September 1873) was a Peruvian politician and military leader who served as the President of Peru from 1843 to 1844. He was born in Lima, Peru. He led part of the Peruvian forces in the ...
. Menéndez could not maintain power, as he was deposed by Torrico.
The anarchy led to the
Peruvian Civil War of 1843–1844
The Peruvian Civil War of 1843–1844 was the second internal conflict in 19th century Peru (after the Peruvian Civil War of 1834). It was fought between the government forces of Vivanco and Echenique against the revolutionaries led by Domingo Nie ...
. By then, a government had been established by Vivanco, known as the Directory ( es, el Directorio). In contrast to this new government, a rebellion led by
Domingo Nieto
Domingo Nieto (15 August 1803 – 17 February 1844) was a Peruvian Grand Marshal, forefather of the nation, and politician who served as the 19th President of Peru between 1843 and 1844, officially as the President of the Government Junta and G ...
also sought to establish itself as the legitimate government. On September 3, 1843, the revolutionaries constituted a Provisional Government Junta of the Free Departments in Cuzco ( es, Junta de Gobierno Provisional de los Departamentos Libres), whose presidency was assumed by Domingo Nieto, who would be succeeded by Castilla after his death in 1844.
The civil war reached its end in the
Battle of Carmen Alto of July 22, 1844, between Vivanco and Castilla's troops near Arequipa. After the defeat of Vivanco's troops, Vivanco himself arrived in Callao on July 27, being arrested by Prefect of Lima
Domingo Elías
Domingo Elías Carbajo (July 19, 1805, Ica, Peru – July 3, 1867, Lima, Peru) served as Interim President of Peru (Self-proclaimed President) for a brief period between June and August 1844.
Biography
He assumed the Presidency of Peru during ...
and exiled to Chile a few days later. With Castilla as the country's new leader, the anarchy came to an end.
The "fallacious prosperity" and the Guano Era (1845–1866)
After Castilla assumed the presidency of Peru, Peru entered a period of peace and economic prosperity, as the anarchic period had been put to an end, and Peru established a virtual international monopoly in the trade of
guano
Guano (Spanish from qu, wanu) is the accumulated excrement of seabirds or bats. As a manure, guano is a highly effective fertilizer due to the high content of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, all key nutrients essential for plant growth. G ...
. This allowed the government to repay its external debt, earning it international economic prestige. Several reforms, including education, were put into place, and the economy continued to grow until the 1860s.
Castilla was replaced by his advisor
José Rufino Echenique
José Rufino Pompeyo Echenique Benavente (November 16, 1808 in Puno, Peru – June 16, 1887 in Lima, Peru) served as the 12th President of Peru from 1851 to 1855.
He participated in the Peruvian War of Independence. In 1851, Echenique won the p ...
in 1851, who continued his work, as the economy continued to grow. His government was of a conservative nature, which eventually led to conflict with the liberals. On October 23, 1851, Peru signed
its first border treaty with Brazil, where it ceded territory in the
Amazon rainforest
The Amazon rainforest, Amazon jungle or ; es, Selva amazónica, , or usually ; french: Forêt amazonienne; nl, Amazoneregenwoud. In English, the names are sometimes capitalized further, as Amazon Rainforest, Amazon Forest, or Amazon Jungle. ...
disputed by Ecuador, who claimed the territory as its own.
Liberal Revolution (1854–1855)
Echenique was accused of corruption by its opponents, with some pointing out a lavish party that had been hosted by his wife,
Victoria Tristán, as proof of his reckless spending, which appeared as an insult to the general poverty of the country. Others, such as Domingo Elías, made the accusation on the basis of Echenique being "too generous" regarding his payment of the country's external debt. Amid the growing conflict between the conservative government and the liberal opposition, the
Liberal Revolution of 1854
The Liberal Revolution of 1854 ( es, Revolución Liberal de 1854), also known as the Arequipa Revolution of 1854 ( es, Revolución de Arequipa de 1854), was a popular insurrection that emerged in Peru during the government of José Rufino Echeniq ...
broke out, with the liberals, soon headed by Castilla, defeating the government at the
Battle of La Palma
On January 5, 1855, during the Liberal Revolution of 1854, at the La Palma hacienda, Ramón Castilla
Ramón Castilla y Marquesado (; 31 August 1797 – 30 May 1867) was a Peruvian ''caudillo'' who served as President of Peru three times a ...
and Castilla being reinstated as president.
Castilla summoned a National Convention whose representatives were elected by direct and universal suffrage, settling on July 14, 1855. This Convention authored the
Liberal Constitution of 1856. Dissatisfied with the liberal regime that was being established, the conservatives rose up in Arequipa, led by the caudillo Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, an old rival of Castilla. A
bloody civil war broke out, culminating in the triumph of Castilla after the
capture of Arequipa on March 7, 1858.
Ecuadorian–Peruvian War (1857–1860)
Between 1857 and 1860 a
war broke out against Ecuador over disputed territories in the Amazon that Ecuador had allegedly sold to British companies to pay for its foreign debt. The Peruvian victory in the war prevented the Ecuadorian claims to settle in the area.
War with Spain
In 1865,
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
broke out, waged by the forces headed by Colonel
Mariano Ignacio Prado
Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa (December 18, 1825 – May 5, 1901) was a Peruvian army general who served as the 16th (1865 - 1868) and 21st (1876 - 1879) President of Peru.
Biography
Born in Huánuco on December 18, 1825, he studied in Huanuco an ...
against the government of President
Juan Antonio Pezet
Juan Antonio Pezet Rodríguez Piedra (11 June 1809 – 24 March 1879) was a Peruvian military officer and politician who served in the positions of Secretary of War, First Vice President and the 16th President of Peru throughout his life. A ...
, due to the weakness that he was alleged to have shown in solving the crisis caused by the Spanish occupation of the Chincha Islands, most specifically due to the signing of the
Vivanco–Pareja Treaty. As a result, Pezet was overthrown, and Prado declared an alliance against Spain, alongside Chile, Bolivia and Ecuador, also declaring war on Spain. On May 2, 1866, the
Battle of Callao
The Battle of Callao (, as it is known in South America) occurred on May 2, 1866, between a Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Casto Méndez Núñez and the fortified battery emplacements of the Peruvian port city of Callao during th ...
took place, and a peace treaty was signed in 1879. The expenses caused by the war severely affected the Peruvian economy, which began to decline.
Economic and International Crisis (1866–1883)
With Prado as provisional and later constitutional president, a
new constitution was adopted. Its extremely liberal nature led to a
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
headed by
Pedro Diez Canseco
Pedro Diez Canseco Corbacho (January 31, 1815 in Arequipa, Peru – April 3, 1893 in Chorrillos, Peru) was a Peruvian soldier and politician who served as President of Peru
The president of Peru ( es, link=no, presidente del Perú), offi ...
and
José Balta
José Balta y Montero (25 April 1814 – 26 July 1872) was a Peruvian soldier and politician who served as the 19th President of Peru from 1868 to 1872. He was the son of John Balta Bru and Agustina Montero Casafranca.
In 1865, he aided Ma ...
, which ended Prado's presidency and re-established the
1860 constitution.
The new Balta government appointed a young
Nicolás de Piérola
Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena (known as "''El Califa''" ("The Caliph"); January 5, 1839 – June 23, 1913) was a Peruvian politician and Minister of Finance of Peru, Minister of Finance who served as the 23rd and 31 ...
as
Minister of Economy
A finance minister is an executive or cabinet position in charge of one or more of government finances, economic policy and financial regulation.
A finance minister's portfolio has a large variety of names around the world, such as "treasury", ...
, who signed a treaty with the
Jewish–French businessman
Auguste Dreyfus
Auguste Dreyfus (28 June 1827 – 25 May 1897) was a French businessman who made his fortune by financing the Peruvian trade in guano. Dreyfus joined a small textile trading firm set up by three of his elder brothers and moved to Lima, Peru to act ...
. For its part, the House of Dreyfus pay
S/. two million in advance, and undertook to pay at a rate of
S/. 700 thousand each month and to cover the interest on the Peruvian foreign debt.
As a result of the income from the Dreyfus contract, Peru embarked on a railroad-building program. The American entrepreneur
Henry Meiggs
Henry Meiggs (July 7, 1811 – September 30, 1877), was a promotor/entrepreneur and railroad builder born in Boston, Massachusetts
Business career
Lumber
Meiggs came to New York City in 1835 and began a lumber business that was ruined by the ...
built a standard gauge line from
Callao
Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists o ...
across the Andes to the interior,
Huancayo
Huancayo (; in qu, label=Wanka Quechua, Wankayuq , '(place) with a (sacred) rock') is the capital of Junín Region, in the central highlands of Peru.
Location
Huancayo is located in Huancayo Province, of which it is also the capital. Sit ...
; he built the line and controlled its politics for a while; in the end, he bankrupted himself and the country. Financial problems forced the government to take over in 1874. The labor conditions were complex, with conflicts arising from different levels of skill and organization among the North Americans, Europeans, Blacks, and the Chinese. Conditions were very brutal for the Chinese, and led to strikes and violent suppression.
Elections were held in 1872, with
Manuel Pardo of the
Civilista Party
The Civilista Party ( es, Partido Civil, PC) was a political party in Peru.
History
Founded as a countermeasure against the growing power of the military in Peru during the first half of the Republic, the party's sole purpose was to establish a ...
being elected as the first civilian president of Peru. The ascension of a civil government disturbed many members of the military, who believed they would lose the privileges that they had enjoyed until then. Among the concerned were the Gutiérrez brothers, originally from
Huancarqui. The brothers, headed by Colonel
Tomás Gutiérrez
Tomás Francisco Gutiérrez Chávez (March 7, 1817 – July 26, 1872) was a Peruvian Colonel who, along with his brothers, led a coup against President José Balta Montero and served as the Supreme Leader of Peru for four days in July 1872. Fro ...
, carried out a
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
against Balta on July 22, 1872. The new government lasted until the 26th, when the brothers were overthrown, with three of them being killed and only one surviving.
Pardo became president on August 2, ending the ''First Militarism'' that had existed since 1827. Under his government, the
Treaty of Defensive Alliance was signed with Bolivia, which would lead Peru to fight against Chile 7 years later.
War of the Pacific
![Treaty of Ancón](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Treaty_of_Anc%C3%B3n.svg)
In 1879, Peru entered the
War of the Pacific
The War of the Pacific ( es, link=no, Guerra del Pacífico), also known as the Saltpeter War ( es, link=no, Guerra del salitre) and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought ...
, after Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The
Peruvian Government
, border = Central
, image =
, caption = Logo of the Government of Peru
, date = 1990
, state = Peru
, address = Government Palace
, leader_title = President of PeruWhile there is ...
tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. On 14 March 1879, Bolivia declared war and Chile, in response, declared war on Bolivia and Peru on 5 April 1879 with Peru following with its own declaration of war the next day.
The Chilean land campaigns in
Tarapacá
San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, also known simply as Tarapacá, is a town in the region of the same name in Chile.
History
The town has likely been inhabited since the 12th century, when it formed part of the Inca trail. When Spanish explorer Diego ...
,
Tacna and Arica,
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
and
Breña
Breña District ( es, Distrito de Breña) is the smallest district of the Lima Province in Peru. It is part of Lima city metropolitan area.
Government and politics
The current mayor is José Dalton Li Bravo.
Geography
The district has a total ...
eventually led to the
Chilean occupation of these territories, which were administered from
occupied Lima. In parallel with the occupying administration, a collaborationist government was also established in Lima under the
protection
Protection is any measure taken to guard a thing against damage caused by outside forces. Protection can be provided to physical objects, including organisms, to systems, and to intangible things like civil and political rights. Although th ...
of Chile. The government was
initially based in
La Magdalena
Magdalena may refer to:
* Magdalena (given name), a given name derived from Mary Magdalene (including a list of people with the name)
Entertainment
* Magdalena (comics), an American comic book superheroine
* ''Magdalena'' (film), a 1920 Czechos ...
, and then in
Cajamarca
Cajamarca (), also known by the Quechua name, ''Kashamarka'', is the capital and largest city of the Cajamarca Region as well as an important cultural and commercial center in the northern Andes. It is located in the northern highlands of Peru ...
. This government's legitimacy was disputed by the
Peruvian Resistance, which continued fighting in the ''sierra''. The Chilean
naval campaign also proved crucial, and allowed for attacks in the northern coast of the country. One notable figure of this campaign, who is held in high esteem by Peruvians and Chileans alike, was
Miguel Grau
Miguel María Grau Seminario (27 July 1834 – 8 October 1879) was the most renowned Peruvian naval officer and hero of the naval battle of Angamos during the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). He was known as ''el Caballero de los Mares'' (Span ...
, who was killed in action during the
Battle of Angamos
The Battle of Angamos ( es, Combate de Angamos) was a naval encounter of the War of the Pacific fought between the navies of Chile and Perú at Punta Angamos, on 8 October 1879. The battle was the culminating point of a naval campaign that las ...
, and whose ship, the
''Huáscar'', was captured by the
Chilean Navy
The Chilean Navy ( es, Armada de Chile) is the naval warfare service branch of the Chilean Armed Forces. It is under the Ministry of National Defense. Its headquarters are at Edificio Armada de Chile, Valparaiso.
History
Origins and the Wars ...
.
The war reached its peak after the
Battle of Tacna
The Battle of Tacna, also known as the ''Battle of the Peak of the Alliance'' (Spanish: ''Batalla del Alto de la Alianza''), effectively destroyed the Peru-Bolivian alliance against Chile, forged by a secret treaty signed in 1873. On May 26, 188 ...
, which effectively destroyed the Peruvian–Bolivian alliance, and ended with a Chilean victory over Peru and Bolivia, with the former's government in Lima signing the
Treaty of Ancón
The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in Ancón District, Ancón, near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the ...
in 1883, where the
Department of Tarapacá was ceded to Chile and the fates of the provinces of
Tacna
Tacna was known for its mining industry; it had significant deposits of sodium nitrate and other resources. Its economic prosperity attracted a wave of immigrants from Italy. Today, their Italian Peruvian descendants live in the city and many of t ...
and
Arica
Arica ( ; ) is a Communes of Chile, commune and a port city with a population of 222,619 in the Arica Province of northern Chile's Arica y Parinacota Region. It is Chile's northernmost city, being located only south of the border with Peru. The ...
were to be decided by a plebiscite that was meant to take place ten years after the treaty, but would eventually never take place.
The question over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica would manifest itself as the
Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute
The Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute is a territorial dispute between Chile and Peru that started in the aftermath of the War of the Pacific and ended significantly in 1929 with the signing of the Treaty of Lima and in 2014 with a ruling by ...
, while the Bolivian reaction to the loss of its
Litoral Department
The Department of the Litoral, also known as the Atacama Department and commonly known as the Bolivian coast, was the description of the extent of the Pacific coast of the Atacama Desert included in the territory of Bolivia from its inception in 1 ...
, and thus, its access to the sea, would manifest itself as the
Bolivian–Chilean territorial dispute, and commemorated annually with the ''
Día del Mar''.
National Reconstruction (1884–1895)
After the
War of the Pacific
The War of the Pacific ( es, link=no, Guerra del Pacífico), also known as the Saltpeter War ( es, link=no, Guerra del salitre) and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought ...
, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began, and military figures once again assumed control of the government due to the perceived weakness of civilian heads of state in a period of constant war, beginning the Second Militarism ( es, Segundo Militarismo). In contrast to the ''First Militarism'', the military leaders returned to the political arena, but no longer as triumphant heroes, but as the defeated. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms in order to recover from the damage of the war.
During this period, the occupied provinces of Tacna and Arica were subject to a process known as
Chilenization, where Chilean culture was promoted in order to replace Peruvian culture. Groups known as
Patriotic Leagues were also established in order to encourage Peruvians to leave, while Chilean families soon began to emigrate to the region. Those who left established themselves mainly in Callao or participated in the colonization project carried out by the local government in
Loreto to counter
Colombian claims over the region, establishing the settlements of
Puerto Arica
Puerto Arica is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Amazonas.
History
Originally founded by Peruvian refugees from the War of the Pacific, it was awarded to Colombia after the Salomón-Lozano Treaty. These refugees would late ...
and
Tarapacá
San Lorenzo de Tarapacá, also known simply as Tarapacá, is a town in the region of the same name in Chile.
History
The town has likely been inhabited since the 12th century, when it formed part of the Inca trail. When Spanish explorer Diego ...
. After the signing of the
Salomón–Lozano Treaty
The Salomón–Lozano Treaty was signed in July 1922 by representatives Fabio Lozano Torrijos, of Colombia and Alberto Salomón Osorio of Peru. The fourth in a succession of treaties on the Colombian-Peruvian disputes over land in the upper Amazo ...
in 1922, these settlements would be ceded to Colombia, with some settlers moving to Peru and establishing the settlements of
Nuevo Tarapacá and
Puerto Arica
Puerto Arica is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Amazonas.
History
Originally founded by Peruvian refugees from the War of the Pacific, it was awarded to Colombia after the Salomón-Lozano Treaty. These refugees would late ...
.
Due to Iglesias' re-establishment of the
indigenous tribute and abuses committed against Indians by landowners, on March 1, 1885, a
rebellion
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority.
A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...
in
Huaraz
Huaraz () (from Quechuan languages, Quechua: ''Waraq'' or ''Waras'', "''dawn''"), founded as San Sebastián de Huaraz, is a city in Peru. It is the capital of the Ancash Region (State of Ancash) and the seat of government of Huaraz Province. The ...
headed by
Pedro Pablo Atusparía began, with the conflict coming to an end only in 1887.
Conflict between Iglesias and Cáceres
Miguel Iglesias'
Regenerator Government that had been established under Chilean occupation and signed the
Treaty of Ancón
The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru on 20 October 1883, in Ancón District, Ancón, near Lima. It was intended to settle the two nations' remaining territorial differences at the conclusion of their involvement in the ...
continued to function as the constitutional government of Peru. During this period,
Andrés Avelino Cáceres, who had fought the
Breña campaign and was known as the ''Hero of Breña'', opposed Iglesias and received more popular support than Iglesias' government.
Iglesias attempted to negotiate with Cáceres for his support. Eventually, negotiations failed and he demanded his unconditional submission. For his part, Cáceres proceeded to proclaim himself President on July 16, 1884, arguing the breakdown of the constitutional order. This disagreement led to the
Peruvian Civil War of 1884–1885
The Peruvian civil war of 1884–1885 was an internal Peruvian conflict that resulted from Peru's defeat in the War of the Pacific. The '' casus belli'' was the Treaty of Ancón
The Treaty of Ancón was a peace treaty signed by Chile and Peru o ...
.
The forces of Iglesias and Cáceres initially clashed in Lima and later in Trujillo. Faced with his defeats on the north coast, Cáceres withdrew to the south center: Cuzco, Arequipa, Apurímac and Ayacucho, where he was able to reorganize his army to attack again. He ordered his troops to be defeated near Jauja while he moved his best troops to
Huaripampa, who cut off bridges that would've allowed Iglesias' troops return and eventually moved to Lima where they carried out a successful offensive against Iglesias, ending the civil war. Iglesias would be exiled to
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, only returning in 1895 after being elected as senator for Cajamarca, dying later in 1909.
Conflict between Cáceres and de Piérola
Cáceres assumed the presidency for the second time, on August 10, 1894. But he lacked legitimacy and popularity,. The Anti-Cacerists formed the National Coalition, made up of democrats and civil supporters, who elected
Nicolás de Piérola
Jose Nicolás Baltasar Fernández de Piérola y Villena (known as "''El Califa''" ("The Caliph"); January 5, 1839 – June 23, 1913) was a Peruvian politician and Minister of Finance of Peru, Minister of Finance who served as the 23rd and 31 ...
as leader, then exiled in Chile. Throughout Peru, groups of ''Montoneros'' arose that joined the cause of the Coalition. Piérola returned to Peru, disembarked in Puerto Caballas, in Ica, and went to
Chincha, where he gave a Manifesto to the Nation, taking the title of National Delegate, and immediately campaigning on Lima, leading the Montoneros. They attacked the capital from March 17 to 19, 1895. Seeing himself deprived of the support of the people, turned massively towards the coalition partners, Cáceres resigned and went into exile.
A Government Board was installed after the victory in Lima of Piérola's montoneros and the departure of Cáceres into exile, and
Manuel Candamo
Manuel González de Candamo e Iriarte (July 14, 1841 – May 7, 1904) served as the 33rd President of Peru from 1903 until his death in 1904. He also served as Interim President of Peru, officially as the President of the Government Junta ...
was elected president of a Government Board, to which he did not belong, taking charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; He spent six months in that position, from March 20 to September 8, 1895, when he handed over the command to Piérola, winner of the elections. After a brief period in which the military once again controlled the country, civilian rule was permanently established with Pierola's election in 1895. His second term was successfully completed in 1899 and was marked by his reconstruction of a devastated Peru by initiating fiscal, military, religious, and civil reforms. With the county in a delicate state, political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.
Aristocratic Republic (1895–1919)
With de Piérola elected president of Peru, the country began its period known as the ''Aristocratic Republic'' ( es, República Aristocrática), owing its name to the fact that most of the presidents that ruled the country during this period were from the country's social elite.
Economic dependence on English and American capitalism was accentuated and new economic activities were developed: agro-export (sugar and cotton), rubber extraction and oil extraction. However, the country did not industrialize due to the fact that a purely
economistic development perspective was formed through a
rentier and
primary exporter state, which increased discrimination and exploitation of indigenous peoples through ''Correríos'', ''Yanaconajes'' and ''Enganches''. One such example was the
Putumayo genocide, which took place during the
Amazon rubber boom. The discomfort of the popular classes was manifested in the emergence of the anarcho-syndicalist labor movement and the outbreak of strikes.
This period of history soon saw its first conflicts, with its first one taking place in 1896. Separatists in Loreto
revolted against the government, seceded from Peru, and established the short lived
Federal State of Loreto. The government's response was to send troops to the area in order to suppress the insurrection, which was accomplished. A couple of years later, Colonel and Prefect of Loreto Emilio Vizcarra seceded from Peru and proclaimed the
Jungle Republic, an unrecognized secessionist state whose declared borders coincided with those of the Loreto Department, at the time composed of the modern departments of
Loreto,
San Martín
San Martín or San Martin may refer to:
People Saints
* Saint Martin (disambiguation)#People, name of various saints in Spanish
Political leaders
*Vicente San Martin (1839 -1901), Military, National hero of Mexico.
*Basilio San Martin (1849 ...
, and
Ucayali
The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city o ...
. President
Eduardo López de Romaña
Eduardo López de Romaña y Alvizuri (19 March 1847 – 26 May 1912) served as the 32nd President of Peru from September 1899 to September 1903.
A member of the landowning elite, he was the first engineer to become President of the Republic ...
immediately sent troops to deal with the situation and the state ceased to exist in 1900.
Another conflict took place in
Huanta
Huanta is a town in Central Peru, capital of the province Huanta in the region Ayacucho.
History
In the era of the Spanish American wars of independence, Huanta remained loyal to the Spanish mo ...
, as a result of reforms, that included the establishment of a salt tax and the ban on circulation of
Bolivian currency in the region. Among the participants of this conflict were veterans of the Breña campaign and of the civil war of 1884–85.
Territorial disputes
Augusto B. Leguía
Augusto Bernardino Leguía y Salcedo (February 19, 1863 – February 6, 1932) was a Peruvian politician who served as President of Peru from 1908 to 1912 and from 1919 to 1930, the latter term known as ''El Oncenio de Leguía'' (Leguía's E ...
's first presidency took place during this period, during which he was faced with territorial disputes between all neighboring countries of Peru, of which only the Brazilian and
Bolivian
Bolivian may refer to:
* Something of, or related to Bolivia
** Bolivian people
** Demographics of Bolivia
** Culture of Bolivia
* SS ''Bolivian'', a British-built standard cargo ship
A cargo ship or freighter is a merchant ship that carries ...
territorial disputes were solved on September 8 and
17 September, 1909, respectively. Skirmishes took place in 1910 with Ecuador and in 1911 with Colombia, the latter of which became known as the
La Pedrera conflict. Due to Chile's continuing
Chilenization policies in Tacna and Arica, relations between both states were severed.
Leguía also had to face internal conflict, including an in 1909, carried out by Nicolás de Piérola's brother Carlos with his children. Leguía separated from the Civilista Party, which split into two factions: those loyal to Pardo and those loyal to Leguía. In the last two years of his government, an acute economic crisis manifested itself, motivated by accelerated internal indebtedness, national defense expenses and the budget deficit.
Guillermo Billinghurst
Guillermo Enrique Billinghurst Angulo (ie. William Henry Billinghurst) (Arica, July 27, 1851 – Iquique, June 28, 1915) was a Peruvian politician of English descent who served as the 37th President of Peru. He succeeded Augusto B. Leguía, fro ...
wanted to favor the working class, which earned him opposition from conservative elements. He had a tenacious struggle with Congress, dominated by ''civilistas'' and ''leguiistas'', his political enemies. It was then proposed to dissolve parliament and summon the people to carry out fundamental constitutional reforms, which provoked the military uprising of Colonel
Óscar R. Benavides
Óscar Raymundo Benavides Larrea (March 15, 1876 – July 2, 1945) was a Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, and politician who served as the 38th (1914 – 1915, by a coup d'etat) and 42nd (1933 – 1939) President of Peru.
Early life
He was ...
, known as the ''hero of La Pedrera'', who overthrew Billinghurst on February 4, 1914.
After assuming control of the government, Benavides faced the monetary problem and promised to restore the legal order. In 1915 he convened a Convention of the civilist, liberal and constitutional parties, so that they could launch a unified candidacy. The chosen one was former president José Pardo y Barreda, of the Civilista Party, who overwhelmingly won the elections that year, defeating the symbolic candidacy of Carlos de Piérola, of the Democratic Party.
The second government of José Pardo was characterized by political and social violence, a symptom of the exhaustion of civil society and the world crisis. As a result of the
First World War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, the economic condition of the working class worsened and the field was prepared for the development of trade union action. There were successive strikes that demanded the reduction of subsistence prices and the implementation of the "8-hour work" day; the latter was finally granted, by decree of January 15, 1919. In the southern Andes, the abuses of landowners and gamonales on the native and peasant population motivated many indigenous uprisings, such as the one led in 1915 by
Teodomiro Gutiérrez Cuevas, also known by his pseudonym ''Rumi Maqui''.
Pardo called for elections in 1919, in which former president Augusto B. Leguía ran, who faced the official candidacy represented by . The elections, which were not deemed very fair, declared Leguía the winner, but numerous votes were annulled in the official recount. Faced with the danger that the elections would be annulled and that they would be transferred to Congress, where the civilistas had a majority, Leguía and his supporters staged a coup, with the support of the gendarmerie, on July 4, 1919. Thus ended the "Aristocratic Republic" and began what would become Leguía's ''Oncenium''.
The ''Oncenio'' (1919–1930)
As had happened with his previous government, the entrance of American capital became general and the
bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie ( , ) is a social class, equivalent to the middle or upper middle class. They are distinguished from, and traditionally contrasted with, the proletariat by their affluence, and their great cultural and financial capital. They ...
was favored. This policy, along with increased dependence on foreign investment, focused opposition from the most progressive sectors of Peruvian society against the landowner oligarchy.
Territorial disputes
![Tacna-Arica Dispute (1883-1929)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Tacna-Arica_Dispute_%281883-1929%29.svg)
A final peace treaty was signed between Peru and Chile in 1929, known as the
Treaty of Lima. As per the treaty,
Tacna
Tacna was known for its mining industry; it had significant deposits of sodium nitrate and other resources. Its economic prosperity attracted a wave of immigrants from Italy. Today, their Italian Peruvian descendants live in the city and many of t ...
returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the formerly rich provinces of Arica and Tarapacá, but kept certain rights to the port activities in Arica and restrictions on what Chile can do on those territories. The treaty was controversial in Peru, but nevertheless put a major end to the
Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute
The Chilean–Peruvian territorial dispute is a territorial dispute between Chile and Peru that started in the aftermath of the War of the Pacific and ended significantly in 1929 with the signing of the Treaty of Lima and in 2014 with a ruling by ...
.
In 1921, Peruvian captain
Guillermo Cervantes declared the
Federal State of Loreto, which existed as a ''
de facto
''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
''
autonomous
In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy, from , ''autonomos'', from αὐτο- ''auto-'' "self" and νόμος ''nomos'', "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's ow ...
region of the country. The rebel authorities authorized the distribution of provisional banknotes made out of cardboard used by locals as currency, and local ports were ordered shut, with local trade and navigation being tightly controlled. The revolution was quickly accepted by the local population, but was met negatively by Peru's president
Augusto Leguía
Augusto is an Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish given name or surname. Notable people with the name include:
*Augusto Aníbal
*Augusto dos Anjos
* Augusto Arbizo
*Augusto Barbera (born 1938), Italian law professor, politician and judge
*Augusto Ben ...
, who sent a few troops to the area, and shut down trade to the region. The local guerrillas' military inferiority soon became apparent, and by early 1922, a famished Iquitos had been occupied by Peruvian troops headed by Peruvian Captain Genaro Matos, while Cervantes had escaped on January 9 and sought refuge in the
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
ian jungle and his army soon became little more than an insurgency.
In 1922, another treaty, the
Salomón–Lozano Treaty
The Salomón–Lozano Treaty was signed in July 1922 by representatives Fabio Lozano Torrijos, of Colombia and Alberto Salomón Osorio of Peru. The fourth in a succession of treaties on the Colombian-Peruvian disputes over land in the upper Amazo ...
, was signed between Peru and
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
with the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
acting as a mediator, where a large amount of territory was ceded to Colombia allowing them access to the
Amazon river
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of t ...
, further reducing Peru's territory with the exception of a ''de jure''
exclave in Sucumbíos. This treaty also proved controversial, most notably in Loreto, as protests took place and local dissatisfaction would eventually lead to the
Leticia Incident
Leticia (derived from the Latin greeting ''laetitia'' meaning ''joy'', ''gladness'', ''delight'') may refer to:
People
;Given name
* Saint Leticia, a venerated virgin martyr, saint
* Queen Letizia of Spain (born 1972), queen consort of Spain
* ...
in 1932. Nevertheless, the treaty also ended the
Colombian–Peruvian territorial dispute
The Colombian–Peruvian territorial dispute was a territorial dispute between Colombia and Peru, which, until 1916, also included Ecuador.Ecuador and Colombia signed the Muñoz Vernaza-Suárez Treaty in 1916, ending their dispute. The dispute had ...
, although it was also disputed by Ecuador.
In 1924, from
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, university reform leaders in Peru who had been forced into exile by the government founded the
American People's Revolutionary Alliance (ARPA), which had a major influence on the country's political life. APRA is largely a political expression of the university reform and workers' struggles of the years 1918–1920. The movement draws its influences from the
Mexican revolution
The Mexican Revolution ( es, Revolución Mexicana) was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from approximately 1910 to 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It resulted in the destruction ...
and its
1917 Constitution
The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States ( es, Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos), is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in th ...
, particularly on issues of
agrarianism
Agrarianism is a political and social philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture, smallholdings, and egalitarianism, with agrarian political parties normally supporting the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants ...
and
indigenism
Indigenism can refer to several different ideologies that seek to promote the interests of indigenous peoples. The term is used differently by various scholars and activists, and can be used purely descriptively or carry political connotations.
D ...
, and to a lesser extent from the Russian revolution. Close to
Marxism
Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
(its leader,
Haya de la Torre, declares that "APRA is the Marxist interpretation of the American reality"), it nevertheless moves away from it on the question of class struggle and on the importance given to the struggle for the political unity of Latin America.
In 1928, the
Peruvian Socialist Party
The Socialist Party (Spanish: ''Partido Socialista'') is a Peruvian political party founded in 2005. Its presidential candidate for the 2006 national election was Javier Diez Canseco. At the legislative elections held on 9 April 2006, the part ...
was founded, notably under the leadership of
José Carlos Mariátegui
José Carlos Mariátegui La Chira (June 14, 1894 - April 16, 1930) was a Peruvian writer, journalist, politician and Marxist–Leninist philosopher.
A prolific author despite his early death, El Amauta (from Quechua: hamawt'a, "teacher", a nam ...
, himself a former member of APRA. Shortly afterwards, in 1929, the party created the
General Confederation of Workers.
After the worldwide
crisis of 1929
The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as the Great Crash, was a major American stock market crash that occurred in the autumn of 1929. It started in September and ended late in October, when share prices on the New York Stock Exchange colla ...
, numerous brief governments followed one another. The APRA party had the opportunity to cause system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not successful. This was a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist, headed by
Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre
Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre (February 22, 1895 – August 2, 1979) was a Peruvian politician, philosopher, and author who founded the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) political movement, the oldest currently existing political p ...
in 1924. The Socialist Party of Peru, later the
Peruvian Communist Party
The Peruvian Communist Party ( es, Partido Comunista Peruano, abbr. PCP) is a communist party in Peru that was founded in 1928 by José Carlos Mariátegui, under the name Peruvian Socialist Party (, PSP). The party changed its name in 1930. In ...
, was created four years later and it was led by
José Carlos Mariátegui
José Carlos Mariátegui La Chira (June 14, 1894 - April 16, 1930) was a Peruvian writer, journalist, politician and Marxist–Leninist philosopher.
A prolific author despite his early death, El Amauta (from Quechua: hamawt'a, "teacher", a nam ...
.
This period would come to an end after a coup d'état carried out by
Lieutenant colonel
Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colone ...
Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro
Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro (August 12, 1889 – April 30, 1933) was a high-ranking Peruvian army officer who served as the 41st President of Peru, from 1931 to 1933 as well as Interim President of Peru, officially as the President of the Pro ...
and his sympathizers, with General
Manuel María Ponce Brousset
Manuel María Ponce Brousset (April 5, 1874 in Arequipa, Peru – July 18, 1966 in Lima) who briefly served as the President of Peru in August 1930.
After Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro overthrew Augusto B. Leguía's eleven-year dictatorship in Arequ ...
assuming the interim Presidency for two days until Sánchez Cerro's return to
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
from
Arequipa
Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...
.
Military governments (1930–1939)
With Leguía overthrown, the country entered its Third Militarism ( es, Tercer militarismo), as military figures once again took control of the government. A military junta was established, and
Manuel María Ponce Brousset
Manuel María Ponce Brousset (April 5, 1874 in Arequipa, Peru – July 18, 1966 in Lima) who briefly served as the President of Peru in August 1930.
After Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro overthrew Augusto B. Leguía's eleven-year dictatorship in Arequ ...
was the first to assume the presidency, being succeeded by the more popular
Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro
Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro (August 12, 1889 – April 30, 1933) was a high-ranking Peruvian army officer who served as the 41st President of Peru, from 1931 to 1933 as well as Interim President of Peru, officially as the President of the Pro ...
, who was the first Peruvian President to have
Indigenous Peruvian ancestry as well as allegedly also being of
Afro-Peruvian
Black Peruvians or Afro-Peruvians are Peruvian of mostly or partially African descent. They mostly descend from enslaved Africans brought to Peru after the arrival of the conquistadors.
Early history
The first Africans arrived with the conque ...
Malagasy descent based on a rumour he was from a part of
Piura
Piura is a city in northwestern Peru located in the Sechura Desert on the Piura River. It is the capital of the Piura Region and the Piura Province. Its population was 484,475 as of 2017.
It was here that Spanish Conqueror Francisco Pizarro fou ...
populated by descendants of Malagasy slaves. Other major events of this period were the beginning of the irruption of the organized masses in politics and the growth of the middle classes.
Sánchez Cerro called for elections while in power, intending to run as a candidate. Due to this, a revolt took place in Arequipa, where Sánchez Cerro was forced to resign. As a result, then Archbishop of Lima, Monsignor took over the junta on April 1, 1931. After a few hours, Holguín transferred his power to
Leoncio Elías. Elías had called a metting where it was agreed that
David Samanez Ocampo
David Samanez Ocampo (4 November 1865 – 13 July 1947), the son of José Samanez, served as Interim President of Peru, officially as the President of the Southern Junta, during the transitional period of March to December 1931. He oversaw chang ...
would become the new head of state, but arrangements for this never took place, as he was overthrown by
Gustavo Jiménez
Gustavo Jiménez (5 April 1886 – 15 March 1933) was a Peruvian colonel who served as Interim President of Peru, officially as the President of the Provisional Government Junta, in 1931.
Jiménez, who was born in Tarma, organised one of several ...
, who had returned from Arequipa, where he had travelled to stop the revolt. Nevertheless, Samanez Ocampo, who was chosen due to his popularity, assumed the presidency on March 11, 1931, and called for elections on October 11 of the same year. As a result, Sánchez Cerro was elected president of Peru.
![Sánchez Cerro - Constitución de 1933](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/S%C3%A1nchez_Cerro_-_Constituci%C3%B3n_de_1933.JPG)
Sánchez Cerro's government was opposed by the left-wing
American Popular Revolutionary Alliance
The Peruvian Aprista Party ( es, Partido Aprista Peruano, PAP) () is a Peruvian political party and a member of the Socialist International. The party was founded as the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) by Víctor Raúl Haya de l ...
, and, as a result, political repression was brutal in the early 1930s, with tens of thousands of ''Apristas'' were executed or imprisoned. A
revolt
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority.
A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...
that took place in Trujillo and was brutally repressed was one such example.
This period was also characterized by a sudden population growth and an increase in urbanization. According to
Alberto Flores Galindo
Alberto Flores Galindo (Bellavista, Callao, May 28, 1949 - Lima, March 26, 1990) was a Peruvian historian, social scientist, and essay writer. He was the founder of the socialist Centro de Investigacion Casa SUR.
Biography
Alberto Flores Galindo w ...
, "By the 1940 census, the last that utilized racial categories,
mestizo
(; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed Ethnic groups in Europe, European and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also r ...
s were grouped with whites, and the two constituted more than 53 percent of the population. Mestizos likely outnumbered the indigenous peoples and were the largest population group."
Under Sánchez Cerro's constitutional government, a
new constitution would be adopted, and works such as the construction of the ''
Carretera Central'', which connected Lima with
La Oroya
La Oroya is a city on the River Mantaro in central Peru. It is situated on the Andes some 176 km east-north-east of the national capital, Lima, and is capital of the Yauli Province. La Oroya is the location of a smelting operation that ear ...
,
Tarma
'')
, pushpin_map = Peru
, coordinates =
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name =
, subdivision_type1 = Region
, subdivision_name1 = Junín
, subdivision_type2 = Province ...
and
La Merced and the investment in the
Peruvian Armed Forces
The Peruvian Armed Forces ( es, Fuerzas Armadas del Perú) are the military services of Peru, comprising independent Army, Navy and Air Force components. Their primary mission is to safeguard the country's independence, sovereignty and territoria ...
took place. The latter proved to be an important part of the government, as all three branches of the Armed Forces would soon become involved in the
conflict with Colombia, that would erupt into armed conflict in September 1932.
Conflict with Colombia
![Ocupación peruana de Leticia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Ocupaci%C3%B3n_peruana_de_Leticia.jpg)
The foreign policy of Sánchez Cerro's government was initially intended to respect the border treaties signed up to that point, but public opposition to the
Salomón–Lozano Treaty
The Salomón–Lozano Treaty was signed in July 1922 by representatives Fabio Lozano Torrijos, of Colombia and Alberto Salomón Osorio of Peru. The fourth in a succession of treaties on the Colombian-Peruvian disputes over land in the upper Amazo ...
eventually led to a
civilian takeover of the port town of
Leticia, which ended up being supported by the government. The event led to protests in
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
, and the beginning of the
Colombia–Peru War
The Colombia–Peru War, also called the Leticia War, was a short-lived armed conflict between Colombia and Peru over territory in the Amazon rainforest that lasted from September 1, 1932 to May 24, 1933. In the end, an agreement was reached to d ...
on September 1, 1932.
On April 30, 1933, while reviewing troops in the
Santa Beatriz Hipodrome, Sánchez Cerro was assassinated by Abelardo González Leiva, who shot him three times. It was later publicized that González was a member of the APRA Party, leading to speculation on whether he had been ordered to carry out the attack or had acted alone. Sánchez Cerro's was succeeded as Supreme Chief of his political party,
Revolutionary Union
The General Workers' Union of Germany (german: Allgemeine Arbeiter-Union Deutschlands; AAUD) was a factory organisation formed following the German Revolution of 1918–1919 in opposition to the traditional trade unions.
The AAUD was formed by the ...
, by
Luis A. Flores, who reconstructed the party into a more
fascist
Fascism is a far-right, Authoritarianism, authoritarian, ultranationalism, ultra-nationalist political Political ideology, ideology and Political movement, movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and pol ...
direction, modelling it after the
National Fascist Party
The National Fascist Party ( it, Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) was a political party in Italy, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italian Fascism and as a reorganization of the previous Italian Fasces of Combat. The ...
of
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
.
Final years
Óscar R. Benavides
Óscar Raymundo Benavides Larrea (March 15, 1876 – July 2, 1945) was a Peruvian field marshal, diplomat, and politician who served as the 38th (1914 – 1915, by a coup d'etat) and 42nd (1933 – 1939) President of Peru.
Early life
He was ...
assumed the presidency as a result of Sánchez Cerro's assassination and upheld the Salomón–Lozano Treaty with Colombia, leading to the end of the war. He also signed the General Amnesty Law on August 9, 1933, which favored the ''Apristas''. But after a revolutionary attempt in
El Agustino
El Agustino is a Districts of Peru, district of the Lima Province in Peru. It is part of city of Lima.
Officially established as a district on January 6, 1965, the current mayor (''alcalde'') of El Agustino is Víctor Modesto Salcedo Ríos. The dis ...
, the anti-''Aprista'' persecution resumed. The ''Apristas'' responded with terrorist acts throughout the country, including the assassination of , owner of
''El Comercio'', and his wife on May 15, 1935.
Under Benavides' government, new ministries were created and tourism was promoted. The
Government Palace was renovated in 1937, the
Legislative Palace and
Palace of Justice were finished, and social works were put into place, including the construction of dining rooms and sewers.
During this period, the
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War ( es, Guerra Civil Española)) or The Revolution ( es, La Revolución, link=no) among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War ( es, Cuarta Guerra Carlista, link=no) among Carlists, and The Rebellion ( es, La Rebelión, lin ...
began in 1936. As a result, pro-
Republican
Republican can refer to:
Political ideology
* An advocate of a republic, a type of government that is not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated with the rule of law.
** Republicanism, the ideology in support of republics or agains ...
and pro-
Nationalist
Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
factions were established by the Spanish residents in Peru, as well as their Peruvian sympathizers. The former was more popular among left-leaning groups, including the ''Apristas'', while the latter was more popular among the aristocracy and the Spanish expatriates living in Peru, evoking the feeling of the ''
Hispanidad
''Hispanidad'' (, en, Hispanicity,) is a Spanish term alluding to the group of people, countries, and communities that share the Spanish language and Hispanic culture. The term can have various, different implications and meanings depending on ...
''. A ''Spanish–Peruvian Clothing Fund'' ( es, Ropero Peruano Español) was established in Lima, which was nominally in charge of delivering clothing to the children of both factions, but ended up assisting the Nationalist faction almost exclusively. As a result of its support of the
Francoist
Francoist Spain ( es, España franquista), or the Francoist dictatorship (), was the period of Spanish history between 1939 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . After his death in 1975, Spani ...
side, Peru did not receive
Republican exiles after the war, instead continuing its relations with the new government in
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
. The conflict increased the divide between the right and left-leaning sectors of society, most notably in cities such as
Arequipa
Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...
.
During the last years of the Benavides government, the weariness of the population became noticeable. On February 19, 1939, General
Antonio Rodríguez Ramírez attempted a coup, apparently with great support from various sectors. Although said caudillo was killed in the Government Palace after being machine-gunned by a police officer, Benavides understood the message and called for
general elections
A general election is a political voting election where generally all or most members of a given political body are chosen. These are usually held for a nation, state, or territory's primary legislative body, and are different from by-elections ( ...
, that took place on October 22 of the same year. The government's candidate and the son of former President
Mariano Ignacio Prado
Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa (December 18, 1825 – May 5, 1901) was a Peruvian army general who served as the 16th (1865 - 1868) and 21st (1876 - 1879) President of Peru.
Biography
Born in Huánuco on December 18, 1825, he studied in Huanuco an ...
, banker
Manuel Prado Ugarteche
Manuel Carlos Prado y Ugarteche (April 21, 1889 – August 15, 1967) was a banker who served twice as President of Peru. Son of former president Mariano Ignacio Prado, he was born in Lima and served as the nation's 43rd (1939 - 1945) and 46th (1 ...
, easily beat his opponent, lawyer . As a result, there was talk of electoral fraud.
Democratic Spring (1939–1948)
With Prado as president, the Democratic Spring ( es, Primavera Democrática) began. Despite the new civilian government, this era would be characterized by two major military conflicts: the
Ecuadorian–Peruvian War
The Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, known locally as the War of '41 ( es, link=no, Guerra del 41), was a South American border war fought between 5–31 July 1941. It was the first of three military conflicts between Ecuador and Peru during the 20th ...
and
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
.
Prado Administration
Manuel Prado assumed the presidency on December 8, 1939, beginning what would be his first government. A previously largely unknown politician, he was predicted to not last long in office, but he displayed a strategic flexibility that eventually earned him support. His government largely continued the work started by General Benavides, maintaining strong links with the oligarchy. It was a relative democracy. He kept the Aprista Party outlawed and received the support of the
Communist Party
A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A ...
.
During his tenure as president, skirmishes took place with Ecuador starting on July 5, 1941, beginning the
Ecuadorian–Peruvian War
The Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, known locally as the War of '41 ( es, link=no, Guerra del 41), was a South American border war fought between 5–31 July 1941. It was the first of three military conflicts between Ecuador and Peru during the 20th ...
. With the events escalating to a point where the
Peruvian Air Corps was bombarding Ecuadorian outposts along the border, an
offensive
Offensive may refer to:
* Offensive, the former name of the Dutch political party Socialist Alternative
* Offensive (military), an attack
* Offensive language
** Fighting words or insulting language, words that by their very utterance inflict inj ...
by Peru began on July 23, with Peruvian troops marching into the Ecuadorian provinces of
El Oro, as well as
Loja, and . A ceasefire was declared effective on the afternoon of July 31, which was preceded by an
aerial assault
''Aerial Assault'' is a side-scrolling shooter video game published by Sega for the Master System in 1990 and Game Gear in 1992.
Gameplay
The player takes the role of a Freedom Fighter who must destroy five targets, including the Vinsk (a fl ...
carried out by
Peruvian paratroopers on the port of
Puerto Bolívar
Puerto Bolívar is an urban parish and port city, part of the municipality of Machala, El Oro Province, Ecuador. Puerto Bolívar is one of the world's largest shipment points for bananas, most of them destined for Europe; about 80% of Ecuador's ...
, near
Machala
Machala () is a city in south-west Ecuador. It is the capital of the El Oro Province, and is located near the Gulf of Guayaquil on fertile lowlands. Machala has a population of 241,606 (2010 census); it is the eighth-biggest city in the country, a ...
, which was also occupied.
An agreement known as the ''Talara Accord'' ( es, Acuerdo de Talara) was signed on October 2, under which a demilitarized zone was established in Ecuador under Ecuadorian administration, and the province of El Oro was
occupied by Peru until the signing of the
Rio Protocol
The Protocol of Peace, Friendship, and Boundaries between Peru and Ecuador, or Rio Protocol for short, was an international agreement signed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on January 29, 1942, by the foreign ministers of Peru and Ecuador, with t ...
in January 1942, with Peruvian troops withdrawing the following month. The treaty signed in Rio established a border commission in charge of delimiting the border between Ecuador and Peru, which was accomplished with the exception of a small part of the border that eventually continued the dispute. As a result of the delimitation of the border in the coast, integration between both countries continued to grow during the following years.
Peru remained neutral during
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, continuing its relations with countries in both factions, but nevertheless favoring the Allied faction.
On 12 February 1945, Peru was
the fourth South American nation to join the
Allied forces against the
Axis
An axis (plural ''axes'') is an imaginary line around which an object rotates or is symmetrical. Axis may also refer to:
Mathematics
* Axis of rotation: see rotation around a fixed axis
* Axis (mathematics), a designator for a Cartesian-coordinat ...
– following
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
on 22 August 1942,
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
on 7 April 1943 and
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
on 26 November 1943. As part of the
Japanese-American internment
are Americans of Japanese people, Japanese ancestry. Japanese Americans were among the three largest Asian Americans, Asian American ethnic communities during the 20th century; but, according to the 2000 United States census, 2000 census, they ...
program, the country rounded up around 2,000 of its Japanese immigrant population and shipped them to the United States, where they were placed in concentration camps.
[ Despite the late entry of the country into the conflict, some volunteers had already left for Europe beforehand. One example was ]Jorge Sanjinez Lenz
Jorge Sanjinez Lenz (January 24, 1917 – August 24, 2020) was a Peruvian veteran who participated as a military volunteer in World War II, on the side of the Allies of World War II, Allies for the End of World War II in Europe, liberation of Eur ...
, who enlisted in the Belgian
Belgian may refer to:
* Something of, or related to, Belgium
* Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent
* Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German
*Ancient Belgian language, an extinct languag ...
Piron Brigade, and fought in the Battle of Normandy
Operation Overlord was the codename for the Battle of Normandy, the Allied operation that launched the successful invasion of German-occupied Western Europe during World War II. The operation was launched on 6 June 1944 (D-Day) with the Norma ...
.
Bustamante Administration
Following the Allied victory in World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
by 2 September 1945, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre
Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre (February 22, 1895 – August 2, 1979) was a Peruvian politician, philosopher, and author who founded the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) political movement, the oldest currently existing political p ...
(founder of the APRA), together with José Carlos Mariátegui
José Carlos Mariátegui La Chira (June 14, 1894 - April 16, 1930) was a Peruvian writer, journalist, politician and Marxist–Leninist philosopher.
A prolific author despite his early death, El Amauta (from Quechua: hamawt'a, "teacher", a nam ...
(leader of the Peruvian Communist Party
The Peruvian Communist Party ( es, Partido Comunista Peruano, abbr. PCP) is a communist party in Peru that was founded in 1928 by José Carlos Mariátegui, under the name Peruvian Socialist Party (, PSP). The party changed its name in 1930. In ...
), were two major forces in Peruvian politics. Ideologically opposed, they both managed to create the first political parties that tackled the social and economic problems of the country. Although Mariátegui died at a young age,
President Bustamante y Rivero hoped to create a more democratic government by limiting the power of the military and the oligarchy. Elected with the cooperation of the APRA, conflict soon arose between the President and Haya de la Torre. Without the support of the APRA party, Bustamante y Rivero found his presidency severely limited. The President disbanded his ''Aprista'' cabinet and replaced it with a mostly military one. In 1948, Minister Manuel A. Odría
Manuel Arturo Odría Amoretti (26 November 1896 – 18 February 1974) was a military officer who served as the 45th President of Peru, essentially ruling as a military dictator.
Biography
Early life and military career
Manuel Odría was ...
and other right-wing elements of the Cabinet urged Bustamante y Rivero to ban the APRA, but when the President refused, Odría resigned his post.
The ''Ochenio'' (1948–1956)
In a military coup on 27 October, Gen. Manuel A. Odría became the new president. Odría's presidency was known as the ''Ochenio''. He cracked down on APRA members and sympathizers, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a Populism, populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and political corruption, corruption was rampant throughout his régime.
It was feared that his dictatorship would run indefinitely, so it came as a surprise when Odría allowed new elections. During this time, Fernando Belaúnde Terry started his political career, and led the slate submitted by the National Front of Democratic Youth. After the National Election Board refused to accept his candidacy, he led a massive protest, and the striking image of Belaúnde walking with the flag was featured by news magazine ''Caretas'' the following day, in an article entitled "Así Nacen Los Lideres" ("Thus Are Leaders Born"). Belaúnde's 1956 candidacy was ultimately unsuccessful, as the dictatorship-favored right-wing candidacy of Manuel Prado Ugarteche
Manuel Carlos Prado y Ugarteche (April 21, 1889 – August 15, 1967) was a banker who served twice as President of Peru. Son of former president Mariano Ignacio Prado, he was born in Lima and served as the nation's 43rd (1939 - 1945) and 46th (1 ...
took first place.
Moderate civil reform (1956–1968)
Belaúnde ran for president once again in the national elections of 1962; this time with his own party, Popular Action (Spain), Acción Popular (Popular Action). The results were very tight; he ended in second place, following Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre (APRA), by less than 14,000 votes. Since none of the candidates managed to get the constitutionally established minimum of one third of the vote required to win outright, selection of the President should have fallen to Congress; the long-held antagonistic relationship between the military and APRA prompted Haya de la Torre to make a deal with former dictator Odria, who had come in third, which would have resulted in Odria taking the Presidency in a coalition government.
However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military ''junta'', led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy, Ricardo Perez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Belaúnde by a more comfortable but still narrow five percent margin.
Throughout Latin America in the 1960s, communist movements inspired by the Cuban Revolution sought to win power through guerrilla warfare. The Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru), Revolutionary Left Movement, or MIR, launched an insurrection that had been crushed by 1965, but Peru's internal strife would only accelerate until its climax in the 1990s.
Radical military reform (1968–1980)
After a crisis involving the missing last page of a document signed between the Peruvian government and the ''International Petroleum Company'', General Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew elected President Fernando Belaúnde Terry in a 1968 Peruvian coup d'état, successful coup d'état in 1968. As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the military government's nationalist program, Velasco undertook an extensive Agrarian bonds in Peru, agrarian reform program and nationalized the fish meal industry, some petroleum companies, and several banks and mining firms. The Velasco administration saw its worst moment during the ''Limazo'', a period of civil unrest and rioting in Lima after a strike carried out by members of the Civil Guard (Peru), Civil Guard and the Republican Guard (Peru), Republican Guard.
General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Tacnazo, overthrew Velasco in 1975, citing Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health. Morales Bermúdez moved the revolution into a more conservative "second phase", tempering the radical measures of the first phase and beginning the task of restoring the country's economy. A constitutional assembly was created in 1979, which was led by Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre
Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre (February 22, 1895 – August 2, 1979) was a Peruvian politician, philosopher, and author who founded the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) political movement, the oldest currently existing political p ...
. Morales Bermúdez presided over the return to civilian government in accordance with a new constitution drawn up in 1979, calling a 1980 Peruvian general election, general election in 1980.
Terrorism and the ''Fujimorato'' (1980–2000)
During the 1980s, cultivation of illicit coca was established in large areas on the eastern Andean slope. Rural insurgent movements, like the Shining Path (''Sendero Luminoso'', SL) and the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) increased and derived significant financial support from alliances with the narcotics traffickers, leading to the Internal conflict in Peru.
In the May 1980 elections, President Fernando Belaúnde Terry was returned to office by a strong plurality. One of his first actions as president was the return of several newspapers to their respective owners. In this way, freedom of speech once again played an important part in Peruvian politics. Gradually, he also attempted to undo some of the most radical effects of the ''Agrarian Reform'' initiated by Velasco and reversed the independent stance that the military government of Velasco had with the United States.
Belaúnde's second term was also marked by the unconditional support for Argentina, Argentine forces during the Falklands War with the United Kingdom in 1982. Belaúnde declared that "Peru was ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed". This included a number of fighter planes and possibly personnel from the Peruvian Air Force, as well as ships, and medical teams. Belaunde's government proposed a peace settlement between the two countries, but it was rejected by both sides, as both claimed undiluted sovereignty of the territory. In response to Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
's support of the UK, Belaúnde called for Latin American unity.
The nagging economic problems left over from the previous military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "El Niño" weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and decimated the schools of ocean fish that are one of the country's major resources. After a promising beginning, Belaúnde's popularity eroded under the stress of inflation, economic hardship, and terrorism.
In 1985, the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance
The Peruvian Aprista Party ( es, Partido Aprista Peruano, PAP) () is a Peruvian political party and a member of the Socialist International. The party was founded as the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) by Víctor Raúl Haya de l ...
(APRA) won the presidential election, bringing Alan García to office. The transfer of the presidency from Belaúnde to García on 28 July 1985 was Peru's first exchange of power from one democratically elected leader to another in 40 years.
With a parliamentary majority for the first time in APRA's history, Alan García started his administration with hopes for a better future. However, economic mismanagement led to hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990. García's term in office was marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990 and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% between July 1985 and July 1990, thereby profoundly destabilizing the Peruvian economy.
Owing to such chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the Peruvian sol (1863–1985), sol, was replaced by the ''Inti (currency), Inti'' in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the Peruvian nuevo sol, nuevo sol ("new sun") in July 1991, at which time the new ''sol'' had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. During his administration, the ''per capita'' annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's Gross Domestic Product dropped 20%. By the end of his term, national reserves were a negative $900 million.
The economic turbulence of the time exacerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of the violent rebel movement Shining Path. The García administration unsuccessfully sought a military solution to the growing terrorism, committing human rights violations which are still under investigation.
In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to official figures, but non-governmental estimates suggest several dozen deaths. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and ultimately led to the outbreak of the Shining Path's armed and terrorist actions.
Fujimori's presidency and the Fujishock (1990–2000)
Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Shining Path, Sendero Luminoso and MRTA, and allegations of official corruption, voters chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician, Alberto Fujimori, as president in 1990. The first round of the election was won by well-known writer Mario Vargas Llosa, a conservative candidate who went on to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010, but Fujimori defeated him in the second round. Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991. The currency is devalued by 200%, prices are rising sharply (especially gasoline, whose price is multiplied by 30), hundreds of public companies are privatized and 300,000 jobs are being lost. The majority of the population had not benefited from the years of strong growth, which will ultimately only widen the gap between rich and poor. The poverty rate remained at around 50%.
As other dictators did, Fujimori dissolved Congress in the 1992 Peruvian self-coup d'état, self-coup of 5 April 1992, in order to have total control of the government of Peru. He then eliminated the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy.
Fujimori's administration was dogged by several insurgent groups, most notably Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), which carried on a terrorist campaign in the countryside throughout the 1980s and 1990s. He cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata bombing, Tarata and Frecuencia Latina bombing, Frecuencia Latina by Shining Path. Those examples subsequently came to be seen as symbols of the human rights violations committed during the last years of violence. With the capture of Abimael Guzmán (known as ''President Gonzalo'' to the Shining Path) in September 1992, the Shining Path received a severe blow which practically destroyed the organization.
In December 1996, a group of insurgents belonging to the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, MRTA Japanese embassy hostage crisis, took over the Japanese embassy in Lima, taking 72 people hostage. Military commandos stormed the embassy compound in April 1997, which resulted in the death of all 15 hostage takers, one hostage, and 2 commandos. It later emerged, however, that Fujimori's security chief Vladimiro Montesinos may have ordered the killing of at least eight of the rebels after they surrendered.
Fujimori's constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third term and subsequent tainted victory in June 2000 brought political and economic turmoil. A bribery scandal that broke just weeks after he took office in July forced Fujimori to call new elections in which he would not run. The scandal involved Vladimiro Montesinos, who was shown in a video broadcast on TV bribing a politician to change sides. Montesinos subsequently emerged as the center of a vast web of illegal activities, including embezzlement, graft, drug trafficking, as well as human rights violations committed during the war against Sendero Luminoso.
Business Republic (2000–2016)
In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went to Japan in self-imposed exile, avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. His main intelligence chief, Vladimiro Montesinos, fled Peru shortly afterwards. Authorities in Venezuela arrested him in Caracas in June 2001 and turned him over to Peruvian authorities; he is now imprisoned and charged with acts of corruption and human rights violations committed during Fujimori's administration.
A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua Corazao, Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. The 2001 Peruvian general election, elections were held in April 2001; observers considered them to be free and fair. Alejandro Toledo (who led the opposition against Fujimori) defeated former President Alan García.
The newly elected government took office on 28 July 2001. The Toledo Administration managed to restore some degree of democracy to Peru following the authoritarianism and corruption that plagued both the Fujimori and García governments. Innocents wrongfully tried by military courts during the war against terrorism (1980–2000) were allowed to receive new trials in civilian courts.
On 28 August 2003, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Peru), Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR), which had been charged with studying the roots of the violence of the 1980–2000 period, presented its formal report to the President.
President Toledo was forced to make a number of cabinet changes, mostly in response to personal scandals. Toledo's governing coalition had a minority of seats in Congress and had to negotiate on an ''ad hoc'' basis with other parties to form majorities on legislative proposals. Toledo's popularity in the polls suffered throughout the last years of his regime, due in part to family scandals and in part to dissatisfaction among workers with their share of benefits from Peru's macroeconomic success. After strikes by teachers and agricultural producers led to nationwide road blockages in May 2003, Toledo declared a state of emergency that suspended some civil liberties and gave the military power to enforce order in 12 regions. The state of emergency was later reduced to only the few areas where the Shining Path was operating.
On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became the President of Peru. He won the 2006 Peruvian election, 2006 elections after winning in a runoff against Ollanta Humala. In May 2008, President García was a signatory to The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. Peru has ratified the treaty.
On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president in a run-off against Keiko Fujimori, the daughter of Alberto Fujimori and former First Lady of Peru, in the 2011 Peruvian general election, 2011 elections, making him the first leftist president of Peru since Juan Velasco Alvarado. In December 2011, a state of emergency was declared following popular opposition to some major mining project and environmental concerns.
Political Crisis (2016–present)
Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected president in the 2016 Peruvian general election, general election in July 2016. His parents were History of the Jews in Germany, Jewish European refugees fleeing from Nazism. Kuczynski was committed to integrating and acknowledging Peru's indigenous populations, with state-run TV beginning daily news broadcasts in Quechuan languages, Quechua and Aymara language, Aymara. Kuczynski was widely criticized on Pardon of Alberto Fujimori, pardoning former President Alberto Fujimori, going against his campaign promises against his rival, Keiko Fujimori.
In March 2018, after a failure to impeach the president, Kuczynski faced yet again the threat of impeachment on the basis of corruption in Electoral fraud, vote buying and bribery with the Odebrecht, Odebrecht corporation. On 23 March 2018, Kucyznski was forced to resign from the President of Peru, presidency, and has not been heard from since. His successor was his first vice president, engineer Martín Vizcarra. Vizcarra has announced publicly that he has no plans in seeking for re-election amidst the 2017–2021 Peruvian political crisis, political crisis and instability. However, the Congress impeached President Martin Vizcarra in November 2020. His successor, interim president Manuel Merino, resigned after being in office for only five days. Merino was succeeded by interim president Francisco Sagasti, the third head of state in under a week.
On 28 July 2021, left-wing Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the new President of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off 2021 Peruvian general election, election.
As a result of economic stagnation during the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru, between ten and twenty percent of Peruvians fell below the poverty line in 2020, reversing a decade of poverty reduction in the country and resulting in a poverty rate of 30.1% that year. Following the global economic reverberations resulting from International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, Western-led sanctions against Russia due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning in February 2022, inflation in Peru rose sharply. As a result, on 28 March 2022 March–April 2022 Peruvian protests, mass protests began. The government responded to the rioting by deploying the Peruvian Armed Forces, Armed Forces. President Castillo declared a state of emergency and enforced a total curfew in Lima for the entire day of 5 April. In November 2022, thousands of opponents of the government marched through the capital's center to call for the removal of President Pedro Castillo.
After Pedro Castillo#Removal attempts, multiple attempts to remove Castillo were unsuccessful, Castillo 2022 Peruvian self-coup d'état attempt, attempted a self-coup on 7 December 2022 and was subsequently impeached and removed from office. Castillo's vice president Dina Boluarte was sworn in as the new president later that day, becoming the country’s first female president. Following Castillo's removal, his supporters started December 2022 Peruvian protests, nationwide protests demanding his release and Boularte's resignation.
See also
* History of the Americas
** History of Latin America
*** History of South America
**** Timeline of Peruvian history
** Spanish colonization of the Americas
*** Viceroyalty of Peru
The Viceroyalty of Peru ( es, Virreinato del Perú, links=no) was a Spanish imperial provincial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained modern-day Peru and most of the Spanish Empire in South America, governed from ...
* Politics of Peru
** President of Peru
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
* "Historia del Peru". Lexus Editores, Barcelona, 2000.
Further reading
* Dobyns, Henry F. and Paul L. Doughty, ''Peru: A cultural history''. New York : Oxford University Press, 1976.
* Higgins, James. ''A history of Peruvian literature'' (Francis Cairns, 1987)
* Werlich, David P. ''Peru: a short history'' (Southern Illinois Univ Pr, 1978)
Conquest
*Pedro de Cieza de León, Cieza de León, Pedro de. ''The Discovery and Conquest of Peru: Chronicles of the New World Encounter''. Ed. and trans., Alexandra Parma Cook and David Noble Cook. Durham: Duke University Press 1998.
*Hemming, John. ''The Conquest of the Incas''. New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich, 1970.
*James Lockhart (historian), Lockhart, James. ''The Men of Cajamarca; a social and biographical study of the first conquerors of Peru'', Austin, Published for the Institute of Latin American Studies by the University of Texas Press [1972]
*Titu Cusi Yupanqui, Yupanqui, Titu Cusi. ''An Inca Account of the Conquest of Peru''. Trans. Ralph Bauer. Boulder: University Press of Colorado 2005.
Spanish era
* Andrien, Kenneth J. ''Crisis and Decline: The Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth Century''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985.
* Andrien, Kenneth J. ''Andean Worlds: Indigenous History, Culture, and Consciousness under Spanish Rule, 1532–1825''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2001.
* Bakewell, Peter J. ''Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosí: The Life and times of Antonio López de Quiroga''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1988.
* Baker, Geoffrey. ''Imposing Harmony: Music and Society in Colonial Cuzco''. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.
* Bowser, Frederick P. ''The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524–1650''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1973.
* Bradley, Peter T. ''Society, Economy, and Defence in Seventeenth-Century Peru: The Administration of the Count of Alba de Liste (1655–61)''. Liverpool: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Liverpool 1992.
* Bradley, Peter T. ''The Lure of Peru: Maritime Intrusion into the South Sea, 1598–1701''. New York: St Martin's Press 1989.
* Burns, Kathryn. ''Colonial Habits: Convents and the Spiritual Economy of Cuzco, Peru'' (1999), on the crucial role that convents played in the Andean economy as lenders and landlords; nuns exercised economic & spiritual power.
*Cahill, David. ''From Rebellion to Independence in the Andes: Soundings from Southern Peru, 1750–1830''. Amsterdam: Aksant 2002.
*Chambers, Sarah C. ''From Subjects to Citizens: Honor, Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780–1854''. University Park: Penn State Press 1999.
*Charnay, Paul. ''Indian Society in the Valley of Lima, Peru, 1532–1824''. Blue Ridge Summit: University Press of America 2001.
* Dean, Carolyn. ''Inka Bodies and the Body of Christ: Corpus Christi in Colonial Cuzco, Peru''. Durham: Duke University Press 1999.
* Fisher, John. ''Bourbon Peru, 1750–1824''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 2003.
* Fisher, John R., Allan J. Kuethe, and Anthony McFarlane, eds. ''Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru''. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 2003.
* Garrett, David T. ''Shadows of Empire: The Indian Nobility of Cusco, 1750–1825''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2005.
* Griffiths, Nicholas. ''The Cross and the Serpent: Religious Repression and Resurgence in Colonial Peru''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1996.
* Hyland, Sabine. ''The Jesuit and the Incas: The Extraordinary Life of Padre Blas Valera, S.J.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 2003.
* Jacobsen, Nils. ''Mirages of Transition: The Peruvian Altiplano, 1780–1930'' (1996)
* Lamana, Gonzalo. ''Domination Without Dominance: Inca-Spanish Relations in Early Colonial Peru''. Durham: Duke University Press 2008.
* James Lockhart (historian), Lockhart, James. ''Spanish Peru, 1532–1560: A Social History'' (1968), a detailed portrait of the social and economic lives of the first generation of Spanish settlers in Peru & the development of Spanish colonial society in the generation after conquest
* MacCormack, Sabine. ''Religion in the Andes: Vision and Imagination in Colonial Peru''. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1991.
* Mangan, Jane E. ''Trading Roles: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Urban Economy in Colonial Potosí''. Durham: Duke University Press 2005.
* Marks, Patricia. ''Deconstructing Legitimacy: Viceroys, Merchants, and the Military in Late Colonial Peru''. University Park: Penn State Press 2007.
* Philip Ainsworth Means, Means, Philip Ainsworth. ''Fall of the Inca Empire and the Spanish Rule in Peru: 1530–1780'' (1933)
* Miller, Robert Ryal, ed. ''Chronicle of Colonial Lima: The Diary of Joseph and Francisco Mugaburu, 1640–1697''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1975.
* Mills, Kenneth. ''Idolatry and Its Enemies: Colonial Andean Religion and Extirpation, 1640–1750''. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1997.
* Osorio, Alejandra B. ''Inventing Lima: Baroque Modernity in Peru's South Sea Metropolis''. New York: Palgrave 2008.
* Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Poma de Ayala, Felipe Guaman, ''The First New Chronicle and Good Government: On the History of the World and the Incas up to 1615''. Ed. and trans. Roland Hamilton. Austin: University of Texas Press 2009.
*
* Premo, Bianca. ''Children of the Father King: Youth, Authority, and Legal Minority in Colonial Lima''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2005.
* Ramírez, Susan Elizabeth. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict in Sixteenth-Century Peru''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996.
* Serulnikov, Sergio. ''Subverting Colonial Authority: Challenges to Spanish Rule in Eighteenth-Century Southern Andes''. Durham: Duke University Press 2003.
* Spalding, Karen. ''Huarochirí: An Andean Society Under Inca and Spanish Rule''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1984.
* Stavig, Ward. ''The World of Tupac Amaru: Conflict, Community, and Identity in Colonial Peru'' (1999), an ethnohistory that examines the lives of Andean Indians, including diet, marriage customs, labor classifications, taxation, and the administration of justice, in the eighteenth century.
* Tandeter, Enrique. ''Coercion and Market: Silver Mining in Colonial Potosí, 1692–1826''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1993.
*TePaske, John J., ed. and trans. ''Discourse and Political Reflections on the Kingdom of Peru by Jorge Juan and Antonio Ulloa''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1978.
*Thomson, Sinclair. ''We Alone Will Rule: Native Andean Politics in the Age of Insurgency''. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 2003.
* Van Deusen, Nancy E. ''Between the Sacred and the Worldly: the Institutional and Cultural Practice of Recogimiento in Colonial Lima''. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001.
* Varón Gabai, Rafael. ''Francisco Pizarro and His Brothers: The Illusion of Power in Sixteenth-Century Peru''. Trans. by Javier Flores Espinosa. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997.
* Charles F. Walker, Walker, Charles F. ''Shaky Colonialism: The 1746 Earthquake-Tsunami in Lima, Peru, and Its Long Aftermath''Stay (2008)
* Wightman, Ann M. ''Indigenous Migration and Social Change: The Forasteros of Cuzco, 1570–1720''. Durham: Duke University Press 1990.
Republican era
* Blanchard, Peter. ''Slavery and Abolition in Early Republican Peru''. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 1992.
* Bonilla, Heraclio. "The War of the Pacific and the national and colonial problem in Peru". ''Past & Present'' 81#.1 (1978): 92–118.
* Cueto, Marcos. ''The return of epidemics: health and society in Peru during the twentieth century'' (Ashgate, 2001)
* Hünefeldt, Christine. ''Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labor Among Lima's Slaves, 1800–1854''. trans. by Alexandra Minna Stern. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994.
* Kenney, Charles Dennison. ''Fujimori's coup and the breakdown of democracy in Latin America'' (Univ of Notre Dame Press, 2004)
* Larson, Brooke. ''Trials of Nation Making: Liberalism, Race, and Ethnicity in the Andes, 1810–1910''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2004.
* Méndez G., Cecilia. ''The plebeian republic : the Huanta rebellion and the making of the Peruvian state, 1820–1850''. Durham: Duke University Press, 2005.
* Miller, Rory. ''Region and Class in Modern Peruvian History'' (1987)
* Pike, Frederick B. ''The Modern History of Peru'' (1967)
* Starn, Orin. "Maoism in the Andes: The Communist Party of Peru-Shining Path and the refusal of history". ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 27#2 (1995): 399–421.
* Walker, Charles F. ''Smoldering Ashes: Cuzco and the Creation of Republican Peru, 1780–1840''. Durham: Duke University Press 1999.
Economic and labor history
* De Secada, C. Alexander G. "Arms, guano, and shipping: the WR Grace interests in Peru, 1865–1885". ''Business History Review'' 59#4 (1985): 597–621.
* Drake, Paul. "International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America: Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War", in ''Latin America in the 1940s'', David Rock (historian), David Rock, ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994, 109–140.
* Gootenberg, Paul, ''Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru''. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989.
* Gootenberg, Paul, ''Andean cocaine: the making of a global drug''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
* Greenhill, Robert G., and Rory M. Miller. "The Peruvian Government and the nitrate trade, 1873–1879". ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 5#1 (1973): 107–131.
* Keith, Robert G. ''Conquest and Agrarian Change: The Emergence of the Hacienda System on the Peruvian Coast'' (1979)
* Peloso, Vincent C. ''Peasants on Plantations: Subaltern Strategies of Labor and Resistance in the Pisco Valley, Peru'' (Duke University Press, 1999)
* Purser, Michael, and W. F. C. Purser. ''Metal-mining in Peru, past and present'' (1971)
* Quiroz, Alfonso W. ''Domestic and foreign finance in modern Peru, 1850–1950: financing visions of development'' (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993)
* Stewart, Watt. ''Henry Meiggs: Yankee Pizarro'' (Duke University Press, 1946), on 1870s
Primary sources
Higgins, James (editor). ''The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts'' (2014).
Historiography
* Bonilla, Heraclio. "The New Profile of Peruvian History", ''Latin American Research Review'' Vol. 16, No. 3 (1981), pp. 210–22
in JSTOR
* Fryer, Darcy R. "A Taste of Spanish America: Reading Suggestions for Teachers of Colonial North America"
''Common-Place'' 15#2 (2015)
Heilman, Jaymie Patricia. "From the Inca to the Bourbons: New writings on pre-colonial and colonial Peru", ''Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History'' Volume 12, Number 3, Winter 2011
* Restall, Matthew. ''Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest'' (Oxford University Press, 2003)
* Thurner, Mark. ''History's Peru: The Poetics of Colonial and Postcolonial Historiography'' (University Press of Florida; 2010) 302 pages; a study of Peruvian historiography from Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539–1616) to Jorge Basadre (1903–80)
full text online
External links
Machu Picchu information, photos, maps and more
State of Fear
is a documentary that tells the story of Peru's war on terror based on the findings of the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
"An Account of a Voyage up the River de la Plata, and Thence over Land to Peru: With Observations on the Inhabitants, as Well as Indians and Spaniards, the Cities, Commerce, Fertility, and Riches of That Part of America"
from 1698
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Peru
History of Peru,